formulary for veterinaries

Veterinary Formulary

CONTENT

Acknowledgements.....................................................................iv

Introduction.................................................................................vi

General Guidance.......................................................................ix

1.Anti-infective.............................................................................1

1.1.Antibacterial Drugs..............................................................11.1.1.Penicillins......................................................................11.1.2. Other Antibacterials...................................................151.1.3. Compound Antibacterial Preparations.......................67

1.2. Antifungals........................................................................711.3. Antiprotozoal Drugs..........................................................74

1.3.1. Anticoccidial drugs....................................................751.3.2. Trypanocides and Others...........................................791.3.3. Combination...............................................................83

1.4. Anthelmintic Drugs...........................................................851.4.1. Benzimidazoles.........................................................861.4. 2. Imidazothiazole.........................................................921.4.3. Microcyclic Lactones.................................................941.4.4. Other Anthelmintic Drugs..........................................971.4.5. Combined Anthelmintics.........................................100

2.Acaricides and Insecticides..................................................104

2.1.Organophosphates and Chlorides.....................................1062.2. Carbamate.......................................................................1102.3. Pyrethrines and pyrethroids............................................1112.4. Others..............................................................................115

3.Gastrointestinal Drugs..........................................................116

3.1. Antidiarrheal Drugs.........................................................1163.1.1.Adsorbents................................................................1173.1.2.Drugs used in the treatment of chronic diarrhea.......118

3.2. Drugs used in the Treatment of Bloat.............................1183.3. Laxatives.........................................................................121

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3.3.1. Lubricant laxatives...................................................1213.3.2. Bulk-forming Laxatives...........................................1223.3.3. Osmotic Laxatives....................................................123

4. Cardiovascular Drugs..........................................................124

4.1. Diuretics..........................................................................1244.1.1. Thiazides..................................................................1254.1.2. Loop diuretics..........................................................1264.1.3. Osmotic Diuretics....................................................128

5. Central Nervous System Drugs...................................................129

5.1. Analgesics/Antipyretics..................................................1295.1.1 Opioid Analgesics.....................................................1295.1.2. Non-opioid Analgesics.............................................132

5.2. Sedatives.........................................................................1376. Drugs used in anaesthesia....................................................141

6.1. General Anaesthetics.......................................................1416.1.1. Antimuscarinic Pre-anaesthetic Medication............1426.1.2. Injectable Anaesthetics............................................1436.1.3. Inhalational Anaesthetics.........................................147

6.2. Local Anaesthetics..........................................................1497. Drugs used in Endocrine disorders....................................152

7.1. Drugs used to promote Gonadal function.......................1527.2. Myometrial Stimulants....................................................1557.3 Sex Hormones..................................................................156

7.3.1. Oestrogens................................................................1577.3.2. Androgens................................................................1597.3.3. Progestogens............................................................160

7.4. Prostaglandins.................................................................1628. Blood products and drugs affecting the blood...................164

8.1. Anticoagulants................................................................1648.1.1. Parenteral Anticoagulants........................................1648.1.2. Oral anticoagulant....................................................165

8.2. Haemostatics...................................................................166

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9.Vitamins.................................................................................167

9.1.Water soluble Vitamins....................................................1689.2. Fat Soluble Vitamins.......................................................171

10.Anti-inflammatory Drugs...................................................173

10.1.Corticosteroids...............................................................17311. Disinfectants and Antiseptics............................................177

12.Antidotes and other substances used in poisoning...........182

13.Immunological Preparations..............................................184

Index..........................................................................................209

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Acknowledgements

The Drug Administration and Control Authority is grateful to individu-

als and organizations for their valuable contributions for the preparation

of the final version of the formulary for veterinary drugs.

The Authority would like to give special acknowledgement to the fol-

lowing professionals and their institions for their contibtions during the

consultative workshop held to finalize the draft formulary.

Dr.Tadesse Balcha - Veterinarian

Dr. Emiru Zewdie - Veterinarian

Dr. Bojia Enderbu - Veterinarian

Dr. Taye Yirgu - Veterinarian

Ato Abiy Habtewolde - Pharmacologist

Dr.Tesfu Kassa - Veterinarian

Dr. H/mariam Lemecha - Veterinarian

Dr. G/giorgis Ashebir - Veterinarian

Dr. Temima Nuri - Veterinarian

Dr.Tsehay Melesse - Veterinarian

Dr.Martha Yami - Veterinarian

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Dr.Asseged Bogale - Veterinarian

Dr.Tadesse Getahun - Veterinarian

Dr. Anwar Nuru - Veterinarian

W/o Lidya Asrat -Pharmacologist

Dr. Mulugeta Yebege-eshet -Veterinarian

Dr. Zewdu Belay -Veterinarian

Dr. Ataklti Negash -Veterinarian

Dr. Kassaye Adugna -Veterinarian

Dr. Tesfu Kassa -Veterinarian

v


Introduction

Ethiopia is a leading country in the number of animal population in the

African continent. However, the output in terms of contributions to the

improvement of the livelihood of animal owners and for the growth of

the national economy is at a lower stage compared to the vast resource

on hand. Poor Animal health service and inadequate supply of drugs are

among the main contributing factors for the poor utilization of the re-

sources.

The provision of quality animal health-care necessitates the availability

of safe, effective and affordable drugs of the required quality, in ade-

quate quantity at all times, and presented, dispensed and used rationally.

Subject to many underlying factors the widely spread irrational use of

veterinary drugs needs to be tackled through various interventions, in-

cluding the introduction of guidances on the use of drugs. Formulary for

veterinary drugs is believed to be one of the key guiding instruments for

the facilitation of the promotion of rational use.

In line with this the formulary for veterinary drugs has been prepared

based upon guiding principles, including emphasis on major Animal

diseases in Ethiopia, the veterinary drugs list and the level of animal

health services in Ethiopia.

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In process of the development of the formulary an effort has been made

to incorporate uptodate information on each drug, extracted from stan-

dard reference books, manuals and other sources.

Contributions of competent professionals have also been sought through

facilitation of their participation in the process in various ways, includ-

ing seeking comments on the drafts. The comments given during the

consultative workshop have also been included in this final version of

the formulary.

The formulary is envisaged to serve as a quick reference in understand-

ing the properties of drugs and detailed information regarding each drug

for the professionals involved in animal health care, prescribing and dis-

pensing of veterinary drugs.

The formulary is designed based on pharmaco-therapeutic classification

of drugs so as to help users relate the pharmacological action of a drug

to the condition/s it is recommended for.

The formulary contains comprehensive information for every phar-

maco-therapeutic class of drugs and an insight on indication, contraindi-

cation, side-effects, dose and administration, withdrawal period and

storage conditions of each drug. The general guidance portion of the

formulary provides information on the safe and appropriate use of

drugs. Details of more than 235 drugs in their 350 dosages forms are in-

cluded in this edition.

vii


The Drug Administration and Control Authority of Ethiopia will con-

stantly review the formulary and shall make efforts to follow the

progress in the field as well as the approval of new veterinary drugs to

be used in Ethiopia, to regulary update the formulary.

viii


General Guidance

The general principle of prescribing for animals is that no medicinal

product should be administered to a patient unless specifically indi-

cated. In all cases the benefit of administering the drugs should be con-

sidered in relation to the risks involved, particularly in food-producing

animals. The choice of drug to treat a specific condition is dependent on

the sensitivity of the micro-organisms requiring treatment in the case of

infectious conditions, the influence of secondary infections, manage-

ment factors, consideration of any possible drug interactions, and avail-

able routes of administration.

Administration and owner compliance

Ease of administration must be assigned a high priority when prescrib-

ing medicinal products to be given by the owner. Failure to comply

with dose recommendations can often account for an apparently poor

response to therapy or toxic effects. It is the responsibility of the veteri-

nary surgeon to prescribe medicinal products that the owner can readily

administer to the animal at convenient intervals and to provide an expla-

nation of the treatment given.

In veterinary medicine, drugs are available in many different formula-

tions. For oral administration, it is important of ascertain whether the

drug should be given before, with, or after food. Preparations avail-

able for direct oral administration consist of tablets (including

oval boluses used for cattle), capsules, oral paste, oral solution

ix


(drench), and modified release (sustained-release) ruminal boluses. Ru-

minal boluses should not be given to ruminants less than 100 kg body-

weight or those that do not have a functional rumen. It is important that

drug dosage calculations are carefully checked for treatment adminis-

tered via the drinking water or feed. It is advisable to establish if other

drugs are included in the diet before medicating the drinking water or

feed to avoid the possibility of adverse drug interactions.

Doses. The doses stated in The Veterinary Formulary are intended for

general guidance only and represent, unless otherwise stated, the usual

range of doses that are generally regarded as suitable for the species in-

dicated. Doses are given in amounts per kilogram body-weight wher-

ever possible. Doses of drugs to be administered in the drinking water

or feed are usually expressed as amount per 100 litres of drinking water

or per tonne of feed. All doses are for administration by mouth, unless

otherwise stated. For the purposes of The Veterinary formulary 'small

animals' are considered to be dogs and cats; 'large animals' to be horses,

cattle, sheep, and pigs.

Withdrawal periods. The withdrawal period is the time interval after

cessation of treatment and before the animal or any of its products can

be used as human food. With increasing human public awareness of the

use of drugs such as hormones and antimicrobials in animals that may

enter in the human food chain, it is essential that veterinarian play an

active part in ensuring that drugs are administered according to

their directions and that withdrawal periods are strictly followed. In the

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The Veterinary Formulary withdrawal periods are given in days wher-

ever possible.

Prescribing for Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Goats, and

Pigs

Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and in some countries horses, constitute food-

producing animals providing meat, milk, or both for human consump-

tion. Therefore the use of drugs and medicines in these species may be

restricted, for example, chloramphenicol use is limited because possible

residues in human food may lead to bacterial resistance and aplastic

anaemia in humans. Withdrawal periods for milk and meat stated by the

manufacturer should be adhered to.

Drugs may be prescribed as group medication for administration in the

feed or drinking water or for individual animal treatment. For parenteral

administration in these species, injection may be given subcutaneously

intramuscularly, or intravenously, or by intraperitoneal injection in

lambs. Medication may be given by direct injection into the rumen. Not

more than 20 ml should be administered at any one site if given by in-

tramuscular injection. Horses are particularly sensitive to components

of parenteral preparations. Oil-based formulations or unbuffered solu-

tions or suspensions may cause irritation and tissue damage at the site

of injection. Ruminal boluses that provide continuous or pulsatile re-

xi


lease of a drug over a prolonged period have been developed for use in

cattle and sheep for the delivery of anthelmintics and trace elements.

There is wide variation in drug absorption and metabolism among these

species. Absorption from the gastro-intestinal tract in ruminant species

is influenced by the volume and pH of the ruminal contents and whether

the drug is subject to metabolism by ruminal microorganisms. Pigs are

monogastric animals and absorption takes place mainly from the small

intestine.

In horses, an orally administered drug may be partly absorbed from the

small intestine with further absorption occurring 8 to 12 hours later

from the large intestine. Absorption of some drugs administered in the

feed or after feeding can be delayed for several hours because unab-

sorbed drug may be conveyed to the large intestine where further ab-

sorption takes place.

Drugs that are extensively metabolised by hepatic microsomal oxidative

reactions are, in general, metabolised more rapidly in ruminant animals

and horses than in pigs. Phenylbutazone is a notable exception in that

the half-life of this drug in cattle is many times longer than in horses.

The dose of xylazine administered to cattle is one-fifth of that used in

horses. The half-life of some drugs that are eliminated mainly by he-

patic metabolism is shorter, by about 2-fold, in goats than in sheep. In

pigs, the defect in sulphate conjugation is compensated for by alterna-

tive metabolic pathways such as glucuronide synthesis.

xii


Orally administered penicillins or broad-spectrum antimicrobials may

disturb bacterial fermentation in the caecum and colon in adult horses,

and in the rumen in animals with a functional rumen resulting in severe

digestive disturbances or drug inactivation. Following oral antibacterial

administration in ruminants, the ruminal microflora should be re-estab-

lished by cud transfer or administration of a proprietary preparation. An

alternative is to ensure that drugs are delivered directly into the aboma-

sum via the oesophageal groove mechanism. This can be achieved by

adding the medicant to the milk of pre-weaned ruminants. In adult

sheep, prior administration of copper sulphate produces groove closure.

In cattle, oral administration of 60 ml of sodium bicarbonate 10% is ef-

fective in achieving groove closure. Oesophageal groove closure may

however be counterproductive. Spontaneous closure in some individu-

als given oral benzimidazoles can result in a proportion of the drug be-

ing transferred into the abomasum, thus reducing the efficacy of the

drug.

Tetracyclines may cause severe enterocolitis in horses exposed to stress.

In cattle, rapid intravenous injection of tetracyclines may cause cardio-

vascular collaps due to chelation of calcium in heart muscle, with con-

sequent vasodilatation and myocardial depression. With the exception

of oral administration of erythromycin estolate in conjunction with ri-

fampicin for the treatment of pneumonia caused by Rhodococcus equi

in foals, the use of lincosamide and macrolide antibacterials should be

avoided in horses.

xiii


Phenothiazines such as acepromazine should be used with caution in

male horses because these drugs may cause paralysis of the retractor pe-

nis muscle. The hypotensive effect of acepromazine makes its use in

horses with colic questionable. Acepromazine causes reduction in

packed cell volume, which is attributed to splenic sequestration of red

blood cells. This may lead to misinterpretation of laboratory diagnostic

data.

Prescribing for Dogs and Cats

Although the absorption and excretion of many drugs are similar in

dogs and cats, there are aspects of drug metabolism in which the species

differ markedly. These factors should be taken into account when pre-

scribing for dogs and cats. Ideally both dogs and cats should be weighed

before being medicated.

Drug absorption from the gastro-intestinal tract and from parenteral in-

jection sites is related to drug formulation, and is generally similar in

dogs and cats. While drug formulation and feeding in conjunction with

oral dosing may cause variation in bioavailability, incomplete systemic

availability can also be attributed to the physicochemical properties of

the drug and the 'first-pass' effect. The rate of drug absorption from the

gastro-intestinal tract is determined by the rate of gastric emptying be-

cause the small intestine is the principal site of drug absorption. The

rate of percutaneous absorption of highly lipid-soluble drugs may be

more rapid in cats.

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Renal excretion of drugs is similar in dogs and cats. Drugs that are

eliminated unchanged in the urine may be administered at the same

dose per kilogram body-weight for both species.

There are many dog breeds and, as a general rule, for larger breeds cal-

culation of the total dose should be based at the lower end of the recom-

mended range. In dogs, the acetylation process for aromatic amines

such as sulphonamides is absent. This does not decrease the overall rate

of drug elimination because alternative metabolic pathways compen-

sate; acidic urine favours sulphonamide reabsorption and increase half-

life. NSAIDs such as aspirin and flunixin may cause gastric ulceration,

particularly at high doses. These are potent drugs and patients may

show individual susceptibilities to toxic effects. Tetracycline antibacte-

rials may cause staining of the teeth in offspring if given in pregnancy.

A similar effect may occur if tetracyclines are administered to puppies.

Sulphonamides and sulphasalazine, administered systemically, may

cause keratoconjunctivitis sicca and potentiated sulphonamides may

cause an immune-mediated polyarthritis particularly in Dobermanns.

