formation pilot guide

8/12/2019 Formation pilot guide

1/97

TH

EFORM

ATION

GUIDE

Version 1.2

100% Military Sourced, Beautifully Illustrated

with Images by Renowned Aviation

Photographer Tyson Rininger!

FORMATION

THE

PILOTS KNOWLEDGE GUIDE

Adapted for all Aircraft - see Appendix D for Your Specific

Aircraft Formation Procedures!


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This Formation Knowledge Guide is more than a training man-ual. Included in the chapters and supporting appendices are uni-versal procedures, terminology, and suggested operating limita-tions applicable to all levels of qualication, from the day onestudent to the seasoned ight leader and formation instructor.In addition, the Knowledge Guide provides Appendix D for theoptional publication of procedural guidance specic to the eachaircraft.

In the pages to follow, we have attempted to go beyond thehow of ying basic formation maneuvers, and attempted toexplain the why behind much of this guidance. This informa-tion is not self-invention or personal technique, but sourced fromupdated United States Air Force and Navy guidance utilized tosafely train thousands of airmen since WWII, in such aircraft asthe T-2, T-6, T-28, T-34, T-37 and T-38 primary trainers.

By following such a path, we benet from the test of time. Wewill do well to seek the knowledge gained in over 70 years ofmilitary formation ight training. Good luck on your journey.

Notice of Update: Version 1.2 May 2012

Version 1.2 claries two of the most commonly accepted visual lead change procedures in Section 2.8.6 and corrects previous guidance. Ifyour guide differs in month, but not version number (i.e. V1.2), no procedural changes or additions are made and previously dated guides ofthe current version are always valid as is. For questions on content, suggested edits, email the program manager at: [email protected]

Notice of LiabilityThe information in this guide is for reference only and the reader takes full responsibility for the use of this material. The informationis presented as is and neither the author(s), publisher or representing association shall have any liability to any person or entity withrespect to any loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by the instructions, information or imagery contained inthis document. WARNING: Not all procedures contained in this document may be appropriate for your aircraft.

Notice of Intended Use: The Formation Pilots Knowledge Guide with Appendix DFAST signatories may replace the contents found in Appendix D of this document with information specic to their signatory aircraft forthe benet of their members. If you would like custom cover art reecting your signatory aircraft, please contact the publisher.

Copyright 2011All rights reserved. Aviation organizations may adapt and republish content as is for educational and training purposes. Noorganization may post, print or provide this document in any form for resale without the written consent of the publisher or FASTProgram Manager. Contact us at [email protected] for inquiries on distribution and modication for your use.

AcknowledgmentsWe would like to sincerely thank the following for their vital contribution in the creation of this guide; a special thanks to the complete2006-7 RPA check pilot roster for their patience in providing editing and procedural feedback and input, the 2006-07 FAST Board ofDirectors for advice and input, editing support provided by Mike Filucci, and to several rated staff ofcers and ight line instructors of theUnited States Navy and Air Force Pilot Training Commands for their collective knowledge and experience, communicated to the authorthrough interviews and personal visits in which unclassied assistance was gratefully provided in the interest of safety for all aviators, ci-vilian and military trained. Principal editor and publishing by Drew Blahnick. Digital art work by Drew Blahnick and Jed Nelson of RamaWorld Inc. Photography by Tyson Riniger (www.tvrphotography.com) or where noted. Visual signal artwork by Jim Goolsby. Basic coverdesign by Phil ShortBus Cogan and Drew Blahnick.


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Table of Contents

Chapter One: .............................Formation Fundamentals

Chapter Two: ....................................Two Ship Formation

Chapter Three: .....................................Two Ship Rejoins

Chapter Four: ........................Extended Trail / Tail Chase

Chapter Five: ................................... Four Ship Formation

Chapter Six: .............................General Operating Limits

Chapter Seven: ...............................Abnormal Procedures

Appendix:Appendix A: ............................. Formation Visual Signals

Appendix B: ...................... Formation Glossary of Terms

Appendix C: .............Brieng and Debrieng Procedures

Appendix D: ....... Aircraft Specic Operating Procedures


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Aviation in itself is not inherently dangerous. But to

an even greater degree than the sea, it is terribly

unforgiving of any carelessness, incapacity or

neglect.

Captain A. G. Lamplugh, London, 1930s

In ying I have learned that carelessness and over-

condence are usually far more dangerous than

deliberately accepted risks.

Wilbur Wright in a letter to his father.

September 1900

Beware, dear son of my heart, lest in thy new-found

power thou seekest even the gates of Olympus...

These wings may bring thy freedom but may also

come thy death.

Daedalus to Icarus.

After teaching his son to use his new wings of wax and

feathers.


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DISCLAIMER:

While the Formation Pilots General Knowledge Guide was

written to support all existing FAST formation procedures,

it is not published by the FAST Organization. This guide is

provided for general information by a third party author/

publisher and is copyrighted as such. Some procedures con-

tained in the Formation Pilots Knowledge Guide may not

be appropriate for your aircrafts configuration or certifica-tion. Seek supervised instruction from a qualified pilot at all

times when learning to fly formation.


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TheFormaTionGuide FormaTionFundamenTals 1-1

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Over 90 years have now passed since these rst airmen began experimenting with formation ight. With time, les-sons were gained from the human and material costs of bothaerial warfare and peacetime training, and from this processstandards and conventions have developed for effective andsafe formation ying. This evolution in formation ying hasprogressed continually to this very day, and it is from thisrich heritage we have derived the procedures and protocols

provided to you in this guide.

While we do not venture in to formation ying to employour aircraft in a combat theater, our motivations are no lessfraught with the potential for personal risk. Heeding thelessons provided to us through history, along with exercising sound judgment and self discipline, will help insure therisk is minimized. With this in mind, the contents of yourtraining guide should be well understood before strappingin to your cockpit with the intent of beginning your forma-tion training, and always under the supervision of an expe-rienced formation instructor. Nothing can be more frustrat-ing or potentially disastrous than several pilots with limited

knowledge, skill, and different ideas ying in close proxim-ity to one another. Aviation is one of the most unforgivingendeavors known to man, and formation ying is even moreso.

For many pilots reading this knowledge guide, their pur-pose for ying formation centers around aerial display atpublic airshows. However, the ultimate priorities of everyformation pilot must always be the following, in the orderprovided:

Safety

CHAPTER ONE

Formation Fundamentals for All Pilots

1.1 IntroductionWelcome to the world of Formation Flight! This train-ing guide provides all FAST signatories, Civil FormationGroups and their students, qualied wingmen, ight leadsand instructors access to current knowledge on all basic for-mation procedures, terminology and safety guidelines. Thisinformation is sourced from the United States Air Forceand Navy as employed to safely train thousands of aviatorsin their respective primary ight training programs in such

aircraft as the T-37, T-34, T-6 Texan II and T-38.

The genesis of the formation ying skills and procedurespresented in this training guide began in the skies overWestern Europe during World War I. This was the dawnof aviation, and air forces on both sides quickly discoveredthat multiple aircraft working together as a coordinatedteam achieve far greater mission results while enhancingindividual survivability. During this conict, in aircraftwithout radio communications, the process of launching,employing and recovering ever larger numbers of aircraftrequired the development of effective organizational and vi-sual communication procedures critical for safety and com-bat effectiveness.

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WARNINGThis guide is primarily designed for single en-gine, centerline thrust, low wing, bubble cano-py aircraft. Some procedures and suggested lim-itations may not be appropriate for your aircraftconguration or certication. Seek supervisedinstruction from a qualied pilot in your type

aircraft when learning to y.


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Mutual support Symmetry/AerialDisplay

Throughout this guide you will see information boxes la-beled NOTE, CAUTION or WARNING, these performthree distinct functions:

Warnings:

Warnings alert the reader to situations where in-jury or death may result if a process is not followed.

Cautions:

Cautions are similar to Warnings, but they areused when aircraft damage has or may result if aprocess is not followed.

Notes:

Notes comprise additional information or helpfultechniques that aid the reader in the understandingor execution of the material presented.

Instructor Notes:

This is helpful information for the backseat Forma-tion Flight Instructor and are generally not safetyrelated.

This rst chapter lays down the foundation for all formation

ying and establishes standards that will allow members inyour association from all regions to safely operate togetheras one. Good luck on your journey.

1.2How To Use This GuideThe Formation Guide is quite comprehensive, for new stu-dents the question is often where do I begin?. While allinformation is highly applicable to safe formation ight, usethe following guidance to steer your preight studies if us-ing this guide to supplement your organizations training.

Wingmen Candidates:

Focus on the immediate requirements of your stagein training. Much of the guide is broken down in twoprincipal chapters addressed to two and four shipight procedures. Formation fundamentals and com-munications, both verbal and non verbal procedures,are crucial and are covered in Chapter one and Ap-pendix A.

Flight Leader Candidates:

In addition to being responsible for mission plan-ning and en-route decision making, your roll be-

gins to include that of formation instructor. Onewho has the responsibility to assess, critique andcorrect, via the debrief, wingman performancein all maneuvers. You will be aided with a work-ing knowledge of all information contained in thisguide with a commanding knowledge of chapter1, Formation Fundamentals, chapters 6, OperatingLimitations, and chapter 7, Abnormal Procedures.

Instructor Pilots / Check Pilots

You have the added responsibility of training and eval-uating all new wing and lead students, as such, youshould posses a commanding knowledge of all chaptersof The Formation Guide.

1.3 The Role and Development of the Forma-

tion Instructor

My backseat instructor at the clinic could y a good rejoin, buthardly showed much instructor ability in ight, and he didntknow the guide very well at all, I didnt feel he was a well preparedinstructor

Believe it or not, this is a common complaint from new for-mation students. While civilian formation groups, such asthe Formation And Safety Team (FAST), focus on the stu-dent, they often spend little or no energy developing theteacher! Initial backseat (on board) formation training froman experienced and knowledgeable formation instructor of-ten reduces the total time to qualication while producing ahigher quality formation pilot.

There is no Federal requirement for this individual to bean FAA Certied Flight Instructor (CFI). However, theyshould posses a commanding knowledge of all standardsand procedures required of the student, while havinggained adequate experience instructing formation from theperspective of the student aircraft.

While former military formation instructors are highlyqualied and sought after, civilian lead-rated pilots withextensive formation experience are often equally well suit-ed for this role and should seek out training to perform this

critical training function on behalf of their signatories. Con-tact a local check pilot in your area and ask to work withthem in gaining this experience.

Preparation to instruct from on-board the student aircraftshould include;

Gaining experience in backseat sight-lines and recognizing/correcting typical er-rors through simulated student sorties. Flythe backseat and practice instructing, which in-cludes developing effective student communication!

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Working with other instructors/check pi-lots in collecting proven techniques help-ful for the student, but which are in com-pliance with guide procedures. Dont teacha technique someone passed to you that con-fuses the student by conicting with procedure!

Developing a command of the procedures andoperating limitations contained in this guide.Be prepared to address the why, not sim-ply the how behind each. If you dont knowthe information, you cant teach it - and there is nohiding your lack of knowledge with most students!

1.3.1 Demo-Do ProcessFormation ight instruction should be conducted in aDemo-Do process, in which each in-ight maneuver isrst demonstrated by the instructor, followed by repeatedexecution of the maneuver by the student with instruction-

al input, guidance and critique.

Image 1.2 Instructing In The L-39

1.3.2 Training RecordsPerformance results, trends and training recommendationsshould be documented in some form by the instructor oright lead and retained by the student for communication

to subsequent instructors. Pilots training for their forma-tion qualication or upgrade are often frustrated by the lackof continuity provided by signatory training. Training fold-ers/grade sheets help address this issue and will insure thestudents training is focused appropriately. In many casesthis practice will shorten total time to qualication. See theappendix for examples.

1.3.3 Pilot In CommandThe student retains ultimate Pilot In Command authorityat all times regardless of phase of instruction. We recommends all pilots sign a hold harmless agreement establishinga no-liability relationship between instructor and studentbefore beginning ight training.

1.4 Transfer of Aircraft ControlFormation training should not be attempted without anexperienced formation instructor pilot onboard, with fulaccess to all ight controls. Transfer of aircraft control can

result in disastrous crew confusion if not accomplishedproperly. When the Pilot In Command (PIC) wishes to givecontrol of the aircraft to the Instructor Pilot (IP), he/shewill state over the intercom:

You have the aircraft

The IP will then take control of the stick/yoke, throttle andrudders, shake the stick/yoke and state:

I have the aircraft

The student pilot will acknowledge by relinquishing alcontrols and momentarily showing his/her hands. The sameprocedure is used to transfer control back to the student.

In rare situations, conditions may develop where the forma-tion instructor pilot (IP), in the interest of safety, needs totake immediate control of the aircraft to avoid a possiblemid-air collision. In such a case, the transfer protocol de-scribed above is not applicablethe IP will take commandof the aircraft, announce control (I have the aircraft), andthe student will immediately surrender control of the aircraft.

WARNINGSee Chapter 7,Abnormal Operating Procedures

for transfer of control during intercom failure.

1.5 The Formation PilotA successful formation ight is dependent on each ightmember possessing, and expressing, solid airmanship, situ-ational awareness and ight discipline.

Flight discipline is expressed both on the ground and inight - it is knowing the rules, procedures and parameters


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adequately preparing for the ight, recognizing in-ight de-viations, and making expeditious, measured, and controlledcorrections. The effectiveness, and safe outcome, of everyformation ight is directly related to the airmanship anddemonstrated ight discipline expressed by each memberof the ight. Uncompromising ight discipline is absolutelyessential to becoming a fully qualied formation pilot.

While most licensed pilots understand the concept of air-manship and ight discipline, situational awareness (SA)is often a poorly understood, yet critical element to yoursuccess as a formation pilot and eventual ight leader. Theterm rst began appearing with pilots returning from com-bat in Korea and Vietnam. Here is a recent academic deni-tion of this vital capability,

The continuous observation of current conditionsand, along with the integration of previousknowledge, the ability to quickly form a coherent

mental picture to anticipate future needs and directfuture actions

Strong SA allows the formation pilot to absorb informationfrom several different sources near simultaneously, such asthe aircraft engine and navigation instruments, radio chat-ter, trafc analysis, etc., and anticipate what actions areneeded over time. By all participants understanding and ap-plying the information contained in the Formation Guide,collective and shared knowledge of procedures and operat-ing limitations will help your situational awareness and an-ticipate both actions required of you, and actions expectedof others.

In this regard, the concept of SA is just as critical in civilianformation ight as it was to the rst jet aces of the Koreawar. In formation, multiple aircraft must work as a team,where each pilot must be where they are expected to be,and when they are expected to be there, all while applyingtheir procedural knowledge and assessment of current andanticipated conditions to decide the best course of action.

This may range from a minor position adjustment of youraircraft to moving an entire mass formation. SA is a vitalskill set that will grow with experience, and starts withhaving a strong foundation in the information presented in

this training guide.

1.5.1 A Culture of SafetyBecause of the close proximity of aircraft, formation pilotshave a special responsibility to ensure not only their ownpersonal safety, but the safety of those around them. The fol-lowing paragraphs summarize key points you should con-sider before ying in formation.

1.5.1.1 Safety Equipment

The list below is the recommended equipment for conduct-ing formation ight. Although these items are mentioned

for your safety, those marked with * are required items toreceive in-ight instruction at most signatory/associationformation clinics/y-ins.

Nomex/re retardant ight suit Parachute for pilot and instructor Helmet

Intercom system for two seat aircraft* Instructor able to transmit outside the aircraft*

1.5.1.2 Aircraft Systems and Procedural Knowledge

In addition to having the required equipment, you shouldbe prepared as a pilot. Proper training and currency in theaircraft to be used is a must. You should possess completesystems and procedural knowledge. Since you will only beable to take quick glances at critical engine instruments,you must readily know normal engine parameters and limi-tations.

Further, you must be thoroughly familiar with control andswitch locations to minimize attention diverted from yourformation priorities. A blindfold cockpit check is an excel-lent way to ensure familiarity with the aircraft.

1.5.1.3 Knowledge of Standard Operating Procedures

It would be nearly impossible to safely gather members fromall regions of North America, many having often never metone another, and execute safe precision formation withoutthe knowledge and respect for standardized procedures.This guide provides accurate, comprehensive proceduresand safety protocols that will help each pilot succeed indi-vidually, and within the ight.

1.5.1.4 Physical Preparedness

You must also be physically prepared for the hard workyou will experience. Be well rested and hydrated; even ex-perienced formation pilots will sweat! More than ordinaryying, you cannot tolerate any diminished faculties. Do notattempt to y with impaired equilibrium or depth percep-tion. Your tness to y may impact the safety of the otheright members.

1.5.2 Flight Lead ResponsibilitiesThe ight lead is ultimately responsible for the safe and ef-fective conduct of the ight. The ight lead sees to the plan-ning of, and briefs/debriefs the ight. In training, he or sheassumes the role of training ofcer for the mission, insur-ing ight members are given every opportunity to improvetheir skills. The ight lead position has the authority andresponsibility to ensure the ight proceeds as intended.

1.5.2.1 Specific Flight Lead Responsibilities

Select wing pilots for the ight Verify pilots credentials, currency and

competency in type Oversee the planning of all missions


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Brief and debrief each mission Train new formation pilots Endorse Formation Prociency Reports (FPRs) Recommend pilots for wingman /lead check rides

By upgrading to Flight Leader, you are taking on quite aresponsibility. It will be you making the primary missionplanning decisions, brieng the members of the ight,coordinating with air trafc control, analyzing en-routeweather, managing ight communications and recoveringyour wingman at the destination.

Once the aircraft are tied down, its up to you to lead an ef-fective debrief and develop the formation skills and judg-ment of less experienced wingmen. Take your responsibili-ties seriously; poor decision making on part of the FlightLeader can have negative consequences well beyond a sim-ply bruised ego.