Phenothiazines such as acepromazine should be used with caution in

brachycephalic breeds because spontaneous fainting may be precipi-

tated. The unusual sensitivity of the blood-brain barrier, the release of

gamma-aminobutyric acid in the CNS, or both. Barbiturates such as

thiopentone may have prolonged action in coursing hounds due to lim-

ited redistribution of the drug into fatty tissue or decreased plasma-pro-

tein binding.

xv


There are specific problems related to drug use in cats. The cat has a

relative deficiency in hepatic microsomal glucuronyl transferase activity

and therefore drugs that are metabolised by this pathway will usually be

eliminated at a slower rate. Organophosphorus compounds, aspirin,

chloramphenicol, paracetamol, phenytoin, and griseofulvin may be

toxic unless the appropriate dosage regimen is applied and should be

used with caution. Antiseptics and disinfectants such as iodine and its

derivatives, benzyl benzoate, and phenols and cresol and particularly

toxic to cats due to increased drug ingestion because of the animals

grooming habits together with slow drug metabolism. Opioid analgesics

including morphine, butorphanol, pethidine, and pethidine derivatives

such as diphenoxylate hydrochloride may cause violent excitatory activ-

ity with overdose. Phenothiazine such as acepromazine may cause para-

doxical excitement in some cats. Xylazine may cause emesis in dogs

and cats and may be used therapeutically for this purpose. High dose of

aminoglycoside antibacterials such as gentamicin, streptomycin, and

neomycin are particularly toxic in cats, causing ototoxicity, nephrotoxi-

city, or both.

xvi


Prescribing for Birds

Poultry

Poultry are farmed domestic birds, which include chickens, ducks,

geese, and turkeys. Preparations that are licensed for poultry may not be

suitable or safe for use in all species.

When investigating a disease problem, management procedures should

be examined before medicating the flock. An undesirable environment

can nullify the benefits of medication, may be the cause of illness, and

should be corrected at the same time as instigating any medication. In

some circumstances it may be more economical to slaughter the flock

earlier than planned because the cost of treatment would be excessive.

Administration of drugs in the drinking water is usually preferable be-

cause domestic poultry will drink when they will not eat. However,

fluid intake by the birds may vary due to the weather, to the ease of ac -

cess or hygiene of drinking water dispensers ('drinkers'), or to the un-

palatability of the medicated water. Care must be taken that the medica-

tion does not block the water system. Hygiene problems may arise as a

result of poor mixing and preparation, or from fungal proliferation with

some dextrose carriers. Drinker lines should be sanitised before drug in-

corporation, and should be cleaned regularly as part of the routine ter-

minal house disinfection.

xvii


Alternatively, the feed may be medicated. This is convenient for the

farmer but it may take time getting feed mixed at the mill and mills may

find making special mixes uneconomical. Absorption of the drug may

be unpredictable because of binding to feed ingredients. Some birds

may have a reduced feed intake and may require adjustment of the drug

concentration in their feed.

Treatment by injection is the most predictable method of drug adminis-

tration but is only practicable where there are sufficient staffs available

and the birds are of high monetary value. Intramuscular injection is

usually given into thigh or breast muscle in adult birds. Intramuscular

vaccinations are given into the thigh or neck muscle in day-old chicks.

Aseptic procedures must be strictly adhered to.

Many antibacterials are licensed for use in poultry for the treatment of

enteric and respiratory disease. Coccidiosis, mainly caused by Eimeria

spp., is a common infection in poultry flocks and medication is usually

administered prophylactically to control the disease. Erythromycin and

sulphonamides have also been reported to cause toxic effects when ad-

ministered with monensin. Some drugs, such as clopidol, should not be

used in layer hens because of possible drug residues in eggs intended

for human consumption.

Infection with gapeworm, Syngamus trachea, and intestinal nematodes

such as Capillaria, Heterakis, and Ascaridia may be treated with li-

censed preparations including fenbendazole, flubendazole, and meben-

xviii


dazole. Lice, mites, and fleas may affect poultry and preparations li-

censed for treatment include cypermethrin .

Prescribing for Fish

Fish are farmed as food-producing animals and also kept by enthusiasts

as a hobby. Species kept by enthusiasts may be divided into cold-water

and tropical fish. Cold-water fish kept include goldfish in aquaria, Japa-

nese koi carp inn ponds, and occasionally temperate marine fish caught

off the coast. Tropical fish may be fresh water or marine.

Preventive medicine is extremely important for fish health. Fish live in

a 'bacterial soup' and poor water quality or frank infection may quickly

lead to an acute cascade of disease within a cage, pond, or tank. Mainte-

nance of good water quality, adequate feeding but not overfeeding, long

quarantine, and generous stocking densities will aid the production and

maintenance of healthy fish.

Bacterial Infections

The majority of bacterial infections affecting fish are caused by Gram-

negative organisms such as Aeromonas, Vibrio, and Pseudomonas Spp.,

which cause furunculosis, septicaemia, and ulcer disease. Yersinia ruck-

eri infection causes enteric redmouth disease. Bacteria resistance to an-

tibacterials is becoming a common problem in the fish industry. Vac-

cines are available for the control of some fish diseases.

xix


Farmed Fish

Antibacterials are usually formulated as in feed medications for farmed

fish. The drugs are combined with food by admixture with fish oil, corn

oil, or gelatin, or dusted onto the pelleted feed. Fish should be starved

for 12 to 24 hours before treatment because in-feed medication may be

unpalatable. Adequate oxygenation should always be provided in treat-

ment tanks.

Antibacterial preparations that are licensed for use in fish include

amoxycillin, co-trimazene, oxolinic acid, and oxytetracycline. The

usual treatment course is 7 to 10 days.

When administering antibacterial to farmed fish, the appropriate with-

drawal periods must be observed. Fish are poikilothermic and their

basal metabolic rate varies with water temperature. Therefore with-

drawal periods, stated in degree days, vary with ambient water tempera-

ture. For example 400 degree day is 20 days at a water temperature of

20o C or 40 days at 10 o C. The standard withdrawal period for fish is

500 o days unless otherwise stated by the manufacturer.

In general, treatment with in-water antibacterials or methylene blue

should not be carried out in tanks with biological filters. Although

some drugs are claimed not to disturb biological filters, may do so ac-

cording to the dose used. It is preferable to administer the treatment in a

quarantine tank without filtration but with appropriate monitoring of

water quality or water changes.

xx


Amoxycillin Trihydrate

Indications. Amoxycillin-sensitive infections

Dose. Fish: by addition to feed, 40-80 mg/kg body-weight daily

Withdrawal Periods. Fish: slaughter 50odays

Co-trimazine

Preparations of trimethoprim 1 part and sulphadiazine 5 parts

Indication. Co-trimazine-sensitive Infections

Dose. Expressed as trimethoprim + sulphadiazine

Fish: by addition to feed, 30 mg/kg body weight dailyWithdrawal Periods. Fish: slaughter 400o days

Oxytetracycline

Indication. Oxytetracycline-sensitive infections

Warning. Chelated hard water (not applicable for in-feed medication)

Dose. Fish: by addition to feed, 75 mg/kg body-weight daily

Withdrawal Periods. Fish: slaughter 4000 days

Parasitic and fungal infections

Parasitic and fungal infections affecting farmed and ornamental fish are

usually treated by in-water medication. The common protozoa infec-

tions include white spot caused by Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, slime

disease due to Chilodonella, Costia (Ichthyobodo), and Trichodina, vel-

xxi


vet disease caused by Oodinium spp., and fin rot caused by traumatic

injury and secondary Epistylis infection. Other ectoparasites causing le-

sions include flukes such as Gyrodactylus, which attach onto the skin

and Dactylogyrus, which affect the gills, and the anchor worm Lernaea.

The nematode Camallanus may infect freshwater topical fish. Saproleg-

nia is a common fungal infection in fish; it is usually a secondary infec-

tion.

Fish should be starved before any topical treatment because this reduces

the metabolic rate of the fish and the organic loading of water from food

and faeces, which increases the oxygen demand. Initially only a few

fish in a group, as a representative sample, should be treated. After ob-

serving these fish for good recovery over a few hours, the remaining

fish can be treated similarly. Adequate oxygenation should always be

provided in treatment tanks. Temporary treatment tanks may not be

available for topical fish and capture and handling may be excessively

stressful. Therefore when treating ornamental fish, treatment should al-

ways begin at the lower end of a dose range, increasing as necessary.

When treating small fish or fish in soft water use low doses.

Chemicals or drugs are added to the water, which is used as a bath, a

flush, or a dip. To prepare a bath, a low concentration of drug is added

to the water and the fish are placed in the solution for 30 to 60 minutes,

or longer for prolonged immersion. When given as a flush, a higher

concentration of drug is added to the water which is then flushed

through with fresh incoming water. This usually means the fish remain

xxii


in contact with the drug for 15 to 20 minutes. In a dip, a very concen-

trated solution of the drug is prepared and fish are netted into the solu-

tion for 30 to 60 seconds and then replaced in their original tank.

The organophosphorus pesticide dichlorovos is used for the treatment

of salmon infected by the sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Cali-

gus elongatus, before the stage at which serious skin damage is evident.

Vigorous water aeration should be provided when using this drug.

Gasping and rolling are signs of toxicity and asphyxiation of the fish.

Goldsinney wrasse have been used, as an alternative to chemical treat-

ment, to control sea louse infection on salmon.

Dichlorvos

Indications. Sea lice infestation

Warnings. Care with concurrent treatment with co-trimazine

Withdrawal period. Fish: by bath, 2 mg/litre for 30-60 minutes

Formaldehyde is a general ectoparsiticide and is also used for fluke

infections due to Gyrodactylus and resistant Chilodonella infections.

The dose of formaldehyde should be adjusted according to the pH; low

doses should be used at low pH and higher doses used at high pH.

Iodine compounds are used for disinfection of fish eggs and also for

direct application to lesions. These compounds are toxic to newly

hatched fish. Benzalkonium chloride is used as a general antibacterial.

xxiii


It acts as a surfactant, removing excess mucus and slime containing par-

asites and bacteria from the fish. Benzalkonium tends to be more toxic

in soft water and lower doses should then be used. It is less toxic in hard

water.

Copper sulphate is used for velvet disease but is potentially toxic in

fresh water. It is inadvisable to use this compound where other treat-

ments are available. The dose of copper in fresh water depend on the

water hardness. It should be used with caution if the calcium carbonates

level in the water is less than 50 mg/litre such as in soft water.

Potassium permanganate is toxic in water of high pH because man-

ganese dioxide may precipitate onto the gills. Potassium permanganate

acts by liberating oxygen and has been used in situation of intensive

fish stocking in earth ponds where emergency aeration in need. This ox-

idizing effect is potentially dangerous and use of this chemical should

be restricted to specialists.

Benzalkonium chloride

Indication. External bacterial infections, in particular bacterial gill

disease; disinfection

Warning. Toxicity is increased in soft water; appropriate blend of

chain lengths is important

Dose. By bath, 10 mg/litre for 5-10 minutes, 5 mg/litre for 30 minute,

2 mg/litre for 60 minute, 1 mg/litre for several hours.

xxiv


By prolonged immersion, 0.1-0.5 mg/litre have been used in domestic

ponds

Iodine compounds

Indications. Disinfection of fish eggs; cleaning wounds

Warnings. Toxic to unfertilised ova and live fish

Dose. Eggs: by bath, 10 ml/litre for 10 minutes. Rinse ova thoroughly

in clean water

Potassium permanganate

Indications. Ectoparasitic and fungal infections, emergency oxygena-

tion

Warning. See notes above

Dose. Treatment. By bath, 5 mg/litre for 1 hour. By dip, 10 mg/litre for

10-40 seconds

Emergency aeration. By permanent bath, 2 mg/litre or 3-4 mg/litre if a

high organic load present

Sodium chloride

Indications. Fungal and ectoparasitic infections in freshwater fish; os-

motic support for stressed or diseased freshwater fish

Dose. By bath, 10-15 g /litre for 20 minute

xxv


1.Anti-infective

1.1.Antibacterial Drugs

1.1.1.Penicillins

1.1.1.1. Narrow-Spectrum penicillins

1.1.1.2. Beta-lactamase resistant penicillins

1.1.1.3. Broad-spectrum penicillins

General Properties

Penicillins are poorly soluble, weak organic acids that are administered

parenterally either as suspensions in water or oil, or as water-soluble

salts. The trihydrate forms of the semisynthetic penicillins have greater

aqueous solubility than the parent compounds and are usually preferred

for both parenteral and oral use. The penicillins are somewhat unstable,

being sensitive to heat, light, extremes in pH, heavy metals, and oxidiz-

ing and reducing agents. Also, they often deteriorate in aqueous solu-

tion and thus require reconstitution with diluents just before injection.

Penicillins contain a β-lactam nucleus that when cleaved by a β-lac-

tamase enzyme (penicillinase) produces penicilloic acid derivatives

that are inactive but which may act as the antigenic determinants

for penicillin hypersensitivity. β-Lactamases are produced by gram-

positive organisms (Staphylococcus aureus, S epidermidis), and five

of the six types of β-lactamases are produced by gram-negative or-

ganisms.

1


Antibacterial Spectra

Penicillin G and its oral congeners (eg, penicillin V) are active against

both aerobic and anaerobic gram-positive bacteria and, with a few ex-

ceptions (Haemophilus and Neisseria spp and strains of Bacteroides

other than B fragilis), are inactive against gram-negative organisms at

usual concentrations. Organisms usually sensitive in vitro to penicillin

G include streptococci, penicillin-sensitive staphylococci, Corynebac-

terium pyogenes , Clostridium spp , Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae , Acti-

nomyces ovis , Leptospira canicola , Bacillus anthracis , Fusiformis no-

dosus , and Nocardia spp .

The semisynthetic β-lactam–resistance penicillins, such as oxacillin,

cloxacillin, floxacillin and nafcillin, have spectra similar to those noted

but also include many of the β-lactam – producing strain of staphylo-

cocci (especially S. aureus and S. epidermidis).

Side-effects and Toxicity

Organ toxicity is rare. Hypersensitivity reactions do occur (particularly

in cattle) skin reactions, angioedema, drug fever, serum sickness, vas-

culitis, eosinophilia, and anaphylaxis are common manifestations.

Cross-sensitivity between penicillins is well recognized. Intrathecal ad-

ministration may result in convulsions. Potassium penicillin G should

be administered intravenously with some caution, especially if hyper-

kalemia is present. The sodium salt of penicillin G may also contribute

to the sodium load in congestive heart failure.

2


Drug interactions

Displacement of penicillins from plasma-protein binding sites and de-

layed tubular secretion occurs when drugs such as salicylates,

phenylbutazone, sulfonamides, and other weak acids are administered

concurrently. Gut-active penicillins potentiate the action of anticoagu-

lants by depressing vitamin K production by gut flora. Absorption of

ampicilin is impaired by the presence of food. Ampicillin and penicilin

G are incompatible with many other drugs and solutions and should not

be mixed.

1.1.1.1. Narrow-spectrum penicillins

This group includes naturally occurring penicillin G (benzyl penicillin)

in its various forms and a few biosynthetic acid-stable penicillins in-

tended for oral use (penicillin V). Penicillins in this class are active

against many gram-positive and a limited number of gram-negative bac-

teria, but they are susceptiable to β-lactamase (penicillinase) hydrolysis.

Benzylpenicillin, also known as penicillin G, was the first of the peni-

cillins, and remains an important and useful antibacterial. Benzyl peni-

cillin is inactivated by gastric acid and so not administered oral. It is

available as a range of salts that differ in their solubility and hence their

duration of action.

Procaine Penicillin is slightly soluble. Following parentral adminis-

tration, it forms “depot” which slowly releases free benzyl penicillin

3


into the circulation, maintaining effective concentration against the

more susceptible microorganisms for up to 24 hours.

Benzathine Penicillin is a very slightly soluble salt, which has a pro-

longed action after intramuscular injection although plasma concentra-

tions produced are low.

Benzylpenicillin (Penicillin G)

Powder for injection, 4,800 IU

Indications. Penicillin G is indicated in the treatment of blackleg

caused by susceptible organisms such as Clostridium chauvoei in cattle

and sheep. It is also used in Erysipela infections caused by

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathia, (insidiosa) in pigs. Bacterial rhinitis or

pharyngitis caused by susceptible organisms such as Actinomyces pyo-

genes. Bacterial pneumonia caused by susceptible organisms in cattle,

sheep. Actinomycosis, septic arthritis caused by susceptible bacteria in

cattle, horses, pigs, and sheep. Leptospirosis in cattle, dogs, horses,

and pigs. Used in malignant edema caused by susceptible Clostridium

septicum in cattle. Metritis caused by susceptible organisms in cattle,

horses, pigs, and sheep. Pyelonephritis caused by susceptible organ-

isms such as Corynebacterium renale in cattle. Skin and soft tissue in-

fections caused by susceptible organisms, including those associated

with calf diphtheria, foot rot, the umbilicus, and wounds. Clostridium

4


tetani in cats, cattle, dogs, horses, and pigs in conjunction with tetanus

antitoxin and supportive therapy.

Contraindication.Penicillin hypersensitivity; should not be adminis-

tered by intrathecal injection

Side- effects. Drug interactions. See notes under section 1.1.1

Warning. Occasional skin sensitization in operator

Dose. Cattle: by intramuscular injection, 12, 500-25,000 units/kg

Cats and dogs: Intravenous or intramuscular, 20,000 to 40,000 unit/

kg every six to eight hours. Horses: Intravenous or intramuscular,

20,000 units /kg every six to eight hours.

Withdrawal period. Cattle: discontinue use at least 5 days before

slaughtering for human use. Milk is normally withheld from human use

during intramammary treatment

Storage. Prior to reconstitution, store below 40 ºC (104 °F), preferably

between 15 and 30 °C (59 and 86 °F), unless otherwise specified by

manufacturer.

Procaine Penicillin G (Procaine Benzylpenicillin)

Injection, 300,000 IU/ml, 4,000,000 IU/ml

Intra-mammary suspension, 300,000 IU/ml

Indications. Contraindications. Side-effects. Warnings.Drug

interactions. See notes under section 1.1.1 and under benzylpeni-

cillin.

5


Dose. Cats and dogs: by Intramuscular injection, 20,000 to 40,000

units /kg every twelve to twenty-four hours. Cattle, pigs, sheep: by In-

tramuscular injection, 24,000 to 66,000 units/kg every twenty-four

hours

Horses: by Intramuscular injection, 20,000 units /kg every twelve to

twenty-four hours

Note: Penicillin G procaine should not be administered subcutaneously at high

doses because doing so produces significant local inflammation and hemor-

rhage, as well as medication deposits that can contribute to residue problems.

The maximum dose per injection site of penicillin G procaine should be

3,000,000 Units (10 mL); injection sites should be different for each succeed-

ing treatment. Penicillin G procaine should never be administered intra-

venously.

Withdrawal periods. Cattle: slaughter 4 days, milk 3 days. Sheep:

slaughter 8 days. Calves: slaughter 7 days. Pigs: slaughter 5 days

Storage. Store between 2 and 8 °C (36 and 46 °F). Protect from freez-

ing.

Bezanthine Penicillin G and Procaine Penicillin G

Injection, 150,000IU +150,000IU/ml, 200,000IU+112,500IU/ml,

112,500IU +150,000IU/ml

Indications.Contraindication.Side-effects.Drug-interactions.

See notes under section 1.1.1 and under benzylpenicillin

Dose. Expresses for a suspension containing benzathine penicillin

150,000 IU + 150,000IU/ml

6


Horse, cattle, sheep, goat, pigs: by intramuscular injection, 0.04 ml/

kg, repeat after 3-4 days

Dogs, cats: by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, 0.1 ml/kg re-

peat after 3-4 days


slaughter 14 days. Pigs: slaughter 10 days

Storage. Store between 2 and 8 °C (36 and 46 ºF). Protect from freez-

ing.

1.1.1.2. Beta-lactamase Resistant Penicillins

This group, through substitution on the penicillin nucleus (6-aminopeni-

cillanic acid [6-APA]), is refractory to a greater or lesser degree to the

effects of various β-lactamase enzymes produced by resistant gram-pos-

itive organisms, particularly Staphylococcus aureus. However, peni-

cillins in this class are not as active against many gram-positive bacteria

as penicillin G and are inactive against almost all gram-negative bacte-

ria. Acid-stable members of this group (that are used per oral) include

oxacillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, and flucloxacillin.

Cloxacillin

Intra-mammary Suspension, 500mg/dose, 625mg/dose

7


Indications. Bovine mastitis in lactating cows due to Streptococcus

agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus

Contraindication. Not recommended for food producing animals,

penicillin hypersensitivity reaction

Side-effects. See notes under section 1.1.1 and under benzylpenicillin

Dose. By intramammary infusion, at last milking of lactation, milk out

cow, Infuse 1 syringe into each quarter every 12 hours for a total of

three doses

Cloxacillin Benzathine

Intra -mammary Suspension, 200mg/dose

Eye ointment, 835mg/5g

Indication. Bacterial eye infections, bovine mastitis in dry cow due to

Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus

Contraindications. Side-effects. See notes under section 1.1.1 and

under benzylpenicillin

Dose.Cattle: by intramammary infusion, at last milking of lactation,

milk out cow, infuse 1 syringe into each quarter

Sheep: by intramammary infusion, one doses per udder half at weaning

Eye ointment, for cattle, horses, sheep, dogs, cats: apply as a single

dose; repeat after 2-3 days if required

Withdrawal period. Intramammary suspension, cattle: slaughter 7

days, milk 2.5 days.

8


Flucloxacillin

Capsule (as sodium salt) 250mg, 500mg

Oral Solution, 25mg/ml

Indication. Penicillin resistant staphylococci

Contraindications. Side-effects. See notes under section 1.1.1 and


Dose. Dogs, cats: 15 mg/kg four times daily

1.1.1.3. Broad-spectrum Penicillins

Penicillins in this class are derived semisynthetically and are active

against many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. However, they

are readily destroyed by the β-lactamase (produced by many bacteria).

Many members of the group are acid stable and are administered per

oral or parentrally. Of those used in veterinary medicine, ampicillin and

amoxicillin are the best known.


They have activity against penicillin-sensitive gram-positive bacteria as

well as some gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin is effective against al-

pha- and beta-hemolytic streptococci, including Streptococcus equi,

non–penicillinase-producing Staphylococcus species, some Bacillus an-

thracis, and most strains of Clostridia. Ampicillin is also effective

9


against gram-negative bacteria, including many strains of Escherichia

coli (E. coli), Salmonella, and Pasteurella multocida.

Amoxicillin has the same spectrum of activity as ampicillin, but has

slightly better activity against some gram-negative bacteria, including

E. coli, and Salmonella species. Most anaerobic bacteria, except beta-

lactamase-producing strains of Bacteroides, are sensitive to amoxicillin.

The broad-spectrum penicillins are subject to destruction by beta-lacta-

mases and therefore are not effective against some bacteria that produce

these enzymes. Most strains of Klebsiella, Proteus, and Pseudomonas

are resistant.

Clavulanic acid has no significant antibacterial activity, but is a potent

beta-lactamase inhibitor. Therefore it's inclusion in the preparations of

amoxicillin renders the combination active against most strains of

Staph. aureus, some E.coli spp., as well as Bacteroides and Klebsilla

spp.

Side-effects

All species; hypersensitivity reactions, specifically acute anaphylaxis.

Calves; diarrhea and malabsorption. Horses; diarrhea, injection site re-

action (mild to moderate heat, pain, or swelling) with ampicillin trihy-

drate. Cats and dogs; anorexia, diarrhea, vomiting.

10


Amoxicillin

Powder, 0.1%, 0.15%, 0.2%, 0.5%, 20%, 70%, 75%

Tablet, 200mg, 400mg

Injection, 100mg/ml, 150mg/ml

Oral Suspension, 5%, 10%, 15%

Ointment, 40mg/5g

Indications. Parenteral amoxicillin is indicated in the treatment of

acute necrotic pododermatitis caused by susceptible Fusobacterium

necrophorum. Amoxicillin is also indicated in the treatment of bacterial

gastrointestinal tract infections, genitourinary tract infections, including

cystitis and urethritis, pneumonia caused by susceptible organisms in

cats and dogs; tonsillitis, tracheobronchitis, and upper respiratory tract

infections caused by susceptible organisms and soft tissue infections

and wounds caused by susceptible organisms

Contraindications. Side-effects. See notes under section 1.1.1.3 and

under benzyl penicillin

Dose. Oral suspension, tablet: cats and dogs: oral, 10 to 22 mg /kg ev-

ery eight, twelve, or twenty-four hours

Note: Although the efficacy has not been established, amoxicillin is used in the

treatment of leptospirosis in dogs at an intravenous or oral dose of 22 mg per

kg of body weight every six to eight hours.

Injectable suspension, cats and dogs: Intramuscular or subcutaneous,

11 to 22 mg/kg every eight, twelve, or twenty-four hours.

Cattle: Intramuscular or subcutaneous, 6.6 to 22 mg /kg every eight,

twelve, or twenty-four hours.

11


Withdrawal periods. Calves: slaughter 10 days. Sheep: slaughter

21days. Pigs: slaughter 21 days. Cattle: slaughter 21 days, milk 7 days.

Poultry: slaughter 1 days, should not be used in layer hens

Storage. Store below 40 ºC (104 ºF), preferably between 15 and 30 ºC

(59 and 86 ºF), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer.

Ampicillin

Injection, 150mg/ml, 200mg/ml, 300mg/ml

Powder, 10%, 20%, 75%

Capsule, 250mg

Tablet, 50mg, 125mg, 500mg

Indications. Parenteral ampicillin is indicated for the treatment of res-

piratory tract infections caused by susceptible organisms, including

some bacterial pneumonias associated with shipping fever complex in

calves. Parenteral ampicillin may be used in the treatment of strangles

caused by susceptible Streptococcus equi.

Contraindication. Side-effect. See notes under section 1.1.1.3 and

under benzyl penicillin

Dose. Ampicillin capsules; cats: oral, 10 to 20 mg / kg every eight to

twenty four hours.

Dogs: oral, 20 to 40 mg / kg every eight to twelve hours.

Ampicillin for injectable suspension; cats: Intramuscular or subcuta-

neous, 10 to 20 mg /kg every twelve to twenty-four hours.

12


Dogs: Intramuscular or subcutaneous, 10 to 50 mg/kg every twelve

hours.

Cattle and calves, including non-ruminating calves: Intramuscular,

4.4 to 11 mg /kg every twenty-four hours.

Horses: Intramuscular or intravenous, 10 to 20 mg (free acid) / kg ev-

ery six to eight hours


(59 and 86 ºF), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer

Withdrawal periods. Calves: slaughter 14 days. Sheep: slaughter

21days. Pigs: slaughter 28 days. Cattle: slaughter 21 days, milk 1 day

Amoxycillin and Clavulanic acid

Tablet, 40mg+10mg

Injection, 140mg+35mg/ml

Indication.Amoxicillin-sensitive infections including beta-lactamase-

producing microorganisms

Contraindications.Side-effects. See notes under section 1.1.1.3 and


Dose. Expressed as amoxycillin

Cattles: by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, 7 mg/kg daily

Calves: oral, 5-10 mg/kg twice daily

Dogs, cats: oral, 10-20 mg/kg twice daily: by subcutaneous or intra-

muscular injection, 7 mg/kg

Withdrawal periods. Calves: slaughter 4 days. Cattle: slaughter 14

days, milk 1 day

13


Ampicillin and Cloxacillin

Intra-mammary suspension, 75 mg + 200 mg/dose, 300 mg + 600 mg/

dose,

Injection, 1 g + 1 g /100 ml, 1.5 g + 1.5 g/100 ml

9.5 g + 4.8 g/100 ml

Indications.Contraindications.Side-effects. See notes under sec-

tion 1.1.1.3 and under benzylpenicillin

Ampicillin and Cloxacillin Benzathine

Intra-mammary suspensions 250 mg + 500 mg/dose, 200 mg +

500 mg/dose, 300 mg + 600 mg/dose

Indications. Bovine mastitis

Contraindications. Not to be used in lactating cows. Do not use

within 45 days of calving. Do not use in cows known to be hypersensi-

tive to the active ingredients.

Side-effects. See notes under section 1.1.1.3 and under benzylpeni-

cillin

Storage. Do not store above 250c

Ampicillin and Dicloxacillin

Intra-mammary suspensions, 190mg +190mg/dose

14


Indications. Contraindications. Side-effects. See notes under sec-

tion 1.1.1.3

1.1.2. Other Antibacterials

1.1.2.1.Cephalosporins

General Properties

The physical and chemical properties of the cephalosporins are similar

to those of the penicillins, although the cephalosporins are somewhat

more stable to pH and temperature changes. They are used either as the

free base form for oral administration (if acid stable) or as sodium salts

in aqueous solution for parenteral delivery. Cephalosporins also contain

a β-lactam nucleus that is susceptible to β-lactamase (cephalosporinase)

hydrolysis.

The cephalosporins are similar to the penicillins in several respects and

also share many pharmacologic features as a group.

Classes

The early cephalosporins differed mainly with respect to pharmacoki-

netic characteristics; the newer generations have much broader ranges

of activity, and the modern classification of the group is based mainly

on antibacterial spectra.

First-generation Cephalosporins

15


This group includes cephalothin, cephaloridine, cephapirin, cefazolin,

cephalexin, cephradine, and cefadroxil. Cephalosporins in this group are

usually quite active against many gram-positive bacteria but are only

moderately active against gram-negative organisms. They are relatively

susceptible to β-lactamases (cephalosporinases) and are not as effective

against anaerobes as are the penicillins.

Second-generation Cephalosporins

This group includes cefamandole, cefoxitin (a cephamycin), cefotiam,

cefachlor, cefuroxime, and ceforanide. These agents are generally active

against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Moreover, they

are relatively resistant to β-lactamase. They are ineffective against ente-

rococci, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Actinobacter spp, and many obligate

anaerobes.

Third-generation Cephalosporins

This group includes ceftiofur, ceftriaxone, cefsulodin, cefotaxime, cef-

operazone, moxalactam (not a true cephalosporin), and several others.

Typically, these have only moderate activity against gram-positive bac-

teria but are active against a wide variety of gram-negative bacteria, in-

cluding in certain instances Pseudomonas spp, Proteus vulgaris, Enter-

obacter spp, and Citrobacter spp. They are usually highly resistant to β-

lactamase enzymes. Third-generation cephalosporins are often able to

penetrate the blood-brain barrier and are frequently indicated in bacte-

rial meningitis caused by susceptible pathogens. Ceftiofur has been

16


specifically approved for use in cattle with bronchopneumonia, espe-

cially if caused by Pasteurella haemolytica or P. multocida .