1.5.3 Wingman ResponsibilitiesThe three basic aspects of being a wingman are maintainingposition, mutual support and formation integrity. Initially,you will spend most of your time learning to maintain posi-tion, but you should develop other skills that are integral tobeing a formation wing pilot.

1.5.3.1 Specific Wingman Responsibilities

Assist in the mission planning if requested Keep Lead in sight at all times and Maintain aconstant awareness of the potential for a mid-aircollision

Maintain situational awareness and be awareof departure, enroute or arrival routing so youcan assume the lead if required

Monitor Lead for abnormal conditions andproper congurations at all times

Assist during emergencies, as directed Monitor radio communications and assist Leadas requested

Trust and follow Leads direction

Strive to constantly improve and rene your formationskills. Stay mentally ahead of the aircraft and the formation

to help maintain your situational awareness. Maintain radiodiscipline: respond promptly and concisely to requiredradio calls, but otherwise make only essential radio calls(imminent trafc conict, aircraft malfunction, etc.). Ifyou encounter difculty while in formation, you mustimmediately notify Lead. Being a good wingman meansdoing exactly what is expected of you.

You will learn that you must not only understand, but alsobe able to immediately apply, formation procedures andconcepts. Most importantly, you must be devoted to thesafety of the formation as your rst priority at all times.

1.6 Formation Radio CommunicationsAll communication must be clearly understood by everyight member. Radio discipline requires not only clarity andbrevity in the message, but limiting unnecessary transmis-sions as well. Poor radio discipline often results in frustra-tion and a poor showing for the ight. Likewise, excellent

radio procedures are often the trademark of skilled forma-tion pilots.

1.6.1 Civilian Call Sign Brevity and Flight

TerminologyHow does the ight leader address commands to the entireight, or identify the formation to controlling agencies? Tobetter understand the options available to the civilian ightleader, lets begin by clarifying a distinct difference betweenmilitary and civilian common call sign protocols which hascaused some confusion among aviators.

Civilian ight members in a typical four ship formation areidentied by a unique word call sign and their respectivesingle digit position numbers, as in gure 1.1. In militaryaviation, the ight is assigned a unique word call sign prexand each member of the ight is assigned a two digit num-ber sufx, with the ight leader always assuming the twodigit sequence ending in 1, as in the typical example below:

Call Sign: Position:

Falcon 41 Flight Lead (1)Falcon 42 Wingman (2)Falcon 43 Deputy Lead (3)

Falcon 44 Wingman (4)The ight then assumes the full call sign and two digit sufxof the ight leader in all communications with controllingagencies.

Randolph approach control, Falcon 41, ight of four,checking in at seven thousand

In similar fashion, If desired the military ight leader needonly use his complete full call sign and two digit numberto alert the ight that the information or instruction is ad-dressed to all wingmen;

Falcon 41, Knock It Off

By using both the word call sign prex and the two digitsufx, the military Flight Leader attempts to reduce thechance his/her wingmen will be confused as to who the callor command is addressed to due to garbled or stepped-onradio transmissions.

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identifying the call as being addressed to the entire ight,and should be favored over the singular form when address-ing more than one wingman. It is not uncommon for radiocalls to be stepped on, garbled or otherwise difcult to hear,and brevity must be weighed against clarity when decidingwhich of the above options is appropriate for your situation.

1.6.2 How to Respond to Radio Commands in

Formation.Formation radio communication is actually a two-stepprocess. The rst part of any radio call is the attention orpreparatory step. This step serves to alert the listener that amessage is coming and to specify to whom the call is direct-ed. The attention step should always contain the receivingpartys full call sign (word and number) regardless of whoinitiates the call.

Raven Two...(receivers full word and number call sign )

Use of the word call sign an position number, instead ofsimply saying two in the above example, insures intendedrecipients of critical instructions have two means of identi-cation (words and numbers). If there is another ight onthe same frequency and the word or number is stepped onor garbled, use of full word and number call sign will im-prove the chances the proper wingman will respond.

The second part is the instruction/execution step, and tellsthe ight member, or members, the action to be taken orinformation to be passed:

...go extended trail

The ight members should acknowledge with full callsign,and any information requested, unless briefed otherwise.

Raven 2

It is important to note that this basic communication proce-dure is not limited to calls made by the ight lead; any ightmember initiating a call will use the receivers full call sign(word and number) and the ight member the call was ad-dressed to will respond with full word and position numberunless briefed otherwise.

Furthermore, when announcing your independent actions,at all times, the use of full call sign and position number iswarranted, as in the following example,

Raven 2 is breaking out

Do not grow complacent by using only position numberwhen full call sign is called for. Wingmen may respond withonlyposition number in sequence to simple instructions andrequired acknowledgments to the Flight Leader as outlinedin 1.6.3 next.

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#2 #3

#4

#1

Figure 1.1 Flight of Four

For radio calls within the ight, or when transmitting overtactical inter-ight frequencies, the military ight leaderhas the option of using only the word call sign to increaseradio brevity, as in the following example;

Falcons Go 243.5

However, in typical civilian formations, this numerical suf-x system is not used and only a unique word call sign isassigned to the formation. So to address all members simul-taneously, the term ight may be used in place of the mili-tarys two digit sufx in alerting all wingmen if the situationwarrants;

Raven Flight, Knock It Off

Raven Flight Abort Abort Abort

As with military units, the term Flight should also be used

when identifying yourself to controlling agencies, and willallow them to better coordinate their sortie or airspace toaccommodate you.

Lemar Tower, Raven ight of four, 15 miles to theNorthwest, requesting the overhead runway 22 with

information Mike

Finally, when operating on common trafc advisory fre-quencies around uncontrolled airports, identifying yourselfas a formation with both the call sign and sufx ight mayreduce confusion and support sequencing and/or trafc co-ordination.

Brownsville trafc, Texan ight is 2 mile initial, leftbreak runway 03, Brownsville

When such ATC or common trafc coordination is not re-quired, or when addressing all ight members on private in-ter-plane (tactical) frequencies, further brevity can be em-ployed when addressing all wingmen as previously covered:

Ravens, go 121.8

The use of the plural form of the call sign aids wingmen in


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the term push instead of go in directing a radio change.

Raven Flight, push 118.3

Wingman will not acknowledge this call and will switchautomatically. Check in on the new frequency when re-quested by the Flight Lead.

NOTERegardless if using push or go procedures,the Flight Lead should always check in the ighton the new frequency. The use of push onlyalleviates the ight from checking off the old

frequency.

1.6.4 Standard Radio ProceduresThe procedures provided here are to be considered StandardOperating Practices (SOPs) and should be followed unlessbriefed otherwise.

Lead

It is ultimately your responsibility to brief how radio op-erations will be performed during the ight; cover all deviations from the standard operating practice (SOP) containedhere in your formation brieng. You speak for the ight toall agencies until the ight splits up.

Before calling for a frequency change, place the ight in routeformation. Limit all maneuvering/throttle adjustments dur-

ing the frequency change. Ensure all calls are clear and concise, and combine calls when practical. Although frequencychanges may be called at your discretion, delay the ightcheck-in as needed based on wingman capabilities.

If a wingman does not respond to repeated radio calls, thewayward pilot may be experiencing radio equipment failure, simply misunderstood the frequency, or mis-channeledthe radio. In these cases, you should pass the frequency viahand signals to him/her IAW Appendix A. Following thehand signals, you will once again attempt to check-in theentire ight on the radio. If the wingman is NORDO (NoRadio), follow applicable procedures contained in chapter

six of this guide.

Wingman

Follow all basic radio procedures contained in this chapterRespond with full call sign and position number to all di-rectives and requests for information by the Flight LeaderWhen acknowledging simple instructions in sequencesuch as frequency changes and check ins (covered below)wing pilots may use position number only, unless briefedotherwise.

Change radio frequency only when directed and only after

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WARNINGThe acting/assigned Flight Lead should refer to

him/herself in radio transmissions by full call sign

and position number and avoid the use of lead.

Reserve the use of the word lead for use duringlead changes to preclude confusion (i.e. Raven 1

is bingo). Wingmen will also refer to this position

by number when transmitting on the radio.

1.6.3 Frequency Change & Check-In ProceduresAll ight members must maintain the capability to commu-nicate with one another. Frequency switching proceduresand the ight check-in are critical towards this objective.When acknowledging simple instructions in sequence, suchas frequency changes and check ins, wing pilots may use po-

sition number only unless briefed otherwise. If acknowledg-ing such instructions out of sequence (late response, etc.),use full word and number call sign to avoid confusion withother formation aircraft that may be sharing your frequency.

1.6.3.1 Use of the term Go

When directed to change frequencies by the ight lead us-ing the term go, on the ground or in the air, the ight leadwill expect all ight members to acknowledge the commandin sequence before leaving the frequency:

Flight lead: Texan Flight go 121.8

Wingman pilots acknowledgment: 2...3...4With all pilots responding, the entire ight will then switchto the new frequency. If one or more pilots do not respond,all pilots will remain on frequency until Lead sorts out thecomm problemonce this is accomplished, the entire ightwill switch to the new frequency together. The ight leaderwill then initiate the check-in with wing pilots respondingwith position number sequentially:

Flight lead: Texan Flight check

Wingman pilot Acknowledgment: 2...3...4At this point, the leader knows that all ight members areon the same frequency and will proceed with ops transmis-sions. This process of check-ins and frequency change pro-tocols will be used on the ground or in ight as briefed.