Side-effects

The cephalosporins are relatively nontoxic. Although they may be

nephrotoxic in some species . Intramuscular injections can be painful,

and repeated intravenous administration may lead to local phlebitis.

Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may occasionally occur. Hypersensitiv-

ity reactions of several forms have been seen, particularly in animals

with a history of acute penicillin allergy. Superinfection may arise with

the use of cephalosporins, and Pseudomonas or Candida spp are likely

opportunistic pathogens. These drugs should be used with caution in an-

imals with renal disease. Chronic administration may lead to anemia in

cats.

Drug-interactions

Potential pharmacokinetic interactions are similar to those of the peni-

cillin group. Aminoglycosides may enhance cephalosporin nephrotoxic-

ity, but there is some doubt about this particular interaction. Furosemide

and ethacrynic acid, however, do appear to potentiate the nephrotoxic

action of cephalosporin.

Cephapirin

Intrammary suspension, 0.261 g/dose, 0.39 g/dose

Indication. For lactating cow only. For bovine mastitis

17


Side-effects. See notes above

Contraindications. Hypersensitivity to cephlosporins or penicillins

Dose. By intramammary infusion, at last milking of lactation, milk out

cow, Infuse 1 syringe into each quarter every 12 hours

Drug interactions. See notes under section 1.1.2.1

Strorage. Store at room temperature; avoid excessive heat

Cephalexin

Powder for injection, 18 %

Indications. Side -effects. See notes above

Contraindications. See notes under section 1.1.2.1 and

under cephapirin

Warning. Reduce dose in renal impairment


Dose. Cattle: by intramuscular injection, 7 mg/kg once daily

Sheep, pigs: by intramuscular injection, 10mg/kg once daily

Dogs, cats: by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection, 10 mg/kg once

daily

Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 4 days, milk withdrawal pe-

riod nil. Sheep: slaughter 3 days. Pigs: slaughter 3 days

Storage. Store below 40 C (104 F), preferably between 15 and 30 C

(59 and 86 F), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer. Store in a

tight container.

18


1.1.2.2. Tetracyclines

General Properties

The tetracyclines are stable as dry powders but not in aqueous solution,

particularly at higher pH ranges (7-8.5). Tetracyclines form poorly solu-

ble chelates with bivalent and trivalent cations, particularly calcium,

magnesium, aluminum, and iron.

Doxycycline is more lipophilic than the older tetracyclines and has a

number of advantages. Absorption of orally administered doxycycline is

better and is less affected by milk and calcium salts. Doxycycline also

penetrates better into several body compartment, notably the brain and

cerebrospinal fluid .It enters the gastrointestinal tract through the bile

and is particularly liable to produce enterocolitis in the horse.

19


Antimicrobial Spectra

All tetracyclines are about equally active and typically have about

the same broad spectrum, which comprises both aerobic and anaer-

obic gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, mycoplasmas, rick-

ettsiae, chlamydiae, and even some protozoa (amebae). Strains of

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus, Serratia, Klebsiella, and

Corynebacterium spp frequently are resistant, as are many patho-

genic E coli isolates. Even though there is general cross-resistance

among tetracyclines and doxycycline usually are more effective

against staphylococci.

Therapeutic Indication

The tetracyclines are used to treat both systemic and local infections.

General organ infections include bronchopneumonia, bacterial enteritis,

urinary tract infections, cholangitis, metritis, mastitis, prostatitis, and

pyodermatitis. Specific conditions include infectious keratoconjunctivi-

tis in cattle (pinkeye), chlamydiosis, heartwater, anaplasmosis, actino-

mycosis ehrlichiosis, nocardiosis,actinobacillosis,(especially doxycy-

cline), eperythrozoonosis, and haemobartonellosis. Doxycycline is often

effective to a somewhat lesser degree against resistant strains of Staphy-

lococcus aureus.

In addition to antimicrboal chemotherpy, the tetracyclines are used for

other purpose. As additive in animal feeds, they serve as growth pro-

20


moters. Because of the affinity of tetracyclines for bones, teeth, and

necrotic tissue, they can be used to delineate tumors by florescence.


Because several diverse effects may result from the administration

of the tetracyclines, caution should be exercised. Superinfection by

nonsusceptible pathogens such as fungi, yeasts, and resistant bacte-

ria is always a possibility when broad-spectrum antibiotics are

used. This may lead to GI disturbances after either oral or par-

enteral administration or to “persistent infection” when they are

applied topically (eg, in the ear). Severe and even fatal diarrhea can

occur in horses receiving tetracyclines, especially if they are se-

verely stressed or critically ill.

High doses administered oral to ruminants seriously disrupts microflo-

ral activity in the ruminoreticulum, eventually producing stasis. Elimi-

nation of the gut flora in monogastric animals reduces the synthesis and

availability of the B vitamins and vitamin K from the large intestine.

With prolonged therapy, vitamin supplementation is a useful precau-

tion.

Tetracyclines chelate calcium in teeth and bones; they become incorpo-

rated into these structures, inhibit calcification (eg, hypoplastic dental

enamel), and cause yellowish then brownish discoloration. At ex-

21


tremely high concentrations, the healing process in fractured

bones is impaired.

Rapid IV injection of a tetracycline can produce hypotension and sud-

den collapse. This appears to be related to the ability of the tetracyclines

to chelate ionized calcium, although a depressant effect by the propy-

lene glycol carrier itself may also be involved. This effect can be

avoided by slow infusion of the drug (>5 min) or by pretreatment with

IV calcium gluconate.

The combined use of glucocorticoids and tetracyclines often leads to a

significant weight loss, particularly in anorectic animals.

Hepatotoxic effects due to large doses of tetracyclines have been re-

ported in pregnant animals. The mortality rate is high.

The tetracyclines are also potentially nephrotoxic and are contraindi-

cated (except for doxycycline) in renal insufficiency. Fatal renal failure

has been reported in septicemic and endotoxemic cattle given high

doses of oxytetracycline. The administration of expired tetracycline

products may lead to acute tubular nephrosis.

Swelling, necrosis, and yellow discoloration at the injection site almost

inevitably occur. Hypersensitivity reactions do occur; for example, cats

may show a “drug fever” reaction often accompanied by vomiting, diar-

rhea, depression, inappetence, and eosinophilia.

22


The tetracyclines can inhibit white blood cell chemotaxis and phagocy-

tosis when present in high concentrations at sites of infection. This

clearly hinders normal host defense mechanisms. The addition of gluco-

corticoids to the therapeutic regimen would impair immunocompetence

even further.

Drug Interactions

The absorption of tetracyclines from the GI tract is decreased by milk

and milk products (less so for doxycycline and minocycline), antacids,

kaolin, and iron preparations. Tetracyclines gradually lose activity when

diluted in infusion fluids and exposed to ultraviolet light. Vitamins of

the B-complex group, especially riboflavin, hasten this loss of activity

in infusion fluids. Tetracyclines also bind to the calcium ions in

Ringer's solution.

Methoxyflurane anesthesia combined with tetracycline therapy may be

nephrotoxic. Microsomal enzyme inducers such as phenobarbital and

phenytoin shorten the plasma half-lives of doxycycline. Except for

doxycycline, the presence of food can substantially delay the absorption

of tetracyclines from the GI tract. The tetracyclines are less active in al-

kaline urine, and urine acidification can increase their antimicrobial ef-

ficacy.

Chlortetracycline

Powder, 10%, 20%,

23


Spray, 2.8%,

Bolus, 1g

Indications. Drug interactions .See notes under section 1.1.2.2

Contraindications. Renal impairment; last 2-3 weeks of gestation in

pregnant animals and up to 4 weeks of age in neonates

Side-effects. May cause vomiting, diarrhoea. See notes under section

1.1.2.2

Dose. Calves: 10-20 mg/kg daily

Pigs: 10-20 mg/kg body-weight daily; 400-600 g/tone feed

Poultry: 20-60 mg/kg body-weight; 300-400g/ tone feed

Withdrawal periods. Calves: slaughter 25 days. 350: slaughter 10

days. Poultry: slaughter 3 day

Oxytetracycline

Injection, 5 %, 10 %, 12 %, 20 %, 30 %,

Powder, 5 %, 10 %, 20 %, 25 %, 50 %,

Bolus, 50 mg, 100 mg, 250 mg, 500 mg, 1 g,

Spray 5 %,

Intra-uterine solution, 100 mg/ml,

Intra-mammary suspension, 500 mg/dose,

Pessary, 0.5 g

Indications. Side-effects. Drug interactions. See notes under sec-

tion 1.1.2.2 and under chlorotetracycline

24


Contraindications. Avoid subcutaneous injection in horses. Some

manufacturer recommended that intravenous injection in dogs should be

avoided

Dose.Horses: by intramuscular or intravenous injection, 2-10 mg/kg

daily

Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs: by subcutaneous, intramuscular, or intra-

venous injection, 2-10 mg/kg daily; by depot intramuscular injection,

20 mg/kg, repeat after 2-4 days

Calves, pigs: oral, 10-20 mg/kg twice daily

Dogs, cats: oral, 25 mg/kg twice daily; by subcutaneous, intramuscu-

lar, or intravenous injection, 2-10 mg/kg daily

Poultry: 6-25 g/100 liters drinking water

Withdrawal periods. Calves, pigs: slaughter 21 days. Cattle:

slaughter 21 days, milk 7 days. Poultry: slaughter 7 day, egg 1 day.

Sheep: slaughter 10 day

Doxycycline

Powder, 10 %, 20 %

Indications. Lyme disease, Chlamydia, Rocky Mountain spotted fever

and bacterial infections caused by susceptible organisms. See also notes

above

Contraindications. Side-effects. Drug interactions. See notes

under section 1.1.2.2

Dose. Dogs, cats: oral or parenteral, 5-10mg/kg twice daily

25


Chlortetracycline and Benzocaine

Topical Powder, 2 % + 1 %

Indications.Contraindications.Side-effects.Drug interactions. .

See notes under section 1.1.2.2

Oxytetracycline and Lidocain Hydrochloride

Injection, 5 g + 0.1g/100 ml

Indications.Contraindications.Side-effects.Drug-interactions.


Oxytetracycline and Genitian Violet

Spray, 25 mg + 5 mg/ml

Indications. External skin, teat, hoof and paw infections, caused by

oxytetracycline and gentian violet sensitive micro-organisms, like Bor-

detella, Campylobacter, Chlamydia,E. coli, Haemophilus, Mycoplasma,

Pasteurella, Rickettsia, Salmonella, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus

spp. in calves, cattle, goats, sheep and swine.

Contraindication.Hypersensitivity to tetracyclines,administration to

animals with a serious impaired renal and/or liver function.

Side-effects. See notes under section 1.1.2.2

Drug interactions. Penicillines, cephalosporines, quinolones and cy-

closerine

Dose. Spray one or two times a day from a distance of 15 - 20 cm

26


Caution. Do not spray in or around the eyes. Do not incinerate or

puncture the spray can. Do not expose to temperatures above 50C0

Tetracycline

Tablet, 250 mg

Powder for oral solution, 20 %, 25 %, 50 %

Bolus, 500 mg

Indication. Contraindication. Side-effect. Drug interactions. .


Dose. Pigs; 40 mg/kg daily. Poultry; 60mg/kg daily

Oral soulble powder, for addition to drinking water, for pigs and

calves: 22mg/kg daily for three to five days

Oral soluble powder, for addition to drinking water, for chicken; 55

mg/kg daily for three to five days

Withdrawal periods. Pigs: slaughter 5 days. Poultry: slaughter 2

day, egg 2 days

Storage.Store at room temperature 15 to 300c

1.1.2.3. Aminoglycosides


Aminoglycosides are utilized primarily in the treatment of infections

caused by aerobic gram-negative organisms. They are not active against

anaerobic organisms. In addition to their strength in the treatment of

27


gram-negative pathogens, aminoglycosides can be effective against

some gram-positive organisms, such as Staphylococcus aureus, some

mycobacteria some mycoplasma strains, and some spirochetes. They

are sometimes administered concurrently with other antibacterials for a

possible synergistic effect. However, the use of aminoglycosides in the

treatment of infection in animals has been tempered by toxicity consid-

erations in the animal treated. Often, systemic use is limited to the treat-

ment of serious gram-negative infections resistant to less toxic medica-

tions. Also, local environment at the therapeutic site can affect the effi-

cacy of these drugs, acidic or purulent conditions can hamper their ef-

fect, and the presence of cations (calcium or magnesium ions, for exam-

ple) can decrease antibacterial effect.

Streptomycin is active against mycobacteria, leptospira, Francisella tu-

larensis, and Yersinia pestis, but only some mycoplasma, gram-negative

organisms, and staphylococcus species. Dihydrostreptomycin is chemi-

cally very similar to streptomycin.

Neomycin has been effective against many gram-negative organisms

and Staphylococcus aureus. However, the use of neomycin is limited by

a relatively high risk of toxicity with systemic use; it is not available for

parenteral administration.

The spectrum of activity of kanamycin primarily, focuses on gram-neg-

ative organisms and a few gram-positive organisms. The prevalence of

resistance of some pathogens, including Escherichia coli and Salmo-

28


nella species, to kanamycin is higher than to gentamicin, and this has

limited the use of kanamycin.

Gentamicin has been widely used in the treatment of gram-negative or-

ganisms and some gram-positive organisms. As with other aminoglyco-

sides, its use is limited by risk of toxicity. In vitro tests have shown gen-

tamicin to be active against Salmonella arizonae (Arizona hinshawii),

Enterobacter aerogenes, E. coli, Klebsiella species, Neisseria, most in-

dole-positive and some indole-negative Proteus species, some Pas-

teurella multocida, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella, Serratia

marcescens, Shigella, Staphylococcus species, including Staphylococ-

cus intermedius, and some Streptococcus species.


Ototoxicity, neuromuscular blockage, and nephrotoxicity are reported

most frequently; these effects may vary with the aminoglycosides and

dose or interval used, but all members of the group are potentially toxic.

Nephrotoxicity is of major concern and may result in renal failure due

to acute tubular necrosis with secondary interstitial damage.

Aminoglycosides may impair neuromuscular transmission and so are

not given to animals with myasthenia gravis. These drugs are well ab-

sorbed from the peritoneal cavity and instillation during surgery may re-

sult in drugs over dose and transient respiratory paralysis.

29


Drug Interactions

Enhanced nephrotoxicity may become evident with concurrent adminis-

tration of aminoglycosides and other potentially nephrotoxic agents.

Neuromuscular blockade is more likely when aminoglycosides are

administered at the same time as skeletal muscle relaxants and gas

anesthetics. Aminoglycoside ototoxicity is enhanced by the loop-act-

ing diuretics, especially furosemide. Cardiovascular depression may

be aggravated by aminoglycosides when administered to animals

under halothane anesthesia. High concentrations of carbenicillin,

ticarcillin, and piperacillin inactivate aminoglycosides both in vitro

and in vivo in the presence of renal failure.

Streptomycin Sulphate

Injection, 200 mg/ml, 250 mg/ml, 72 g/100 g

Indication. Contraindications. Side-effect. See notes above

Dose. Horses, cattle, sheep, goats: by intramuscular injection, 10

mg/kg daily. Dogs, cats: by intramuscular injection, 25 mg/kg daily

Drug interactions. Calcium gluconate, heparin sodium, sodium bi-

carbonate intravenous infusion, tylosin and see also notes above

Withdrawal periods. Cattle: slaughter 21 days, milk 2 days. Sheep,

goats: slaughter 21 days, should not be used in sheep, goats producing

milk for human consumption

30


Dihydrostreptomycin and Streptomycin

Injection, 150 mg + 150 mg/ml, 2 million IU + 250 mg/ml

Indications.Contraindications. Side-effects. Drug interactions.

See notes above

Dose. Horses, cattle, sheep, and goats: by intramuscular injection,

0.03 ml/kg daily

Dogs, cats: by intramuscular injection, 0.08 ml/kg daily


goats: slaughter 21 days, should not be used in sheep and goats produc-

ing milk for human consumption

Gentamicin Sulfate

Injection, 40 mg/ml, 50 mg/ml, 100 mg/ml,

Powder, 10%

Intra-mammary suspension, 100 mg/dose, 170 mg/dose

Indication.Contraindication.Side-effect.Drug interactions. See

notes under section 1.1.2.3

Dose. Cats: Intramuscular, intravenous, or subcutaneous, 3 mg / kg

every eight hours. Once daily dosing: Intramuscular, intravenous, or

subcutaneous, 5 to 8 mg /kg every twenty-four hours

Dogs: Intramuscular or subcutaneous, 4.4 mg /kg every eight hours.

Once daily dosing: Intramuscular or subcutaneous, 10 to 15 mg / kg ev-

ery twenty-four hours

Piglets, 1 to 3 day old: intramuscular, 5 mg as a single total dose

Chickens, 1 day old: Subcutaneous, 0.2 mg as a total single dose

31


Horses: Intrauterine, 2 to 2.5 g a day for three to five days during es-

trus.

Gentamicin powder for oral solution: Piglets: oral, 25 mg per gallon of

water (approximately 1.1 mg/kg), administered as the sole source of

drinking water for three consecutive days.

pigs: oral, 50 mg per gallon of water (approximately 2.2 mg /kg), ad-

ministered as the sole source of drinking water for three consecutive

days .

Withdrawal period. Chicks: slaughter 35 days. Piglets: slaughter 40

days


(59 and 86 ºF), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer. Protect

from freezing

Kanamycin

Spray, 2.4 mg/ml

Indication. Contraindication. Side-effects. Drug interactions.

See notes above

Neomycin Sulphate

Powder, 20 %, 30 %, 49%, 70 % 100 %

Eye drop, 0.5 % w/v

Indication.Contraindication.Side-effects. Drug interactions.

See notes above

32


Dose.Powder for oral solution: cattle, goats, horses, pigs, and sheep:

oral, 22 mg /kg a day for fourteen days, administered in the only source

of drinking water.

Chicken: 11 mg/kg; 12.5g/100 liter drinking water

Dogs, cat: 11 mg/kg daily in divided doses

Bacterial eye infections: dogs: apply 2-4 times daily

Note: For many of these products, individual animal treatment is also possible

by dividing the daily dose and administering as a drench with milk or water or

by mixing in an individual animal’s only water supply. Consult manufacturer’s

product labeling for specific dosing directions.

Withdrawal periods. Pigs: slaughter 14 days. Chickens: slaughter

14 days

Drug interactions. Phenylmethyl penicillin, warfarin


(59 and 86 ºF), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer.

1.1.2.4. Macrolides


Macrolides are considered bacteriostatic at therapeutic concentrations

but they can be slowly bactericidal, especially against streptococcal

bacteria; their bactericidal action is described as time-dependent. The

antimicrobial action of some macrolides is enhanced by a high pH and

suppressed by low pH, making them less effective in abscesses, necrotic

tissue, or acidic urine.

33


Erythromycin is an antibiotic with activity primarily against gram-posi-

tive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus and Streptococcus species, includ-

ing many that are resistant to penicillins by means of beta-lactamase

production. Erythromycin is also active against mycoplasma and some

gram-negative bacteria, including Campylobacter and Pasteurella

species. It has activity against some anaerobes, but Bacteroides fragilis

is usually resistant. Some strains of Actinomyces and Chlamydia are in-

hibited by erythromycin. Most Pseudomonas, Escherichia coli, and

Klebsiella strains are resistant to erythromycin. Cross-resistance to the

other macrolides can also occur.

Tylosin has a spectrum of activity similar to that of erythromycin but is

more active than erythromycin against certain mycoplasmas.

Lincomycin is effective against grampositive bacteria, anaerobs, and

Mycoplasma but has little activity against gram-negative oraganisms.

Side-effect and toxicity

All species; allergic reactions. Cats, cattle and dogs, Pain and/or

swelling at the site of injection with subcutaneous administration. Gas-

trointestinal effects (anorexia, diarrhea, vomiting) particularly with ery-

thromycin. Cattle, diarrhea associated with oral erythromycin dosage

forms. Horses; diarrhea, severe with erythromycin; considered more

likely in adult horses. Pigs; diarrhea, erythema, and pruritis with tylosin.

Edema, rectal, and partial anal prolapse with erythromycin and tylosin

34


Drug interactions

Theophillin, warfarin, Beta-adrenergic antagonists, such as propranolol,

chloramphenicol or lincosamides or macrolide antibiotics, epinephrine,

phenobarbital

Erythromycin

Powder, 5%, 20%, 30%

Intra-mammary suspension, 300 mg/dose

Indication. Side-effect. Drug interactions. See notes under section

1.1.2.4

Dose.Powder for oral solution; chronic respiratory disease; chick-

ens:oral, 500 mg per gallon of water, administered as the only source

of drinking water every twenty-four hours for five days.

Coryza, infectious; chickens:oral, 500 mg per gallon of water,

administered as the only source of drinking water for seven days.

Withdrawal period. Chickens: slaughter 1 day

Storage. Store below 40 °C (104 °F), preferably between 15 and 30 °C

(59 and 86 °F), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer.

Tylosin

Powder, 10 %, 20 %, 50 %

Tablet, 200 mg

Injection. 50 mg/ml, 150 mg/ml, 200 mg/ml, 220 mg/ml

35


Indication Side-effect. Drug interactions. See notes under section

1.1.2.4

Dose. Powder for oral solution; Dysentery; Pigs: oral, 250 mg per gal-

lon of water, as the only source of drinking water for three to ten days

Respiratory disease, chronic; chickens: oral, 2g (base) per gallon (ap-

proximately, 110 mg /kg a day) as the only source of drinking water for

three to five days

Injection; Pigs: Intramuscular, 8.8 mg /kg every twelve hours Cattle:

Intramuscular, 17.6 mg / kg every twenty-four hours

Cats, dogs: 6.6 to 11 mg /kg every twelve to twenty-four hours

Withdrawal periods. Cattle: slaughter 7 days, milk 4 days. Calves:

slaughter 14 days. Pigs: slaughter withdrawal periods nil


(59 and 86 °F), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer

Spiramycin

Injection, 150,000,000 IU

Indication.To improve growth-rate and feed conversion efficiency

Contraindication.Do not use simultaneously with other antibacterial

growth promoters

Side-effect. Drug interaction. See notes under section 1.1.2.4

Dose. Calves, lambs, kids:(up to 6 weeks of age) 5.50 g/ tone feed;

(16-24 weeks of age) 5-20 g/tone feed, by addition to milk replacer, (up

to 12 weeks of age) 5-80 g/tone

36


Lincomycin Hydrochloride

Powder, 50 %

Injection, 113.4 mg/ml

Indication.It is effective against gram-positive bacteria, anaerobes,

and Mycoplasma.

Contraindications. Horses, rabbits, and rodents; hepatic impairment

Dose. Pigs: 3.3 g/100 little drinking water; 44-220 g/tone feed; by in-

tramuscular injection, 4.5-11.0 mg/kg daily

Dogs, cats: by intramuscular injection, 22mg/kg daily; by slow intra-

venous injection, 11-22 mg/kg 1-2 times daily.

Drug interaction. Kaolin mixture, muscle relaxants, neostigmine

1.1.2.5. Chloramphenicol

Antimicrobial Spectrum

Chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic shown to have specific

activity against a wide variety of organisms that are the causative agents

of several disease conditions in domestic animals. Such organisms in-

clude Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Brucella bron-

choseptica, Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Aerobacter aerogenes,

Corynebacterium renale, Salmonella species, Pseudomonas species,

Shigella species, Neisseria catarrhalis, anaerobic bacteria, and many

37


rickettsiae. The species treated with chloramphenicol include dogs, cats,

and horses.

Therapeutic indications

Chloramphenicol is used to treat both systemic and local infection-

s.Chronic respiratory infections, bacterial meningoencephalitis, brain

abscesses, ophthalmitis and intraocular infections, pododermatitis, der-

mal infections, and otitis externa are types of bacterial infections that

are often responsive to chloramphenicol. Salmonellosis and Bacteroides

sepsis are fairly specific indications. Urinary tract infections are often

successfully treated with chloramphenicol, notwithstanding the fairly

low concentration of active antibiotic present in the urine. Hematoge-

nous delivery of chloramphenicol to the site of infection may play a role

in these cases.

Side-effect

A form of aplastic anemia, apparently a type of hypersensitivity reac-

tion to chloramphenicol, has been recognized in dogs and cats.

GI disturbances can occur in all nonruminant animals treated with oral

chloramphenicol. Use in neonatal calves leads to a malabsorption syn-

drome associated with ultrastructural and functional changes of

the small intestinal enterocytes. Anorexia and depression have been

seen in cats treated for less than weeks.

38


Because chloramphenicol can suppress anamnestic immune responses,

animals should not be vaccinated while being treated with this antibi-

otic. Because of its ability to inhibit protein synthesis, excessive topical

application on wounds may delay healing.

Drug interaction

The bacteriostatic action of chloramphenicol may inhibit the bacterici-

dal action of beta-lactam antibacterials and these drugs should not

therefore be used concurrently. Chloramphenicol may inhibit metabo-

lism of certain barbiturates and hence greatly prolong pentobarbitone

anaesthesia.

Chloramphenicol

Oral powder, 25 %

Tablet, 100 mg, 250 mg

Oral suspension, 25 mg/ml

Injection, 100 mg/ml, 150 mg/ml, 200 mg/ml

Indication. See notes under section 1.1.2.5

Contraindication. Animal with impaired liver function

Side-effect. Depression, bone marrow hypoplasia, pancytapenia. See

notes under section 1.1.2.5

Dose. Oral suspension: dogs: oral, 45 to 60 mg /kg every eight hours.

Cats: Oral, 13 to 20 mg /kg every twelve hours

Note: The oral dose for cats is based on the best information available, which

may, however, underestimate the dose needed in some cases. Doses of 25 to 50

39


mg every twelve hours have been recommended, and may be necessary for

some infections, but could increase the risk of side effects. Chloramphenicol

tablet: dogs: oral, 45 to 60 mg /kg every eight hours. Cats: oral, 13 to

20 mg /kg every twelve hours

Horses: oral, 45 to 60 mg /kg every eight hours

Dog: by intramuscular or intravenous injection, 11 to 33 mg/kg evey

six hours

Cats: by subcutaneous, intramuscular injection, 50 mg/kg 1-2 times

daily


Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 28 days, should not be used in

cattle producing milk for human consmption or manufacturing purpose.

Pigs: slaughter 10 days

Storage.Store below 40 C (104 F), preferably between 15 and 30 C

(59 and 86 F), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer. Store in a

tight container.

Thiamphenicol

Injection, 250 mg/ml

Oral solution, 200 mg/ml

Powder, 20 %

Indication.It has antibacterial spectrum similar to that of Chloram-

phenicol.

Drug interactions. Barbiturates, phenytoin, sulphonylureas,warfarin

40


1.1.2.5. Quinolones


The quinolones have been available for some years. In general, the fluo-

roquinolones are active against enteric gram-negative bacilli and cocci

(E-coli, Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp. etc.) and other gram-negative or-

ganisms such as Salmonella spp. Yersenia spp, Aeromonas spp, Proteus

spp, and Pseudomonas aeroginasa. They are also active against gram-

positive organisms such as Staphylococcus Hemophillus spp, Neisseria

spp, and Campylobacter spp.

Quinolons have shown variable activity against most strain of Strepto-

coccus, including Streptococcus pyogenes, Hemolytic streptococci

groups B, C, F and G, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Enterococcus

faecalis.

Therapeutic indications

Quinolones are indicated for the treatment of local and systemic infec-

tions caused by susceptible microorganisms, particularly against deep-

seated infections and intracellular pathogens. Therapeutic success has

been obtained in respiratory, intestinal, urinary, and skin infections, as

well as in bacterial prostatitis.

Side-effect

41


Quinolones tends to be neurotoxic, and convulsions can occur at high

doses. Hemolytic anemia has also been seen. Administering large doses

of quinolones for any length of time during pregnancy has resulted in

embryonic loss and maternotoxicity. Because high-prolonged dosages

in growing dogs have produced cartilaginous erosions leading to perma-

nent lameness, excessive use of quinolones should be avoided in imma-

ture animals. Quinolone administration in horses has not yet been exten-

sively studied, but there is some indication that damage to the cartilage

in weight-bearing joints may occur.

Interactions

The likelihood of interactions has not yet been clearly established.

Antacids probably interfere with the GI absorption of this group of

drugs. It also seems that nitrofurantoin impairs the efficacy of

quinolones if used concurrently for urinary tract infections. Quinolones

do inhibit the biotransformation of theophylline, leading to prolonged

and potentially toxic plasma levels. A synergistic effect of quinolones

with the β-lactams, aminoglycosides, clindamycin, and metronidazole

has been demonstrated in vitro.

Enrofloxacin

Oral solution, 2.5 %, 10 %, 25 %,

Tablet, 50 mg,

Intra-mammary suspension, 4 g/dose,

Injection, 5%, 10%, 20%,

42


Powder, 20%

Indication.Gastrointestinal infections, respiratory infections and uri-

nary tract infections caused by enrofloxacin sensitive microorganisms,

like Campylobacter, E. coli, Haemophilus, Mycoplasma, Pasteurella

and Salmonella spp.

Contraindication .To young animals still in their bone-growth stages

of development. Hypersensitivity to enrofloxacin.

Administration to animals with a serious impaired liver and/or renal

function.

Side-effects. Arthropathy in immature dogs, anorexia, vomiting, diar-

rhea.

Dose. Cats: oral, 5 mg /kg a day. The dose may be administered as a

single daily dose or divided into two equal doses administered every

twelve hours, Intramuscular injection; 2.5 mg/kg every twelve hours,In-

travenous injection, 5 mg /kg a day. The dose may be administered as a

single daily dose or divided into two equal doses administered every 12

hours.

Dog: oral, 5 to 20 mg /kg a day. The dose may be administered as a

single daily dose or divided into two equal doses administered every

twelve hours;Intramuscular injection, 2.5 mg /kg every twelve

hours ,Intravenous injection, 20 mg / kg a day. The dose may be admin-

istered as a single daily dose or divided into two equal doses adminis-

tered every twelve hours.

Cattle: subcutaneous, 7.5 to 12.5 mg / kg a single dose or 2.5 to 5 mg /

kg every twenty-four hours for three to five days.