1.6.3.2 Use of the term Push

During local ying where all pilots are familiar with re-quired frequencies, the use of a sequential acknowledgmentby wingmen in response to a frequency change may not berequired/desired. In these cases, the ight lead should use


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all ight members have acknowledged with position num-ber unless directed or briefed otherwise. If you do not un-derstand the call, do not acknowledge with position num-berrequest the frequency or applicable information berepeated (Raven 1 - say again?).

If Lead calls for a frequency change in ight without movingthe ight to route, you should move to route position, sta-bilize and proceed with the channel change. Do not returnto ngertip until Lead directs you, unless briefed otherwise.If you cannot hear or transmit (i.e. on-board equipmentfailure), follow no radio (NORDO) procedures covered inChapter 6; Abnormal Operating Procedures. You must befamiliar with the visual signals for frequency changes con-tained in Appendix A of this guide.

NOTEThe ight leader will include the number ofaircraft in the ight and his/her tail number on

initial contact with Air Trafc Control: (AIM)

Knoxville Ground, November Five Five EchoMike, ight of four, taxi with information kilo

1.7 Formation Visual CommunicationsVisual signals are used to the maximum extent possibleto keep radio calls to a minimum. Any non-standard visu-al signals will be thoroughly briefed before they are used.All members of the ight must be familiar with the visualsignals to be used; see appendix A for a complete list and

description of both hand and aircraft signals. Normally, air-craft malfunctions or safety related issues will be communi-cated over the radio.

1.8 In Flight ChecksIn-ight checks include any prescribed checklists (climb,enroute, descent) for that particular aircraft as well as peri-odic systems and fuel quantity checks termed ops checks(operational checks). The ops check allows all pilots tobriey analyze fuel state, engine parameters, G-meter read-ings and any other parameter desired. All in-ight checkswill be accomplished in route formation or when the ightis not otherwise in close formation. The ight lead will briefhow fuel states will be reported, such as total time, or totalfuel on board in gallons, liters, pounds, etc. The followingradio communication examples are simply suggestedsyntax in reporting fuel quantity and engine conditions.

Lead

You will pre-brief and direct required checklists (climb,enroute, decent) and periodic ops checks using a visual sig-nal or radio call. Move all aircraft to route formation andavoid unnecessary maneuvering to allow wing pilots time

to accomplish necessary cockpit tasks. You can also initiatean ops check when the ight is stabilized in extended trail.The use of the term green here denotes that all briefed pa-rameters for the check are in tolerances and the ight canproceed as briefed. After sending the ight to route, yourcall might sound like this:

Raven ops check, Raven 1 is 55, green

Wingman

Upon receiving a radio call or visual signal for an ops check,move out to route formation if not already directed and per-form the check. Continue to focus your attention on Lead,

using only short glances to accomplish cockpit duties. Stayin route until Lead directs otherwise. For ops checks or fuelchecks, Lead will expect you to acknowledge with total fuelremaining in time (hours/minutes), or total fuel on board.

Raven 2, 45, green

After the check is complete, Lead will rock you back intoyour original position.

1.9 Fuel ManagementAircraft in formation often experience un-equal fuel con-sumption rates so fuel management will play a vital role inmission planning and execution.

1.9.1 Joker Fuel

Joker fuel is the pre-briefed fuel state used to prioritize theremainder of the mission based on Leads mission objectives.An example is terminating area work and accomplishing arecovery for multiple patterns. Upon reaching joker fuel sta-tus, the radio call is Raven 2, Joker. Lead will prioritizeany remaining maneuvers as briefed and plan to recover theight not later than bingo.

1.9.2 Bingo Fuel

Lead

Use visual signals in accordance with Appendix A of thisguide. You will strive to make visual signals easy to see.Hand signals will be placed in the cockpit against a con-trasting background to make them as visible as possible.Aircraft movements and wing-rocks will be large enough tobe easily discernible. If a Wingman does not acknowledge asignal, it should be interpreted as a request for clarication.

Repeat the signal or make a radio call. Do not hesitate to usethe radio to avoid confusion.

Wingman

Acknowledge Leads hand signals with an exaggerated headnod that is easy to see. Do not acknowledge any unclear vi-sual signalsmaintain position until receiving claricationor a repeat of the signal. Lead will repeat the signal until anacknowledgment is received from you. Pass visual signalson to other wing pilots as appropriate. However, while information, do not look away from your leaders aircraft topass or seek acknowledgment from other wing pilots. Donot hesitate to use the radio to avoid confusion.


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CHAPTER O

Bingo fuel is a pre-briefed minimum fuel state which allowsfor safe return to base with necessary fuel reserves. Bingowill not be overown, as it would preclude a safe or legalrecovery. A common minimum bingo fuel for day-VFR con-ditions would be that required to return all aircraft to thedesired destination with 30 minutes of useful reserves.

In dissimilar aircraft formations, for planning purposes, thenormal burn rates will not be identical among all aircraft.For this reason, Lead may brief bingo fuel in time remain-ing instead of pounds, gallons or liters. If an aircraft reachesbingo fuel, the required call is Raven 2, Bingo.

Lead

You should carefully plan the sortie to determine appropri-ate joker and bingo fuel. Carefully consider briefed forecastsand current conditions, as well as other factors that may re-quire additional fuel. In formations consisting of one aircrafttype, you may brief to report fuel in total pounds, gallons or

liters as the case may be.

If ying a dissimilar aircraft formation, careful considerationshould be given to each aircrafts operating parameters andfuel endurance. In these cases, it is advisable to reference fuelplanning in time rather than gallons/liters, etc. This may bebriefed as total time remaining, or time above bingo. If in-formed a Wingman is bingo fuel, terminate maneuvers andexpeditiously begin recovery to the planned destination.

Wingman

On the wing, you will typically burn more fuel than Lead, somonitoring fuel will be important. Lead will consider this in

designing and executing the ight prole or cross countrymission. However, you have the responsibility of monitor-ing your own fuel state. Inform the ight lead when reach-ing joker or bingo and get an acknowledgment.

CAUTIONEven if Lead hasnt called for an ops check, take

other opportunities when not in close formation to

look over your aircraft systems and fuel state.

1.10 Collision AvoidanceEach formation member shares equally the responsibility to

avoid a collision. This guide can not possibly address everysituation that, if mishandled, could result in an accident orincident. Nothing precludes ight members from takingwhatever action is necessary to avoid a collision.

1.10.1 Visual Lookout and Traffic ReportingLead

You should focus on trafc, obstacle, and terrain avoidancewhile leading your ight. Flying in the lead position pro-vides the most exibility to scan visually while interpret-ing trafc calls from ight members or ATC. You have theadditional responsibility of monitoring the progress of yourwing pilots and being directive, as required, to assist them

in avoiding conicts within the ight. You should refrainfrom calling out trafc while in parade formation to avoiddistracting your wing pilots, unless the situation posses apossible conict.

Wingman

While maintaining formation, you have a primary respon-sibility for de-coniction between ight members. You alsohave standard look-out responsibilities. This is performedin parade formation by looking through Leads aircraftbeyond the ight, while not taking your eyes off Leads air-craft.

If trafc is spotted that may become a conict, provide a de-scriptive call including clock position, elevation (high, lowor level), and if estimated range.

Raven 2 has trafc, right two oclock slightly high,one mile, closing

If the trafc is perceived as an immediate threat, make a di-rective call to the ight lead:

Raven 1, turn left for trafc, now

Follow up with a descriptive call to help lead gain visual onthe trafc.

1.10.2 Knock-It-Off and TerminateThe procedures surrounding these two calls must be clearlyunderstood by all formation pilots. Although their application may seem of limited use during the restricted maneu

vering environment of parade formation, these terms arecritical during exercises such as rejoins and extended trailwhen uid maneuvering may result in the loss of visual contact, exceeding briefed safety limits, and trafc conicts.

1.10.2.1 Knock-It-Off (KIO) Call

The term knock-it-off may be used by any member of theformation to direct all aircraft to cease maneuvering andwill be used when safety of ight is a developing factor. Idanger is imminent, a directive call should be made or breakout executed IAW this guide. Cease maneuvering doesnot mean the ight will cease ying formationthe ightlead will decide on the appropriate course of action withthe goal of providing a stable platform while clearing his/her ight path.

Following a knock-it-off called during rejoins and uidmaneuvering, all ight members will vigilantly clear theiright paths while terminating individual maneuvers andproceed as directed by the ight lead. For example, if theight was in the process of executing a rejoin and the KIOcall was made, all ight members would stabilize in theircurrent position and wait for instructions from Lead.