43


Oral solution: chickens: 1 litre per 1500-2000 litre drinking water for

3-5 days. Swine: 1 litre per 1000-3000 litre drinking water for 3-5 days

Drug interaction. Tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, macrolides and

lincosamides. See notes under section 1.1.2.5

Withdrawal period. Chicken: slaughter 2 days. Cattle: slaughter 28

days


(59 and 86 ºF), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer. Store in a

tight container.

Norfloxacin

Oral solution, 100 mg /ml, 200 mg/ml

Injection, 50 mg/ml

Indication.Gastrointestinal, respiratory and urinary tract infections

caused by norfloxacin sensitive micro-organisms, like Campylobacter,

E. coli, Haemophilus, Mycoplasma, Pasteurella and Salmonella spp., in

calves, goats, poultry, sheep and swine

Contraindication. In pregnant animals, administration to animals

with a serious impaired liver and/or renal function.

Side- effect. Arthropathy, teratogenic, see also notes above

Dose. Oral: Calves, goats and sheep: 10 ml per 75-150 kg body

weight for 3-5 days.

Chickens: 1 litre per 1500-4000 litre drinking water for 3-5 days.

Swine: 1 litre per 1000-3000 litre drinking water for 3-5 days

44


Withdrawal period. Calves, goats, sheep and swine: slaughter 8

days. Chickens: slaughter 12 days.

Drug interaction. Tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, macrolides and

lincosamides and .See notes under section 1.1.2.5

Flumequin

Oral suspension, 4 mg/ml, 100mg/5ml, 100mg/ml, 200mg/ml,

Powder, 10%, 20%, 50%,

Injection, 5%

Indications.Gastrointestinal, respiratory and urinary tract infections

caused by flumequin sensitive micro-organisms, like Campylobacter, E.

coli, Haemophilus, Pasteurella and Salmonella spp., in chickens and

swine

Contraindications.Hypersensitivityto flumequine.Administration to

animals with a serious impaired liver and/or renal function.

Side-effects. Hypersensitivity reactions

Dose. For oral administration; chickens: 1 litre per 1500 - 2000 litre

drinking water for 3-5 days

Swine: 1 litre per 1000 - 1500 litre drinking water for 3-5 days

Withdrawal period. Swine: slaughter 8 days. Chickens: slaughter 3

days

Drug Interaction.See notes above

45


1.1.2.6. Sulphonamides and Potentiated Sulphonamides

Sulphonamides


Different sulfonamides may show quantitative but not necessarily quali-

tative differences in antimicrobial activity. Sulfonamides inhibit both

gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, a few Chlamydia , Nocar-

dia , and Actinomyces spp , and some protozoa such as Coccidia and

Toxoplasma spp . More active sulfonamides may include several

species of Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Salmonella, Pasteurella, and

even Escherichia coli in their spectra.Strains of Pseudomonas, Kleb-

siella, Proteus, Clostridium, and Leptospira spp are most often highly

resistant, as are rickettsiae.

Therapeutic Indications

The sulfonamides are commonly used to treat or prevent acute systemic

or local infections. Disease syndromes treated with sulfonamides in-

clude actinobacillosis, coccidiosis, mastitis, metritis, colibacillosis,

pododermatitis, polyarthritis, respiratory infections, and toxoplasmosis.

Sulfonamides are more effective when administered early in the course

of a disease. Chronic infections, particularly with large amounts of exu-

date or tissue debris present, often are not responsive. In severe infec-

tions, the initial dose should be administered intravenously to reduce the

46


lag time between dose and effect. In many instances, the initial dose

should be double the maintenance dose. Adequate drinking water

should be available at all times, and urine output monitored. Concurrent

administration of urinary alkalinizers prevents crystalluria. A course of

treatment should not exceed 7 days under usual circumstances. If a fa-

vorable response is seen within 72 hours, treatment should be continued

for 48 hours after remission to prevent relapse and the emergence of re-

sistance. The ability to mount an immune response must be intact for

successful sulfonamide therapy.

Side-effect and Toxicity

Adverse reactions to sulfonamides may be due to hypersensitivity or di-

rect toxic effects. Possible hypersensitivity reactions include urticaria,

angioedema, anaphylaxis, skin rashes, drug fever, polyarthritis,

hemolytic anemia, and agranulocytosis. Crystalluria with hematuria,

and even tubular obstruction, can occur but is not common in vet-

erinary medicine. Sulfonamides with prolonged plasma half-lives

and high solubilities tend not to cause crystalluria, particularly if water

intake is high and the urine is alkaline.

GI disturbances, in addition to nausea and vomiting, may occur when

sulfonamide levels are sufficiently high in the tract to disturb normal

microfloral balance and vitamin B synthesis.

47


The sodium salts are alkaline hence irritate by intramuscular injection

and are often given intravenously. Sulphonamides are well absorbed

following oral administration. They diffuse well in to body tissues and

partly inactivated in the liver, mainly by acetylation. The acetylated de-

rivatives are relatively insoluble in uric acid and so may precipitate in

the renal tubules of carnivores leading to crystalluria and renal failure.

Prolonged administration of certain sulphonamides may cause kerato-

conjunctivitis sicca (dry eyes in dogs).

Drug interactions

Sulfonamide solutions are incompatible with calcium- or other

polyionic-containing fluids as well as many other preparations. Sulfon-

amides may be displaced from their plasma-protein-binding sites by

other acidic drugs with higher binding affinities. Antacids tend to in-

hibit the GI absorption of sulfonamides. Alkalinization of the urine pro-

motes sulfonamide excretion, and urinary acidification increases the

risk of crystalluria. Some sulfonamides act as microsomal enzyme in-

hibitors, which may lead to toxic manifestations of concurrently admin-

istered drugs such as phenytoin.

Sulphadimidine Sodium

Injection, 330 mg/ml, 333 mg/ml, 160 mg/ml,

Bolus, 5 g,

Powder, 8 %, 10%, 16 %, 20 %, 25%, 30%,

48


Indication.See notes under section 1.1.2.6

Contraindications.Renal or hepatic impairment

Side-effect. Transient irritation at injection site. See notes under sec-

tion 1.1.2.6

Dose.Cattle: by subcutaneous or intravenous (preferred), injection,

initial dose 100-200 mg/kg then 50-100 mg/kg daily

Calves: oral or by subcutaneous injection, initial dose 100-200 mg/kg

then 50-100 mg/kg daily

Sheep: by subcutaneous or intravenous (preferred) injection, initial

dose 100-200 mg/kg then 50-100 mg/kg daily

Pigs: by subcutaneous or intravenous (preferred) injection, initial dose

100-200 mg/kg then 50-100 mg/kg daily.

Drug interaction. Thiopentone sodium, warfarin. . See notes under

section 1.1.2.6

Withdrawal periods. Cattle: slaughter 21 days, should not be used

in cattle milk for human consumption. Sheep, pigs, calves: slaughter 7

days.

Storage.Store below 40 °C (104 °F), preferably between 15 and 30 °C

(59 and 86°F), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer. Protect from

light. Protect from freezing

Sulphamethoxypyridazine


49


Indications.Contraindications.Side-effects.See notes under sec-

tion 1.1.2.6 and sulphadimidine

Dose.Cattle, sheep: by subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal,

or intravenous injection, 20 mg/kg daily

Drug interaction. See notes under section 1.1.2.6 and sulphadimidine


slaughter 7 days.




Sulphaclozan sodium

Powder, 30 %, 60%

Indications. Contraindications. Side- effects . See notes under

section 1.1.2.6

Drug interaction. See notes under section 1.1.2.6

Sulphachlorpyridazine

Powder, 30 %

Indications. Contraindications. Side-effects. See notes under

section 1.1.2.6

Dose. Enteritis (diarrhea associated with E. coli); Calves, less than 1

month of age: oral, 33 to 49.5 mg/kg every twelve hours

50


Pigs: oral, 22 to 38.5 mg/kg, administered as a drench every twelve

hours or 44 to 77 mg/kg a day administered as the only source of drink-

ing water

Drug interaction. See notes under section

Withdrawal period. Calves: slaughter 7 days. Pigs: slaughter 4 days


(59 and 86 °F), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer

Sulphadimethoxine

Injection, 33.3g/100 ml,

Powder, 25 %

Indications. Side-effects. Contraindications. See notes under sec-

tion 1.1.2.6

Dose. Soluble powder; Bacterial pneumonia, Calf diphtheria, necrotic

pododermatitis- calves and cattle :Oral, 55 mg / kg as an initial dose,

followed by 27.5 mg / kg every twenty-four hours for four days

Coccidiosis or fowl cholera; chickens, broiler and replacement: oral,

1892 mg per gallon of water (0.05%), administered as the only source

of drinking water for six days

Injection; Bacterial respiratory infections, cystitis, skin and soft tissue

infections: cats and dogs: by Intravenous or subcutaneous injection,

55mg /kg as an initial dose, followed by 27.5 mg /kg of every twenty-

four hours

51


Enteritis associated with Coccidiosis or Salmonella dogs: Intravenous

or subcutaneous, 55mg/kg as an initial dose, followed by 27.5 mg /kg

every twenty-four hours.

Note: Intramuscular injection can cause local pain and inflammation and result

in lower serum concentrations of sulphadimethoxine

Drug interaction. See notes above and under sulpadimidin

Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 5 days; milk 60 hours




Sulphamerazine

Powder, 16 %, 20 %, 25 %, 30 %

Indications. Contraindications. Side-effects. See notes under sec-

tion 1.1.2.6

Drug interaction. See notes under sulphadimidine

Sulphamethazine

Powder, 16 %, 20 %, 25 %, 30 %

Indications.Side-effect. See notes under section 1.1.2.6 Con-

traindication. Don't give to egg laying hens

Dose. Calf diphtheria or necrotic pododermatitis; cattle: oral, 237.6

mg/kg as an initial dose, followed by 118.8 mg/kg every twenty-four

52


hours for three days administered as an individual animal drench or in

the only source of drinking water.

Coccidiosis; chickens: oral, 128 to 187 mg / kg a day for two days, fol-

lowed by 64 to 93.5 mg /kg for four days, administered in the only

source of drinking water.

Enteritis, bacterial: or pneumonia, bacterial; cattle and pigs: oral,

237.6 mg /kg as an initial dose, followed by 118.8 mg /kg every twenty

four hours for three days, administered as an individual animal drench

or in the only source of drinking water.

Fowl cholera, acute: or Pullorum disease; chickens: oral, 128 to 187

mg /kg a day for six days, administered in the only source of drinking

water.

Infectious coryza; chickens: oral, 128 to 187mg/kg of body weight a

day for two days, administered in the only source of drinking water

Drug interaction. See notes under sulphadimidine

Withdrawal period. Calves, cattle, chickens: slaughter 10 days.

Pigs: slaughter 15 days


(59 and 86 °F), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer.

Potentiated Sulphonamides

The combined and synergistic activities of the two agents in each type

of potentiated sulphonamide produce antibacterial activity against a

wide range of infections caused by gram-positive and gram-negative

bacteria, some protozoa, and some anaerobes under certain conditions.

53


The minimum inhibitory concentrations against specific susceptible

bacteria for each antibiotic are generally lowered when the antibiotics

are administered in the potentiated sulphonamide combination. The re-

sistance developed to the potentiated sulphonamides is lower than that

to each individual agent; this is an important benefit because of the

common resistance to sulphonamides and rapid development of resis-

tance to diaminopyrimidines when used alone. Cross-resistance be-

tween sulphonamides is considered complete and often occurs between

pyrimidines.

Antibacterial Spectrum

Potentiated sulphonamides are active against gram-negative and gram-

positive organisms, including Actinomyces, Bordetella, Clostridium,

Corynebacterium, Fusobacterium, Haemophilus, Klebsiella, Pas-

teurella, Proteus, Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter spp, as well

as Escherichia coli, streptococci, and staphylococci. Some streptococ-

cal strains are only moderately sensitive, as are Brucella,

Erysipelothrix, Nocardia, and Moraxella spp. The antibacterial spec-

trum does not include Pseudomonas or Mycobacterium spp.

Side-effects

All species; crystallization in the urinary tract; hypersensitivity, specifi-

cally anaphylaxis. Note: crystallization of sulfonamides is theoretically

possible with administration of potentiated sulfonamides; however, the

lower doses of sulfonamide used in the potentiated sulfonamide combi-

54


nation makes crystallization less likely to occur than with sulfonamide

administered alone. Sulfonamides can crystallize in the kidneys or urine

in animals with aciduria, with high doses of sulfonamide, or with dehy-

dration. The amount of drug in the acetylated metabolite form also can

affect solubility. Because dogs do not produce acetylated metabolites,

they may be less susceptible to this adverse effect. Crystallization also

can be minimized in susceptible animals by maintaining a high urine

flow and, if necessary, alkalinizing the urine.

Dogs: anemia, hemolytic; anemia, nonregenerative; anorexia; cutaneous

drug eruption, including erythema multiforme, perforating folliculitis,

and pustular dermatitides; diarrhea; facial swelling; fever; hepatitis; hy-

pothyroidism; idiosyncratic toxicosis (blood dyscrasias, including ane-

mia, leukopenia, or thrombocytopenia; fever; focal retinitis; lym-

phadenopathy; nonseptic polyarthritis; polymyositis; skin rash); kerato-

conjunctivitis sicca; neurologic disorders (aggression, ataxia, behavioral

changes, hyperexcitability, seizures); polyarthritis ; polydipsia/polyuria;

thrombocytopenia one case reported without other blood lines affected;

urticaria ; vomiting .

Sulphachlopyridazine and Trimethoprim

Powder, 10 % + 2 %,

Injection, 200 mg + 40 mg/ml

Indications.See notes under section

55


Contraindications.Side-effects.See notes above and under

sulphonamides

Dose. Expression as sulphachlorpyridazine and trimethoprim

Calves, pigs, and poultry: by addition to drinking water or feed, 24

mg/kg

Drug interaction. Detomidine, halothane. See also notes under

sulphonamide

Withdrawal periods. Calves: slaughter 5 days

Pigs: slaughter 3 days, chickens: slaughter 1 day, egg 6 days

Sulphadoxine and Trimethoprim

Tablet, 100 mg + 20 mg, 250 mg + 50 mg, 400 mg + 80 mg

Injection, 200 mg + 40 mg/ml, 400 mg + 80 mg/ml

Oral suspension, 50 mg + 10 mg/ml, 400 mg + 80 mg/ml

Premix, 250 g

Powder, 10 % + 2 %

Paste, 13 g + 2.6 g

Indications.Caution. See notes above and under sulphonamide


sulphonamides

Dose. Bacterial enteritis, bacterial pneumonia or colibacillosis; Cattle

and pigs: intramuscular or slow intravenous, 13.3mg of sulphadoxine

and 2.7mg of trimethoprim /kg, every twenty-four hours for five days.

56


Bacteria arthritis, mastitis, or metritis; pigs: intramuscular or slow in-

travenous injection, 13.3mg of sulphadoxine and 2.7 mg of trimeto-

prim /kg, every twenty-four hours for five days

Pododermititis or septicemia; cattle: intramuscular or slow intra-

venous, 13.3 mg of sulphadoxine and 2.7 mg of trimethoprim /kg, every

twenty-four hours for five days

Drug interaction. Detomidine, halothane. See notes under

sulphonamide

Withdrawal periods. Cattle: slaughter 10 days, milk 4 days. Pigs:

slaughter 10 days.

Storage. At room temperature (15-400C) protect from freezing

Sulphaquinoxaline and Trimethoprim

Granules, 50 % + 16.5 %

Indications. See notes above


sulphonamide

Dose. Expressed as sulphaquinoxaline + trimethoprim

Poultry: by addition to drinking water or feed 30 mg/kg body-weights

Drug interaction . Detomidine, halothane. See also notes under

sulphonamide

Withdrawal periods. Chicken: slaughter 7 days, shouldn't be used in

layer hens

57


Sulphadimethoxine and Baquiloprim

Tablet, 50 mg + 10 mg, 500 mg + 100 mg


Powder, 7.2 % + 0.8 %



sulphonamides

Dose. Oral or subcutaneous injection, 30 mg/kg

Drug interactions. Detomidine, halothane. See also notes under

sulphonamide

Sulphadimidine and Baquiloprim

Tablet, 1200 mg +800mg

Bolus, 7.2g +800mg

Injection, 41.7mg + 33.3mg/ml, 134.9 mg + 33.3mg/ml

Indications.Contraindications.See notes above and under

sulphonamides

Dose. Expressed as baquiloprim + total sulphadimidine

Cattle: oral, (all age) to 80 mg/kg, repeat after a days if required; (more

than 500 mg body weight) 80-160 mg/kg as a single dose by intramus-

cular or intravenous injection, (all ages) 10 mg/kg daily; (up to 200 kg

body weight) 20 mg/kg on alternate days.

Pigs: by intramuscular injection, (all ages) 10 mg/kg daily; (up to 100

kg body-weight) 20 mg/kg on alternate days.

58


Drug interactions. Detomidine, halothane. See also notes under

sulphonamide

Withdrawal periods. Cattle: slaughter 28 days; milk from treated

animals shouldn't be used for human consumption. Pigs: slaughter 28

days.

Sulphadiazine and Trimethoprim (Co-trimazine)

Tablet, 100 mg + 20 mg, 400 mg + 80 mg

Injection, 200 mg + 40 mg/ml, 400 mg + 80 mg/ml

Oral suspension, 50 mg + 10 mg/ml, 12.5 % + 2.5 %, 45.5 mg + 9.1

mg/ml, 400 mg + 80 mg/ml

Bolus, 1000 mg + 200 mg

Powder, 500 mg + 50 mg/g, 400 g + 80g/kg, 33.33 g + 6.67 g/100g

Granules, 2.5 g + 12.5 g

Paste, 333 mg + 67 mg/g



sulphonamides

Dose. Oral paste; respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infec-

tions, strangles, urogenital infections or (Perioperative infections);

horses: oral, 25 mg of sulfadiazine and 5 mg of trimethoprim / kg every

twenty-four hours

Oral powder; horses: oral, 25 mg of sulfadiazine and 5 mg of trimetho-

prim/kg every twenty-four hours

59


Oral suspension; colibacillosis or enteritis, bacterial: piglets: Oral, 22.8

mg of sulfadiazine and 4.6 mg of trimethoprim / kg every twenty-four

hours

Tablets; gastrointestinal tract infections, respiratory tract infections; or

skin and soft tissue infections; dogs and cats: oral, 12.5 mg of sulfadi-

azine and 2.5 mg of trimethoprim / kg every twelve hours or, less com-

monly, 25mg of sulfadiazine and 5 mg of trimethoprim / kg every

twenty-four hours.

Note: Only intact tablets should be administered to cats, to avoid excessive

salivation caused by contact of the medication with oral mucosa.

Urinary tract infections; dogs: oral, 12.5 mg of sulfadiazine and 2.5 mg

of trimethoprim/kg every twelve hours or, less commonly, 25 mg of sul-

fadiazine and 5 mg of trimethoprim/kg every twenty-four hours

Injection; Respiratory tract infections; or Skin and soft tissue infections;

gastrointestinal tract infections; cats and dogs: Subcutaneous, 12.5 mg

of sulfadiazine and 2.5mg of trimethoprim/kg every twelve hours or,

less commonly, 25 mg of sulfadiazine and 5 mg of trimethoprim /kg ev-

ery twenty-four hours.

Horses: strangles; or urogenital tract infections; Intramuscular or intra-

venous, 20 mg of sulfadiazine and 4 mg of trimethoprim / kg, every

twenty-four hours.


sulphonamide

Withdrawal periods. Calves: slaughter 28 days; shouldn't be used in

lactating cattle. Pigs: slaughter 28 days. Piglet: slaughter 28 days. Poul-

60


try: slaughter 5 days; shouldn't be used in layer hens Storage. Store be-

low 40 ºC (104 ºF), preferably between 15 and 30 ºC (59 and 86 ºF), in

a tight container, unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer. Pro-

tect from light

Sulphamethoxazole and Trimethoprim (Co-trimoxazole)

Tablet, 400 mg + 80 mg, 1.25 g + 0.25 g

Oral suspension, 40 mg + 8 mg/ml, 80 mg +20 g/100 ml, 88 mg + 20

mg/ml, 100 mg + 20 mg/ml




sulphonamides

Dose. Dogs, horses: oral suspension, tablet; an oral dose of 25 mg of

sulfamethoxazole and 5 mg of trimethoprim / kg every twelve hours for

two to four weeks

Foals, horses: Injection; slow intravenous dose of 12.5 mg of sul-

famethoxazole and 2.5 mg of trimethoprim/kg every twelve hours

Drug interaction. Detomidine,halothane. See also notes under

sulphonamide


(59 and 86 ºF), unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer. Store in

a well-closed, light-resistant container.

61


Sulphadimidine, Trimethoprim and Atropine Sulfate

Oral solution, 100 mg + 20 mg + 20 mcg


Contraindications.Side-effects. See notes above and under

sulphonamides


sulphonamide

Sulphamerazine, Sulfadiazine, Sulfathiazole and Trimetho-

prim

Injection, 100 mg + 60 mg + 40 mg + 40 mg/ml



sulphonamides


sulphonamide

Sulphaquinoxaline and Pyrimethamine

Oral solution, 50 mg + 15 mg/ml



sulphonamides

62


Dose. Coccidiosis (Prophylaxis and treatment); chickens: oral, 14.7

mg of pyrimethamine and 48.8 mg of sulphaquinoxaline per litre of wa-

ter, administered as the only source of drinking water for two days.

Treatment is stopped for three days and then repeated as necessary to

control infection. For existing infection, treatment should be repeated

until symptoms of disease have disappeared.

Drug interaction. See under sulphachlopyridazine and trimethoprim

Withdrawal periods. Chickens: slaughter 4 days.

Storage. Store below 230C, unless otherwise specified by the manufac-

turer. Protect from freezing.

Sulphadimidine, Sulphadiazine and Sulphathiazole

Powder, 125 mg+ 125 mg + 125 mg/g

Indications.See notes above


sulphonamides


sulphonamide

Sulphadimidine and Trimethoprim

Powder, 20 % + 4 %, 40 % + 8 %

63



sulphonamides


sulphonamide

Sulphadimidine,Trimethoprim, and Sulphadiazine

Powder, 10 % + 4 % + 10 %



sulphonamides


sulphonamide

1.1.2.7. Nitrofurans

Nitrofurans may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on concen-

tration and which particular nitrofuran. Nitrofurans have a broad gram-

positive and gram-negative spectrum and also high concentration in the

urine, making them useful as a urinary antiseptic in small animals. They

are active against Salmonella spp., Coliforms, Mycoplasma spp., Coc-

cidial spp., and some other protozoa.

Furazolidone is too toxic for systemic use but is normally poorly ab-

sorbed following oral administration and may be given by this route for

64


the treatment of intestinal colibacillosis and salmonellosis. In calves,

sufficient drug may be absorbed to cause encephalitis manifesting as

hyperaesthesia. It is active against Clostridium, Salmonella, Shigella,

Staphylococcus and Streptococcus spp, and Escherichia coli. It is also

active against Eimeria and Histomonas spp.

Furazolidone

Powder 20 %, 25 %, 98 %, 99 %

Indications. See notes under section 1.1.2.7

Warning. Should not be administered to calves in the process of being

introduced to a high concentrated barley diet. This does not apply once

diet is stabilised

Side-effects.Over dosing can cause hyperaethesia, inappetance in

calves

Dose. Calves: oral, 10mg/kg daily, 400 mg/tone feed

Pigs: 15-25 g /100 litres drinking water; 200-600 g/tone feed; Piglets:

oral, 50- 200 mg daily

Chicken: 15-25 g/100 litre drinking water; 100-400 g /tonne feed

Withdrawal period. Calves, pigs, piglets, poultry: slaughter 7 days

Nitrofurazone

Oral solution 0.2 %

Indications. Side-effects. See notes under section 1.1.2.7

65


Nitrofurazone and Urea

Bolus, 60 mg + 6 g

Indications. See notes under section 1.1.2.7

1.1.2.8. Nitroimidazoles

Metronidazole

This has been used for many years in the therapeutic management of tri-

chomoniasis, giardiasis, and amebiasis. It is active against obligate

anaerobic bacteria. It is not active against facultative anaerobes, obli-

gate aerobes, or microaerophilic bacteria other than Campylobacter fe-

tus and Corynebacterium vaginalis. At concentrations readily attained

in serum after oral or parenteral administration, metronidazole is active

against Bacteroides fragilis, Bacteroides melaninogenicus, Fusobac-

terium spp, and Clostridium perfringens and other Clostridium spp. It is

generally less active against nonsporeforming, gram-positive bacilli

such as Actinomyces, Propionibacterium, Bifidobacterium, and Eubac-

terium spp. Metronidazole is also somewhat less active against gram-

positive cocci such as Peptostreptococcus and Peptococcus spp, but the

less sensitive strains are usually not obligate anaerobes.

Metronidazole


66


Injection 5 mg/ml

Powder for injection, 400 mg/ml

Indications.Infections caused by anaerobic bacteria; hepatic en-

cephalopathy

Side-effect. Neurologic disturbances (ataxia, nystagmus, seizures,

tremors, weakness) with high dosage in cats, dogs, and horses.

Anorexia; neutropenia; vomiting

Dose.Bacterial infections, anaerobic or protozoal infections; cats and

dogs: oral, 15 mg / kg every twelve hours. Horses: oral, 15 to 25 mg

(base) /kg every six hours

Hepatic encephalopathy or inflammatory bowel disease; cats and dogs:

oral, 7.5 mg (base) / kg every twelve hours

Dogs and cats: subcutaneous or intramuscular injection or intravenous

infusion, 20 mg/kg daily

Drug interactions. Imetidine, phenobarbitone,phenytoin, warfarin

Withdrawal period. There are no established withdrawal times since

metronidazole is not approved for use in food-producing animals.


(59 and 86 ºF), in a well-closed container, unless otherwise specified by

manufacturer. Store in a light-resistant container.

1.1.3. Compound Antibacterial Preparations

67


Chlortetracycline and Neomycin Sulphate

Pessaries, 1g+0.5g

Cloxacillin Benzanthine and Neomycin Sulphate

Intramammary Suspension, 500mg+500mg

Cloxacillin Sodium, Neomycin Sulfate and Predinsolone

Intramammary Suspension, 300mg+200mg+10mg

Dihydrostreptomycin and Benzathin Penicillin G

Intramammary Suspension, 12,500,000 IU+5g/100ml

Dihydrostreptomycin Sulphate and Procaine Penicillin G

Injection, 200mg +200,000 IU/ml, 250mg +200000IU/ml

Intramammary suspension, 250mg + 300,000IU/dose, 500mg +300,000

IU/dose,

Powder, 133mg+45mg+Vitamins

Indications.Dihydrostreptomycin sulphate and procaine penicillin G -

sensitive organisms

Dose.Horse, cattle, sheep, pigs, 0.04 ml/kg: intramuscular injection.

Dogs, cats: intramuscular injection, 0.1ml/kg

Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 21 days, milk 2.5 days. Sheep:

slaughter 35 days. Pigs: slaughter 21 days

68


Erythromycin, Sulfadiazine and Trimethoprim

Powder, 9% + 7.5% + 1.5%, 18 %+15 %+3 %

Kanamycin Sulphate, Benzathine Penicillin and Procaine

Penicillin G

Intramammary Suspension, 75mg+300,000 IU +300,000 IU/dose

Lincomycin and Spectinomycin

Powder, 16.65g+3.35g/100g

Indication. Gastrointestinal and respiratory infections caused by lin-

comycin and spectinomycin sensitive micro-organisms, like campy-

lobacter,e.coli, mycoplasma, salmonella, staphylococcus, streptococcus,

and treponema spp., in calves, cats, dogs, goats, poultry, sheep, swine

and turkeys

Dose. Poultry: 150g/120-180 litre drinking water

Withdrawal period. Poultry: slaughter 2 days, should not be used in

egg layer hens

Drug interaction. Kaolin mixture, muscle relaxants, neostigmine

Oxytetracycline and Furazolidone

Powder, 25%+12.5%

69


Penicillin G, Penicillin G Procaine and Streptomycine Sul-

phate

Injection, 1,200,000 IU+400,000 IU+2g

Penicillin G Procain, Dihydrostreptomycin Sulphate and

Methylhydrobenzoate

Injection, 150,000IU+200mg+1g/ml

Penicillin G Procaine, Penicillin G Benzathin and Dihy-

drostreptomycin Sulphate

Injection, 15MIU +15MIU+20g/100ml

Penicillin G Sodium, Penicillin G Procain and Dihydrostrep-

tomycin

Injection, 750000 IU +750000 IU +1g/10ml, 1800000 IU

+1200000IU+2.5g/10ml, 3600000 IU+2400000 IU+5g/20ml

70


Penicillin G, Formosulphathiazol and Streptomycine Sulphate

Pessaries, 62.5mg +1.75g +50mg

Procaine Penicillin G and Neomycin

Intramammary Suspension 200,000 IU +100mg/ml

Procaine Penicillin G, Dihydrostreptomycin and Procaine Hy-

drochloride

Injection 200,000 IU +250mg +20mg/ml

Procaine Penicillin and Streptomycine Sulphate

Injectable solution, 200,000 IU +200mg/ml, 200,000 IU +250g/ml,

25,000,000 IU +25g/100ml

Sulfathiazole, Penicillin G, Streptomycine Sulphate and

Ethinyloestradiole

Pessaries, 1750mg +100,000IU +50mg +0.5mg

Sulfadiazine, Tetracycline Hydrochloride and Neomycin Sul-phateTablet, 4g + 50mg +50mg

Tylosine, Chloramphenicol and Prednisolone

Injection, 50mg+200mg +5mg /ml

71


Tylosine and Chloramphenicol

Injection, 50mg +200mg/ml

1.2. Antifungals

Antifungal drugs are used for the treatment of systemic infections such

as aspergillosis, yeast infections including candidiasis and cryptococco-

sis, and dermatophytosis (ring worm). Topical antifungal drugs are used

for the treatment of fungal infections of the skin, ear, and eye.

Griseofulvin is deposited in keratin precursor cells and concentrated in

the stratum corneum of skin, hair, and nails thus preventing fungal inva-

sion of newly formed cell. In the dog and cat, absorption of griseofulvin

is enhanced by administration with fatty meal.

Griseofulvin is active against Microsporum, Epidermophyton, and Tri-

chophyton spp. It has no effect on bacteria, including Actinomyces and

Nocardia spp, other fungi, or yeasts.