1.10.2.1.1 KIO Procedures


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CHAPTER O

WARNINGThe wing pilot may encounter a situation inwhich an aggressive break out is inappropriate.For example, if the aircraft drifts into a positiondangerously close to Lead, an aggressive breakoutmay possibly result in collision. In this situation,the wing pilot should move away from Lead, using

smooth and positive control inputs.

1.10.5 Lost Sight ProceduresThere may be cases during formation ight where you losesight of the aircraft while maneuvering and a breakout isnot warranted. This occurs when spacing between aircraftis such that a mid-air collision in not an immediate concernAn example would be losing sight after rolling out from a

pitch-out several thousand feet in trail of Lead or duringuid maneuvering exercises such as extended trail.

1.10.5.1 The Blind Aircraft

If the other aircraft is not in sight when anticipated, andproximity does not warrant an immediate break out, thepilot will notify the ight using the term blind, and statealtitude;

Raven 2, blind, 4500 feetIn some cases, heading information may be warranted, but

avoid long transmissions/descriptions. If visual is regaineddo not rejoin on Lead until directed to do so.

1.10.5.2 The Visual Aircraft

If Lead has not lost visual with the wing pilot, he/she willhelp the Wingman reacquire visual by transmitting his/herposition from the wing pilots perspective.

Raven 1 is visual, your right two oclock high

In this case, Raven 2 simply needs to look to his/her twooclock high to begin reacquiring Lead.

In all cases, Lead should be directive and ensure altitudeseparation if required. Lead will then decide on the appro-priate course of action.

1.10.5.3 Both Aircraft Blind

If both aircraft are blind (lost sight), the ight will immedi-ately follow Knock-It-Off procedures IAW this chapterLead will ensure altitude separation is immediately estab-lished and maintained until making visual contact. Consultyour instructor for techniques to resolve such situations ef-

ciently.

1.10.3.4Failure to recognize excessive overtakeYou must learn to judge excessive closure with Lead and ex-ecute overshoots or other appropriate action when required.

1.10.3.5Failure to consider the effects of wingvortices and jet/prop washVortices and prop/jet wash can be quite strong close to an-other aircraft. They may be encountered while performingngertip maneuvers (particularly cross-unders), during ex-tended or close trail or during landing.

Learn where these vortices are and avoid them. In ngertip,the vortices may cause a rolling moment into the lead air-craft. If maneuvering with higher G-loads, the vortices willbe stronger and will trail up behind the lead aircraft (alongLeads ight path). Use positive control inputs to y out ofthe turbulence. Break out, if needed, to ensure separation.

1.10.4 Formation Break Out Procedures

The purpose of a break out is to ensure immediate separa-tion and to avoid a mid-air collision.

Lead

If a wingman has broken out of the ight, you may con-tinue the current maneuver with the current power set-ting to aid in aircraft separation. If the wingman is in sight,you will be directive and maneuver to obtain separationbased on the wing pilots altitude call or visual contact.

Wingman

As the wing pilot, you must break out of the formation ifyou:

Lose sight of your lead aircraft

If you are unable to rejoin or stay in formationwithout crossing directly under or in front ofLead

If you feel your presence in the formationconstitutes a hazard.

When you are directed to do so by Lead

If you have lost sight, clear, then break in the safest directionaway from the last know position or ight path of Lead andother aircraft. One technique: look for blue sky and pull isappropriate for many situations (see caution below). Callthe breakout and your altitude:

Raven 2, breaking out, climbing through 4500 feet.

After gaining safe separation, you should conrm that Leadis, or is not, in sight and transmit visual, or blind IAWwith this chapter. If you have reacquired Lead, remain in thesame general area but make no attempt to close on the ightuntil Lead directs you to rejoin.


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CHAPTER ONE

1.12 Summary and NotesThis chapter begins the building of our Standard OperatingProcedures to safely conduct formation training. students,wingmen, ight leads, formation instructors and check pi-lots all must have a strong working knowledge of this infor-mation to insure a safe operating environment for formationight training and display.

WARNINGSee Chapter 6,Abnormal Operating Procedures

for guidance on inadvertent penetration of IMC

and Lost Wingman procedures.

1.11 BriefingsThe team concept of mutual support requires an effectivecommunication process within, and among, the ight. Thisbegins with the formal brieng and does not end until con-clusion of the debrieng after the ight.

1.11.1 Formation BriefingThe ight lead will ensure the ight objectives, weather, se-quence of events, communications and abnormal/emergencyprocedures are briefed before every formation ight.

Qualied formation pilots are expected to be knowledge-able of the standard operating procedures contained in thisguide, thus mission elements may be briefed as standardprovided they are published and the prociency level ofall ight members allows them to be briefed as such. Non-standard procedures and information unique to the missionwill be briefed in detail. See the Appendix C for expandedinformation on conducting an effective brieng.

Image 1.3 Briefing The Mission

1.11.2 Formation Debrief

Even though the mission is over, the learning isnt. After ev-eryone has had a chance to secure his/her aircraft, the ightmembers assemble for the debrief. This is a critical tool ofthe formation program. The ight lead will restate the ob-

jectives and review how the ight performed in all phasesfrom engine start to shut down, with emphasis on what oc-curred, why it occurred, and how to improve in the future.

NOTESee Appendix C for expanded guidance on

Formation Brieng and Debriengs.


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CHAPTER TWOBasic Maneuvers: Two-Ship Close Formation

TheFormaTionGuide Basicmaneuvers: Two-ship2-1

CHAPTER T

2.1 IntroductionThis chapter will describe two ship formation fundamen-tals and walk through basic maneuvers from engine start to

shut down. The principal target for this guide are low wing,bubble canopy, tandem seat reciprocating and turbine air-craft. Some maneuvers as described here, such as those forechelon turns, may not be applicable to non-bubble canopyand/or high wing aircraft. Please consult a qualied instruc-tor for specic guidance with such aircraft in your organiza-tion.

2.2 Formation Organizational TerminologyLets begin by dening the basic organizational structure ofall formation ight.

2.2.1 The FlightSimply put, any group of more than one aircraft is called aight. A ight may consist of two aircraft, 16 aircraft or 116aircraft all ying with respect to one another and under thedirection of on designated Flight Leader.

2.2.2 The ElementFlights of more than two aircraft are organized by ele-ments. An element consists of a Leader and a Wingman.The two-ship element is the basic building block of all for-mation ying. There are never more than two aircraft in anelement. For instance, a ight of four aircraft is made up oftwo elements; a ight of six is made up of three elements,

and so on.

2.3 Dening Fingertip FormationThe basic ngertip formation position, also commonly re-ferred to as parade or close formation, will form the ba-sis for much of your training in FAST. Fingertip reects awelded wing position, in which the wingman mirrors themovements of his/her lead. For purposes of two ship forma-tion covered in this guide, Parade, Close and Fingertip areinterchangeable terms reecting the basic position reectedin Figure 2.1.

Fingertip formation is so named because this conguration

resembles the ngertips of your hand, when viewed fromabove. During your four ship training, your ight will con-sist of two elements of two aircraft each making up a FingerFour conguration as covered in chapter ve of this guide.

2.3.1 Advantages and DisadvantagesFingertip is often used for ight in trafc patterns, congest-ed airspace and in ight demonstrations. However, all pilotsmust respect both the advantages and disadvantages inher-ent when choosing to operating in this conguration.

The advantages in ying in parade formation are that it

requires minimal airspace, provides good visual communi-cation between Lead and Wing, and presents a neat sym-metrical appearance for aerial demonstrations.

The disadvantages include less maneuverability than singleship ight, requires near constant power adjustments bythe wingman, is fatiguing if conducted for long periods andinhibits proper lookout doctrine.

2.4 The Fingertip PositionThis section will walk you through the design of a typicatwo ship formation. The principals here apply equally tofour ship formations.

2.4.1 The Bearing LineThe bearing line originates at the lead aircrafts nose and ex-tends aft at a set angle. The nose of each aircraft in the ightis aligned to this imaginary line. The angle of the bearing linewill be determined for each type aircraft or group and, ingeneral, is approximately 30 or 45. The USAF commonlyuses a 30 degree bearing line while the US Navy often em-ploys a 45 degree line. Most, but not all, FAST signatoriesuse a 45 degree bearing line.

When properly positioned along this bearing line, aircraftwill avoid wingtip overlap as depicted in gure 2.1. The twomain factors that then determine which angle is best for agiven aircraft eet are cockpit visibility and Symmetry.

NOTEBased on the exact positioning of the wingmanalong a 30 degree bearing line, there may be somenose to tail overlap. However, all wingmen y aslightly stepped-down position in relation to theirlead aircraft and nose to tail separation is not a re-

quirement of parade formation.

303

Figure 2.1 Basic Fingertip Formation Position


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TheFormaTionGuide2-2 Basicmaneuvers: Two-ship

CHAPTER TWO

2.4.1.1 Cockpit visibility

Much of your communication in formation will be throughthe use of hand signals between wingman and lead. As thewing aircraft moves aft due to a larger bearing line angle (45degrees), nose to tail separation will increase, while ease ofcockpit visibility may decrease.

2.4.1.2 Formation Symmetry

The second consideration is symmetrydoes the ight lookbalanced and pleasing to the eye when viewed by specta-tors? Each eet type will balance these two factors in decid-ing their standard bearing line for ngertip formation.

2.4.2 Use of Sightlines in Fingertip FormationWith the desired bearing line angle set, next we need to de-termine how we can precisely position the wingman aircraftto insure minimum lateral (wingtip) separation is main-tained with adequate step down for safe formation ight.

Figure 2.2 Use of Sightlines in Parade Formation

To accomplish this task in-ight, the wingman will useeasily recognizable visual references, termed sightlineson the lead (reference) aircraft to accurately triangulateposition (see Figure 2.2). This tool is used by all formation

pilots from the Blue Angeles to the Trojan Horsemen, andwill make the job of station-keeping much simpler. Your in-structor pilot will point out several sightlines for you to usein your training.

2.4.2.1 Bearing Line and Lateral Separation

Ideally, the sight-lines should provide at least two points ofreference on Lead to x the wingmans position along thebearing line. One sets the angle itself, while the other setshow far down (or out) the bearing line the wingmanmust position his/her aircraft to produce the required mini-mum wingtip separation. See gure 2.2

2.4.2.2 Vertical Separation

An additional reference will provide stack-down, or verticalclearance. The amount of step down may vary between air-craft groups. Again, consult your clinic instructors for typespecic guidance and visual references.

2.4.2.3 Sightline Use With Dissimilar Aircraft

It is important to understand that sightlines establishedfor one aircraft may not work for another, dissimilar, typeaircraft, as each has unique dimensions. Flight Leads willneed to cover each aircrafts unique sight-lines as part of thebrieng to insure aircraft are positioned accurately along thedesired bearing line. For demonstration purposes, you mayposition both aircraft on the ramp with 36 inches of wing-tip separation as depicted in gure 2.1 and determine usefulsightlines for positioning on the bearing line in ight.

2.5 Station Keeping in FormationFinally, it is time to get to the nuts and bolts of formation.

Maintaining position, or station keeping, is very challeng-ing skill to master and, in the beginning, will demand yourfull attention at all times. The procedures and techniquescovered here will allow you to remain in a precise positionat all times in formation.

2.5.1 Maintaining The Fingertip PositionAs mentioned, your Instructor will point out the sightlinereferences that apply to your aircraft. Do not stare at onereference. Look at the whole aircraft and clear through yourLead. Scanning from reference to reference will help you de-tect small changes in position.

The wingman must be constantly alert for needed correc-tions to position. By making small corrections early, the rel-ative motion between aircraft remains small. If deviationsare allowed to develop, required corrections become larger,and the possibility of over-correcting becomes greater.

Motion will occur along all three axes. In general, fore andaft spacing is controlled with use of the throttle; verticalposition is maintained with the elevator. Lateral spacing iscontrolled with coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder.This is a simplied way of dividing up the control inputsand corrections.

Seldom, though, is it that easy. Most of the time, correc-tions will have to be combined. For instance, if you are lowand apply back pressure to move up into position, you willlikely fall behind unless you add power to maintain yourairspeed.

Being behind the ngertip bearing line is referred to as beingsucked, while being ahead of the line is called acute (seeg. 2.3). When out of position, correct rst to the ngertipbearing line. That way, your relative motion to the lead air-craft will always have the same appearance. The only excep-tion to this rule is if you are too close to Lead (at or

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TheFormaTionGuide Basicmaneuvers: Two-ship 2-3

CHAPTER T

near wing tip overlap). In this case you should rst obtainmore lateral spacing, and then correct to the bearing line.The next most critical error to correct for is vertical positionand, nally, correct for lateral spacing by moving along thebearing line toward/away from lead as the situation war-rants.

Your instructor will have you practice exercises that helpincrease your judgment and teach you the corrections re-quired to get you back into position. Always keep thesepoints in mind:

Relax! Just as in basic ying, you must feel whatthe a plane is telling you. Tension leads to over-controlling, which can cause oscillations that aretough to stop

Trim the airplane. Being out of trim increasesfatigue

Try resting your ight control arm on somethingstationarylike your leg, in aircraft with sticks.

Rest your other hand on either the base of thethrottle quadrant, if your aircraft is so equipped, oradjacent to the prop lever, to gage movement andreduce over-controlling.

Crosscheck, but do not xate on, your sight-linereference pointslook at the whole aircraft andclear through your Lead.

Fly coordinated rudder and ailerons at all times

2.5.1.1 Maneuvering In Fingertip FormationYour wing work, or ngertip training, will include turns

up to 45 degrees of bank. All station keeping principalsused in straight and level apply to maneuvering ight.

When Lead rolls into a turn, it will immediately put youout of position unless you anticipate and make the requiredcontrol inputs. The wingman maintains the same relativeposition while rolling into and out of bank. This means thatbesides rolling with Lead, you have to move vertically tostay in position. This in turn requires a power change. Allthis happens while Lead is rolling into the turn, but the cor-rections must be taken out when Lead stops rolling and isestablished in the bank. The effects are reversed when roll-

ing out of the bank. We will dissect specic examples.

2.5.1.1.1 Turns into the Wingman

Lets take the case where you are #2 on Leads right sideLead begins a smooth roll to the right. Match Leads roll rateand bank angle. At the same time, you will need to descendto maintain vertical position. This descent will increaseyour airspeed, causing you to get ahead of Lead, unless youcoordinate with a power reduction. This effect will be compounded by the fact that, on the inside of the turn, you areying a smaller turn circle and will therefore travel a shorterdistance than Lead.

Once Lead stops rolling and is stabilized in the bank, youwill have to stop the descent and adjust power to stay inposition. These are the individual control inputs explainednow how is it really done? As soon as Lead starts to roll to-wards you, simultaneously reduce power, roll with Leadand apply forward pressure to stay in position. See g. 2.5.

2.5.1.1.2 Turns Away from the Wingman

Now lets look at the case where Lead turns away from youIn ngertip right, Lead starts a left turn. You will have toclimb and roll to stay in position on the wing. This will re-quire back pressure to move up vertically, and also a sizablepower addition lest you lose airspeed and fall behind. Keepin mind, you are also on the outside of the turn ying a largerturn circle, and thus must increase airspeed slightly to keepwith Lead. See g. 2.6

2.5.1.1.3 Common Errors In Maneuvering

During turns away, it is common for new formation pilotsto react too slow to Lead maneuvering. As Lead rolls in to a30 degree bank turn, the student may be a little slow to rollwhich will create excessive lateral distance from Lead as heshe turns away from the wingman. Thus, the wingman mayquickly nd him/her in an aft (sucked) and low position

In this position, with the Wingman wide, low and behindLead, full throttle/power may be required to catch up. Withtime the Wingman will catch back up with Leadgenerallyabout the time Lead decides to roll out! To avoid this scenar

#2

#1

Figure 2.4 Turn In To The Wingman

Sucked

Acute

#1

Figure 2.3 Deviation From Bearing Line


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CHAPTER TWO

io, make positive inputs as soon as Lead rolls. Add power,stay right with Leads roll, and ease on up to stay in position.

If you add too much power initially, it is easy to correct bytaking a little off. However, it is difcult to catch back up ifyou are shy with the power and fall behind. Once Lead reach-

es his/her desired bank angle and stops his/her roll, ease offthe back pressure, stabilize your bank, and adjust power tomaintain position. Anticipate Leads roll out of the bank.Leads rolling out of the left turn will have the same effect asrolling into a right turnit is just a turn intothe wingman.

2.6 Formation Ground ProceduresWith the formation brieng complete, the pilots willmove to their aircraft to prepare for engine start. From thismoment on, teamwork and effective communication is vitalto the safety of all pilots in the ight.

2.6.1 Formation Engine Start and Taxi

If the aircraft are parked together, Lead will provide a visualsignal for engine start; if parked separately, he/she will usea pre-briefed starting time or radio call. All aircrews shouldmonitor the current automated weather information (ATISor AWOS) prior to start/taxiing. If you are late arriving atthe aircraft, do not omit items on your preight or rush en-gine starting procedures. Be expeditious, yet thorough, dur-ing preight so youre ready when the ight lead needs youto be ready. If delays occur, inform the ight lead as soon aspossible but not later than the pre-briefed check-in time. In-form Lead of any difculties that may delay your departure.

2.6.1.1 Wing Aircraft Conguration

Unless briefed differently, the Wingmans aircraft will becongured for ight with navigation lights and anti-col-lision beacon on and transponder in standby for two-shipformation. The Flight Lead will normally keep his/her anti-collision/rotating beacon off to preclude being a visual dis-traction for the Wingman. Lead will carry the transpondercode for the ight and set equipment accordingly.

2.6.1.2 Check-In

Engine start and check-in procedures will be as briefed bythe ight lead in accordance with Chapter One. Normally,the Flight Lead will check in the ight after allowing some

time for engine warm-up and/or completion of pre-taxichecks. If you are not ready for taxi at the time of check in,inform Lead. If using visual signals, when Lead looks at you,give a thumbs up if you are ready to taxi. After the ightchecks in, Lead will call for taxi clearance, as necessary.

2.6.2 TaxiThe formation then taxis out, assuming proper positionwhen pulling out of the parking area. Taxi position for thewingman is two ship-lengths behind Lead when taxiingstaggered. Increase the spacing to four ship-lengths whentaxing directly behind Lead. Tailwheel aircraft should taxino closer than 4 ship lengths if S-turning is required for for-ward visibility.

Lead should taxi at the speed that allows the wingman toattain proper spacing. As a wingman, match Leads congu-ration. Lead and Wing will inspect each other for properconguration and any abnormalities prior to takeoff. Con-

tinue this inspection throughout the sortie and into thechocks. This is the starting point for mutual support.

2.6.3 End of the Runway LineupUpon reaching the run-up block, #2 should stop parallelwith the ight lead. When #2 is ready for engine run-up,he/she will signal Lead with a thumbs up. Lead will signalfor the run-up and both ight members will initiate theirrun-up procedures and complete their pre-take-off checks.When #2 is ready for takeoff, he/she will pass a thumbsup to Lead.

18#1 #2

Figure 2.6 End Of Runway Line Up

2.7 Formation Takeoff ProceduresThere are two basic formation takeoff procedures, intervaland element. While both procedures may have all ightaircraft lined up on the runway together, element takeoffsinvolve releasing brakes together in two ship and remain-ing in close formation throughout rotation and lift off. In-terval takeoffs will employ a briefed amount of separationbetween aircraft from initial brake release, rejoining duringclimb out. Minimum suggested time between interval take-

offs is six (6) seconds (Chapter 6)

#2

#1

Figure 2.5 Turn Away From The Wingman


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CHAPTER T

2.7.1 Element Runway Lineup

Lead

The Flight Lead will taxi a sufcient distance down therunway to ensure his/her wingman has enough room tomaneuver into position. Lead will usually take the center of

his/her half of the runway, ensuring this provides minimumof 10 feet wingtip separation. To prevent the wingman fromencountering wake turbulence on takeoff, runway lineup isnormally determined by the direction of the wind, with theFlight Lead positioning him/herself on the downwind side.However, if the crosswinds insignicant (less than veknots of crosswind or reported calm), lead may place thewingman on the inside of the turn out trafc or as desired

(sun angle, etc.) Anticipate clearance to take the active soas to minimize time taken to lineup and be ready for takeoff.

Wing

The wingman lines up in the center of his/her side of therunway, forward of the ngertip line (acute position) witha minimum of 10 feet of lateral wingtip clearance. Once inposition with brakes set and all checklists complete, thewingman will nod his/her head indicating ready for enginerun/spool up. See gure. 2.7. This position provides greatersafety in the event either aircraft experiences a directionalcontrol problem on takeoff roll or abort.

2.7.2 Take Off Roll

Lead

Give the run-up signal when Wing is in proper position, islooking at you in anticipation of run-up, and has given you ahead nod. Set power to the briefed setting and cross-checkinstruments one last time.

NOTEBrieng a common power setting between non-identical airplanes that differ in engine horse pow-er/thrust, propeller design, basic conguration, orgross weight may result in un-matched initial accel-eration. In such cases, starting with a lower initialpower setting may help. The wingman then simplymatches aircraft acceleration rates with throttle asrequired, while the leader slowly advances his/herthrottle during the takeoff roll.

Look at the Wingman to see if he/she is ready for brake re-

lease, as indicated by a head nod. The execution commandto release brakes is a forward deliberate head nod by theleader. As your chin hits your chest, simultaneously releasebrakes and smoothly advance power to the briefed takeoffpower setting. A rapid advancement of the throttle willoften cause the wingman to fall back. With ample runwayavailable, do not rush the takeoff roll. Once the power is setdo not adjust the throttles unless the wingman requests itAs with a single-ship takeoff, use differential braking/nose-wheel steering until the rudder becomes effective. Performthe takeoff, concentrating on tracking straight ahead whilemonitoring the wingman with your peripheral vision.

Do not pull the aircraft off the ground or rotate/liftofearly. You may liftoff at a slightly faster airspeed than whenexecuting an individual takeoff.

WARNINGWhen ying element takeoffs betweendissimilar aircraft (i.e. T-6/CJ-6 or T-34/T-28)or like-aircraft with signicant variations incongurations and/or gross weights, pilotsmust consider individual stall, rotate, liftoff, andbest climb speeds, as well as runway required.

Unless required for safety, do not retract the gear and apsuntil you conrm the wingman is safely airborne, in posi-tion, and stable. Use the standard or briefed gear retractsignal.

If the wingman has fallen back signicantly during the take-off, such that visual (hand) signals are not applicable, thewingman may retract his/her gear when safe to do so to as-sist in gaining an acceleration advantage in regaining posi-tion unless briefed otherwise.

WIND

18

#1

#2

Figure 2.7 Runway Lineup


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Wing

Unless briefed otherwise, delay brake release until you seeLeads main gear have lifted off the runway unless usingtimed interval takeoffs (see next paragraph). Once airborne,

join on the left wing for straight-ahead rejoins, or on the in-side of the turn for turning rejoins. If the mission or ight

requirements dictate other than above, the ight lead willpre-brief or call (while airborne) and state the desired for-mation position.

If using timed intervals between brake release instead oflift off for staggered takeoffs, the wingman will releasebrakes no less than 6 seconds after leads begins the take-off roll. This should provide approximately 300 - 500 feet ofseparation between aircraft. This procedure should not beused with tail wheel aircraft due to loss of forward visibilityduring aborted takeoffs.

WARNINGTimed interval procedures are neverrecommended for tail wheel or dissimilaraircraft formations. For all Interval TakeoffAbort procedures, See Chapter Seven; Abnormal

Operating Procedures.

2.8 Basic Formations and ManeuversAll two ship parade formation maneuvers required in theFAST Wing Practical Test Guide will be covered here.Additional items requiring three and four ship formationwill be covered in chapter ve.

2.8.1 Fingertip Exercise (Wing Work)Having reviewed the ngertip position, the only thing left todo is practice. Wing Work are uid turns and lazy eightmaneuvers to allow you to perfect the art of station keepingin formation.

Lead

Maintain a stable platform for the wingman by usingsmooth and consistent roll rates and avoiding suddenchanges in back pressure. As an exercise y a series of modi-ed lazy-eight type maneuvers. As the wingman becomes

more procient over time, increase bank angles to at least45 in combination with 20 of pitch change if applicableto your aircraft.

Wing

Use all of Leads aircraft as a reference; avoid xating on anyone spot. Use trim, small throttle and stick movements tomaintain position.

Be aware of collision potential at all times. In turbulence,while ying maximum performance maneuvers or maneu-vers which are not frequently own, the collision potentialincreases. Under these conditions, avoid wingtip vortices

because a rapid roll into the leader may develop. Should abreakout become necessary, use rudder, aileron, power, andspeed brake as the situation dictates. Break out in the direc-tion that will ensure immediate separation and follow applicable procedures contained in chapter one.

2.8.2 RouteRoute is an extension of ngertip. In route, the ight loos-ens up to approximately two to four ship-widths wingtipseparation for such actions as checklist accomplishmentradio changes and position changes, to a maximum of 500feet from Lead when allowed for during cross country ightFly no farther forward than line-abreast and no farther aftthan the bearing line. Route allows the wingman to checkaircraft systems and personal equipment, look around, orsimply relax. It also enhances the wingmans ability to pro-vide visual lookout for the ight.

Use two to four ship-width spacing for all frequency chang

es, in-ight checks, or position changes. The greater spacingallowed by route formation is used to relax, as on a cross-country ight, or to allow the wingmans to look around andhelp clear for trafc.

Lead

Use a radio call or rudder walk/tail wag to send the wing-man to route. With route formation, Lead should restrictmaneuvering to moderate turns and pitch changes. Maximum bank angle in route is approximately 60. Restrictall maneuvering while wingmans are conducting in-ightchecks, frequency changes and other cockpit tasks.

WingGo to standard route (2-4 ship-widths) when Lead directsor gives the loosen formation signal. If lead directs/briefsroute formation for an extended cross country leg, the wing-man may move out the bearing line no further than 500 feetif appropriate. Avoid pulling power and sliding aft (sucked)in route, as this will require more power and time to regainthe parade position when directed. Move no farther forwardthan line-abreast, and maintain vertical stack.

On the inside of the turn, descend only as necessary to keepLead in sight and stay below Leads plane of motion. Whenon the outside of the turn, maintain the same vertical ref-erences used in echelon. During turns, you may need tomaneuver behind the bearing line to maintain spacing andkeep sight of Lead. Do not cross to the opposite side unlessdirected by lead. Route cross-unders may be directed with aradio call or, if briefed, using a wing dip by lead.

2.8.3 EchelonEchelon is a conguration where all the wing aircraft areeither to the right (echelon right) or to the left (echelon left)of Lead. Due to this conguration, all planned maneuvering(turns) are away from the wingmen during echelon. Eche-lon provides the wingman a better power advantage to stay


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appendix A for further guidance on hand/ aircraft signals.

2.8.4.1 Cross Under HandSignal

The hand signal for the cross-under is considered standardoperating procedure for the FAST and will be used at alltimes unless briefed otherwise.

2.8.4.2 Cross Under AircraftSignal

The Flight Lead may brief the use of the Wing Dip for sig-naling a cross-under. The wing dip consists of a rapid de-ection of the ailerons in the direction the Leader wishesthe wingman to cross-under to. With the wingman on theleft, as depicted in gure 2.9, a wing dip to the right willinitiate a cross-under to the opposite side.

While the wing dip may be more recognizable while inroute formation, it has been shown to cause some concernfor light aircraft, having been confused with normal distur-

bances caused by minor turbulence/wing upset. The wingdip will be further covered in chapter 5, four ship formation.Lead

Use the cross under to place your wingman out of the lineof sight of the sun, to congure for the overhead pattern andother uses as desired. Do not cross-under student pilotswhile maneuvering.

Wing

Acknowledge the signal with a prominent head nod. Ini-tially, perform a cross-under in three denite moves. As you

gain experience with this maneuver, these steps will blendin to one uid movement.

2.8.4.1 Step One: Back and Down

Reduce power slightly and, as airspeed is reduced, movea few feet lower than normal position. Move aft to obtainnose-tail clearance; then increase power slightly to maintainthis spacing. (Anticipate the power increase to prevent fall-ing too far behind.)

2.8.4.2 Step Two: Move Across

Bank slightly toward the new position to change the aircraft

#2 #2

#1

Figure 2.9 Cross-Under

with Lead by remaining in the same plane during maneu-vering. Echelon as depicted here may not be applicable tohigh wing, Biplanes and other congurations.

Lead

Indicate the use of echelon with a radio call or visual sig-nal in accordance with appendix A. Roll smoothly in to alevel turn up to45 degrees AOB based on wingman abilities.Strive to maintain a constant load factor (G) on the airplane

as required for level ight. Do not unload (reduce G abrupt-ly) during an echelon turn. As mentioned, all planned turnsare away from the wingman. If a turn must be made intothe ight after signaling an echelon turn in two ship, expectthe wingman to transition to standard ngertip procedures.Roll out with a smooth rate and reduce back stick pressureas the bank angle decreases.

Wing

All planned echelon turns will be away from the wingman.Echelon turns are accomplished differently than in nger-tip. In echelon, the wingman will maintain the same lateralspacing, however they do notmove up vertically to stay on

the same lateral plane with Lead as in ngertip turns. In-stead, all aircraft will roll in the same horizontalplane withLead (see gure 2.8). There is a slight amount of stack-downin echelon formation, just as in straight and level parade.

As Lead rolls into the turn, match bank angles and attemptto split the lead aircraft with the horizon line. Specic air-craft references will be demonstrated to you by your in-structor. Since you are on the outside of the turn, you willbe traveling a longer distance than Lead. Use power to makecorrections fore and aft, back pressure to maintain hori-zontal spacing and bank to make corrections up or down.When Lead starts to roll out, start a power reduction as you

smoothly roll back out with Lead.

If the situation requires lead to turn in to youafter calling for/signaling an echelon turn in two ship, simply use standardngertip turn procedures as depicted in gure 2.4.

2.8.4 Cross-UnderThe purpose of performing a cross-under is to efciently andsafely move from one wing position to the opposite wingposition. A cross-under may be accomplished from eitherclose or route formation positions. Lead may direct a cross-under using a radio call, hand signal or aircraft signal. See

Figure 2.8 The Echelon Turn

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heading by a few degrees. Roll wings level, and y to the op-posite side. A heading change of only 1 or 2 will cause theaircraft to y smoothly from one side of Lead to the other.Keep proper nose-tail clearance with power; a power in-crease is necessary to maintain this clearance. Do not crossdirectly under any part of Leads aircraft!

2.8.4.3 Step 3: Move Forward and Up

When you have wingtip clearance, return to Leads heading.Add power, and move forward and up to attain proper pitchreferences. As you approach the ngertip position, reducepower to stop in position.

As your skill increases, you may round out under the cross-under to execute it as one smooth maneuver. Regardless ofyour technique, never pass under Lead.

To y good cross-unders, you must anticipate each powerchange and make the smallest possible changes in pitch and

bank. Once you become procient, cross-unders may becompleted during turns, climbs and descents.

2.8.5 Close TrailClose trail maneuvering consists of turns, climbs, descents,and modied lazy eights. Proper spacing is one aircraftship-length, nose-to-tail, behind Lead and just below Leads

prop/jet wash as applicable to your aircraft type/congura-tion (Figure 2.8). Lead signals for close trail by holding upa clenched st, thumb extended aft, motioning aft. Lead canalso porpoise his/her aircraft or make a radio call. Close trailmaneuvering will be terminated by either reforming to n-gertip with a radio call, wing rock, or calling for extendedtrial or tail chase (Ch. 4). If reforming to ngertip, Leadmust avoid any signicant power changes until the wing-man is in ngertip. If moving to extended trail/tail chase,Lead will follow extended trail entry procedures.

Lead

Wait for the wingman to call in before maneuvering. Be

smooth, predictable and maintain positive G-force at altimes. Avoid sudden releases of back pressure and rapidturn reversals. In training, limit maneuvering bank angle to45 degrees and pitch changes to +/- 20 degrees.

Wing

Acknowledge the call to go to close trail with full call signManeuver to the close trail position, and call when in posi-tion. It is critical in close trail to maintain nose to tail sepa-ration and below Leads prop/jet wash at all times. Maintain position primarily through the use of power. Howeverwhen ying directly behind Lead, closure rates become dif-cult to determine. If excessive spacing exists and lead ismaneuvering (i.e turning), do not attempt to move forwardwith power alone. Use a combination of power and smalamounts of lead pursuit (cut off) while in the turn. If wings-level, you may move off to one side slightly to obtain a bet-ter perspective of Lead while learning to gage pure pursuitclosure.

2.8.6 Lead ChangesLead change procedures require discipline and zeroconfusion during execution. The military of all brancheshave lost aircraft and pilots during this maneuver due tomomentary confusion on who is ying off of who.

In the 1980s, with the publication of the T-34 FASTFormation Manual, U.S. Navy visual lead change procedureswere adopted, but with a signicant modication that isnoted in this section. These visual signal procedures arehere identied as OPTION A. No change was made from theoriginal T-34 FAST Manuals description.

Over the decades however, some FAST signatories haveadopted lead change visual procedures that more closelyfollow U.S. Navy [current] procedures, we have listed themhere as OPTION B.

The only difference between Option A and Option B is inthe lead pilots initial visual signal. Appendix D of this guidemay be used for signatories to delineate which option theyprefer as SOP.

Lead

Insure you brief your ight on visual lead change proceduresparticularly if you have multiple-type aircraft ying themission which might use different visual signals. Initiatethe maneuver with a visual signal or radio call. Ensure theformation has enough room to execute the maneuver andallow the wingman to orientate him/herself after assuminglead. If using visual hand signals;

1. Ensure the wingman is in proper ngertip positionbefore passing a visual lead change signal. Its imperativehe/she is in position to correctly observe your handsignals. You may execute the lead change from route,but the visual signal must be readily observable by your

#2#1

Figure 2.10 Close Trail - One Ship length Spacing.


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wingman.

2A. If using visual signals, initiate the lead change bypointing at the wingman to assume lead, followedimmediately by pointing forward repeatedly. Look forthe wingmans acknowledgment. (OPTION A)

or

2B. Initiate the lead change signal by tapping yourforehead/helmet and then pointing at the wingman toassume lead. Look for the wingmans acknowledgment.(OPTION B)

NOTEThe U.S. Navy lead change procedures historicallycall for the Flight Leader to rst tap his helmet, fol-lowed immediately by pointing to the wingman

who is to assume the lead. Several FAST organiza-tions may employ this lead signal change procedure

and it is dened as OPTION B.

3. The wingman may acknowledge your directive bynodding his/her head out of force of habit. This is notthe lead change and no change of lead has occurred!

4. The lead is ofcially passed when the wingmancommunicates acceptance by patting his helmet once,and pointing forward using a single forward chopping

motion. This applies to OPTION A or OPTION Bprocedures. At this point, you are now the wingmanying off the new leader* (see warning box below). IfWing shakes off the signal or does not acknowledge thesignal, maintain the lead position and repeat the leadchange signal.

*WARNING*Once the lead change is passed, the new FlightLeader will remain a stable platform, allowingthe former leader to power back and movingdown/aft to his/her new wing position. Having

both aircraft simultaneously adjusting powerand position is considered unsafe. Always coverlead change procedures in the brieng!

If you are using the radio, transmit Raven 2, you have thelead on the right/left. Once your wingman has verballyaccepted the lead, move to your new wingmans position.Do

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