Griseofulvin may be teratogenic and therefore should not be adminis-

tered to pregnant animals.

Ketoconazole, an imidazole compound, is active against fungi and

yeasts and also against some gram-positive bacteria. Administration of

ketoconazole with food may reduce the nausea associated with the drug.

72


Prolonged administration of ketoconazole may cause liver damage and

the drug may be teratogenic.

Natamycin

Topical ointment, 10 %

Indication. Ringworm

Warnings. Treated animals should not be exposed to sunlight for sev-

eral hours; use galvanized or plastic containers because natamycin re-

acts with heavy metals such as copper.

Dose. Horses, cattle: local application 0.01 % solution, repeat after 4-

5 days and again after 14 days if required

Griseofulvin

Tablet, 125 mg

Indications. Dermatophyte infections

Contraindications. Hepatic impairment; pregnant animals

Side-effects. Leukopenia, hypoplasia, high doses may cause hepato-

toxicity, particularly in cats

Dose. Horses, donkeys: 10 m g/kg daily

Cattle: 7.5 mg/kg daily

Dogs: Cats: 15-20 mg/kg daily

Drug interactions. Phenobarbitone, phenylbutazone, prostogens,

warfarin

73


Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 5 days, milk 2 days

Ketoconazole

Tablet, 200 mg

Oral Suspension, 20 mg/ml

Indications. Systemic candidiasis, dermatophyte infections

Contraindications. In patients with known hypersensitivity to it. It

should be used with caution in patients with hepatic disease or thrombo-

cytopenia. Pregnant animal and lactating animals

Side-effects. Hepatotoxicity : anorexia ,particularly in cats

Drug interactions. There is an increased risk of hepatotoxicity if keto-

conazole and griseofulvin are administered together. Antacid, antimus-

carinic drugs, cimetidine, ranitidine, phenytoin and warfarin

Dose. Horses: For susceptible fungal infections: oral, 10 mg/kg daily.

Cats and dogs: oral, 10 mg/kg daily

(Note: Clinical antifungal effects may require 10-14 days of therapy)

Copper Sulfate

Powder 95 %

Indications. Proliferative dermatitis in cattle and sheep; footrot in

sheep

Side-effects. Stains wool

74


Warnings. Toxic, particularly to sheep, ineffective when solution is

dirty. Corrodes metal foot baths

Dose. Footbath. Cattle: copper sulphate 5-10 % solution

Sheep: copper sulphate 5-10 % solution

Local application, powder or 5% solution

Zinc sulphate

Powder (dip concentration), 99%

Indications. Control of foot rot in cattle and sheep

Dose. Footbath. Cattle: zinc sulphate 10 % solution daily

Sheep. Zinc sulphate 10 % solution after each trimming

Drug interactions. Iron salt, tetracyclines, penicillamine

1.3. Antiprotozoal Drugs

1.3.1. Anticoccidial drugs

1.3.2. Trypanocides and others

1.3.3. Combination

Protozoal diseases cause serious economic losses in livestock produc-

tion in Africa, Asia and tropical Latin America.

The significant protozoal diseases that hamper livestock production are

trypanosomiasis, babesiosis and coccidiosis. The first two diseases,

75


transmitted by insects (flies and ticks) are the main concern in large and

small animals while coccidosis caused by Eimeria is very significant in

poultry production.

1.3.1. Anticoccidial drugs

Coccidiasis, a protozoal disease, is of major economic importance in

poultry production. Other animals including calves, lambs, kids, pigs,

dogs, cats and other birds are also affected. The principal enteric coc-

cidial infection in animals is caused by Eimeria species. The protozoa

invade the gut where development stage damage the intestinal mucousa

causing diahrrhea. Intestinal damage may occur before diagnosis of

coccidiosis is possible. Disease prevention involves good husbandary

and the use of anticoccidials. Anticoccidials may suppress development

of asexual stages, sexual stages, or both. Different drugs mat act at dif-

ferent stages of the protozoal life-cycle.

The available anticoccidial drugs act by inhibiting the development of

the protozoa at their different stages of development.

As anticcoccidial drugs may interfere with egg quality, production and

fertility, prolonged medication should be discounted from the com-

mence of egg laying in replacement stock. In broilers, anticoccidial

drugs are administered until just prior slaughter.

76


Amprolium Hydrochloride

Oral solution, 38.4 mg/ml

Powder, 20%, 30%, 60%

Indication. Treatment and prophylaxis of coccidiasis. Amprolium has

good activity against Eimeria tenella, E. acervulina in poultry and can

be used as a therapeutic agent for these organisms. It only has marginal

activity or weak activity against E. maxima, E. mivati, E. necatrix, or E.

brunetti. It is often used in combination with other agents (e.g., ethopa-

bate) to improve control against those organisms.

Contraindications. Not recommended to be used for over 12 days in

puppies

Side-effects. In dogs, neural disturbances, depression, anorexia, and di-

arrhea have been reported but are rare and are probably dose-related

Drug Interactions. Exogenously administered thiamine in high doses

may reverse or reduce the efficacy of Amprolium.

Dose.

Dogs: for coccidiosis: 100-200-mg/kg, per oral in food or water for 7-

10 days.

Prophylaxis: 30 ml of 9.6% solution in one gallon (3.8 L) of drinking

water or (not both) 1.25 grams of 20% powder in food to feed 4 pups

daily. Give as sole source of food or water for 7 days prior to shipping.

Bitches may be given medicated water (as above) as the sole source of

water for 10 days prior to shipping.

Prophylaxis: 0.075% solution as drinking water

77


Cattle: for coccidiosis: 10 mg/kg, per oral for 5 days; 5 mg/kg for 21

days for prophylaxis.

Clopidol

Powder, 25%

Indication.Used as prophylaxis in Coccidiasis caused by different

species of Eimeria, in poultry

Contraindication. Not given to hen from the commence of egg lay-

ing. Should not mix with other coccidial drugs.

Side-effect. Overdose may cause in appetence

Dose. By addition to feed or drinking water, 0.0125 % in feed, 125 g/

tonne feed, premixes 250 g/kg

Withdrawal period. Poultry: Slaughter 7 days

Decoquinate

Powder, 6%

Indication. Decoquinate is labelled for use in cattle for the prevention

of coccidiosis in either ruminating or non-ruminating calves, cattle or

young goats caused by the species E. christenseni or E. ninakohlyaki-

moviae . It is used for prevention of coccidiosis in broilers caused by E.

tenella, E. necatrix, E. acervulina, E. mivati, E. maxima or E. burnetti.

Contraindication. Decoquinate is not effective for treating clinical

coccidiosis and has no efficacy against adult coccidia. Decoquinate is

78


not approved for use in animals producing milk for food or in laying

chickens.

Dose .By addition to feed or drinking water;

Poultry: 0.004 % feed; Lambs and calves, curative: 100 g/tonne feed

or 1 mg/kg body weight for 28 days; Prophylaxis: 50 g/tonne feed or

500 mg/kg body weight for 28 days.

Withdrawal period. Calves, sheep: slaughter 1 day, should not be

used in animal producing milk for human consumption

Lasalocid

Powder, 15%

Indication. Used as treatment and prophylaxis of coccidiasis in poul-

try

Dose. 75-125 g/tonne feed

Side-effect.Contraindication. Refer to clopidol

Withdrawal period. Poultry: slaughter 5 days

Monensin

Powder, 20%

Indications. Side-effects. Contraindications. See notes under

clopidol

Dose. Oral, Poultry: 200 g/kg, premix, 50-100 g/kg


79


Robendine

Powder, 6.6%.

Indication. Prophylaxis of coccidiosis

Side- effect. Contraindication. See notes under clopidol

Dose. Poultry, 33-g/tonne feeds, Premix, 66 g/kg


Toltrazuril

Oral solution, 2.5%

Indication. Prophylaxis of coccidiosis

Contraindications. Administration to animals with impaired liver

and/or renal function

Side-effects. At high dosages in laying-hens egg-drop and in broilers

growth inhibition and polyneuritis can occur.

Dose. For oral administration. Poultry: 1 litre per 500 litre drinking

water for 2 days


1.3.2. Trypanocides and Others

Chemotherapy and chemoprophylaxis are essential in the control of try-

panosomiasis, particularly in view of the lack of effective vaccines and

the problems associated with vector control. Treatment of trypanosomi-

asis frequently is complicated by development of drug resistance, toxic-

ity, and the damaging dermonecrosis produced by some of the try-

80


panocidal agents. The widely used compounds are: quinapramine, ho-

midium, pyrithidium, isometamidium, diminazene, and suramin. To

overcome or reduce resistance, these compounds are often used in se-

quence and in combination.

Quinapramine sulfate remains the most effective drug for treatment of

Trypanosoma brucei and T evansi in horses, even though it is poorly

tolerated.

Infection of T. brucei in cattle are often mild, and may be treated effec-

tively with either quinapramine or diminazene; T Vivax and T. con-

golense infections can be treated successfully with isometamidium or

diminazene, and often with both. When trypanosomes are encountered,

herd treatment should be considered since the infection probably is not

limited to sick animals, nor to those with positive blood smears. In

high-exposure, alternate treatments with isometamidium and dimi-

nazene are preferred, with the latter drug being used for strategic thera-

py.Infections that relapse after treatment should always be treated with

a drug different from the one used initially.

Diminazene Aceturate

Powder/Granule for injection, 1.1g, 1.05g, 495mg and 444mg Injection

solution (diaceturate), 35mg/ml

Indication. Diminazene aceturate is the drug of choice in the treatment

of trypanosomosis and babesiosis in animals

Side-effect.Reaction at the site of injection

81


Dose.Cattle: B bigemina, B bovis, B ovata, and B divergens; intramus-

cular injection, 3-5mg/kg. Horse: B caballi; 5mg/kg, given twice with a

24 hours interval, but 6-12 mg/kg is required for B equi. Dog: 2.5-3.5

mg/kg has been effective in B canis infection, but 5-7 mg/kg is required

for B gibsoni.

Diminazene aceturate and Phenazone

Injectable granule/powder; 444mg + 556mg, 1.05g + 1.312g

Indications. Active against Trypanosomiasis,and babesiosis. It is also

active against some bacteria Brucella and Streptococcus species. The

Drug is highly effective against Trypanosoma vivax, Trypanosom con-

golense but less effective against Trypanosoma brucei that necessitates

an increase dose in these species.

Side-effect. Reaction may occur at the site of injection.

Dose. By intramuscular or subcutaneous injection as a single dose for

the treatment of Trypanosomiasis, caused by Trypanosome vivax, Try-

panosome congolense. Babesiosis and Piroplasmosis in cattle, sheep,

horse and dog: 3.5 mg/kg (0.05 ml/kg). In Trypanosome brucei, Try-

panosome evensi and resistant cases double dose is required. It has got a

limited prophylactic effect of one month in low risk areas.

Storage.With in 5 days of preparation of the solution at room tempera-

ture or 14 days in refrigerator

82


Homidium

Tablet, 250mg

Indication. Active against Trypanosome congolense, Trypanosome vi-

vax, but less active against Trypanosome brucei is not effective against

Trypanosome evensi; see notes above.

Side-effect.Local swelling at injection site and transient lameness

Dose. By intramuscular injection, 1mg/kg once a day for 1 month de-

pending upon the challenge

Isomethamidium chloride

Powder for injection, 125mg and 1g.

Indications. Effective against Trypanosome congelense, Trypanosome

vivax, Trypanosome brucei and Trypanosome evensi .It has a consider-

able prophylactic activity with period of protection of about 6 months

Sid -effect. Local transient reaction at the injection site

Dose. By intramuscular injection, as a single dose, Curative: 0.5 mg/

kg. Resistant case: 1-2 mg/kg. Prophylaxis: 2 mg/kg

Quinapramin sulfate

Powder for injection, 1g

Indication.Effective against Trypanosoma congolense, Trypanosome

vivax,Trypanosome evensi (check spelling), Trypanosome equiperdium,

Trypanosome equinum. Trypanosome brucei is less susceptible. See

notes above

83


Side-effects.Trembling, sweating, salivation, increased respiration and

heart rate, collapse and death

Dose. By subcutaneous injection, as a 10 % solution. In horse 5 % so-

lutions intramuscularly at divided dose of 2-3 different sites.

Based on animal weight:

Less than 150 kg body weight: 4.4 mg/kg

150-200 kg body weight:1 g

200-350 kg body weight: 1.5 g

Greater than 350 kg body eight: 2 g

1.3.3. Combination

Amprolium and Ethopabate

Powder, 25%+1.6%

Indication.Prevention and treatment of coccidiosis in poultry, claves,

and lambs

Amprolium, Sulfaquinoxaline, Ethopabate and

Pyremethamine

Oral solution, 20g+12g+1g+1g/100ml

Indication. Prevention and treatment of coccidiosis in poultry, claves,

and lambs

Amprolium, Sulfaquinoxaline and Ethopabate

84


Powder, 20%+2%+1%


and lambs

Amprolium and Sulfaquinoxaline

Powder, 1.67%+1.67%


and lambs

Amprolium hydrochloride and Vitamin K

Powder, 20%+0.2%


and lambs

Amprolium, Furazolidone, Vitamin K and Vitamin A

Powder, 0.2%+10%+2.5%+2%


and lambs

Amprolium, Sulfaquinoxaline and Vitamin K

Powder, 16.5% + 18.5% + 5%, 20% + 20% + 2%


and lambs

85


1.4. Anthelmintic Drugs

1.4.1. Benzimidazoles

1.4.2. Imidazothiazole

1.4.3. Microcyclic Lactones

1.4.4. Other Anthelmintic Drugs

1.4.5. Combined Anthelmintics

Anthelmintics are a group of drugs employed for the treatment or con-

trol of internal parasitic infections. In livestock, the pathogenic parasitic

organisms include, Nematodes (round worms), Trematodes (flukes) and

Cestodes (tapeworms). The spectrum activities of many anthelmintic

drugs are limited by the biological diversities that exist among and with

in the groups of the parasitic species.

The prominent parasitic diseases in ruminant include; gastroenteritis,

bronchitis and cirrhosis while in Horse, strongyloids and ascaris infec-

tions are common. Poultry suffers from gastrointestinal roundworms,

gapeworms and tapeworms. In carnivores, however, in addition to the

infestation of round worms and ascaris, tapeworms have got a great

zoonotic importance such as echinococosis.

86


1.4.1. Benzimidazoles

Benzimidazoles are a group of broad-spectrum anthelmintic drugs with

high degree of efficacy and good margin of safety, and similar mode of

action. They disrupt energy metabolism of the parasites by binding to

tubulin, a protein required for the up take of nutrient in the parasites.

Benzimidazoles are compatible with most drugs when administered si-

multaneously. They are active against both larval and adult forms of

roundworms, while some are ovicidal. Some such as albendazole and

triclabendazole are effective against liver flukes. Most are active against

tapeworms at repeated dose.

In swine and carnivores, curative treatment needs repeated dose. But in

ruminants and Horse due to the reservoir effect of rumen and large in-

testine, single doses are sufficient. The group is also used as prophylac-

tic therapy.

Benzimidazoles are generally indicated against parasitic roundworms.

Some of the groups, the more recent analogue, such as albendazole is

also effective against adult liver flukes and tape worms while triclaben-

dazole is effective to both immature and adult liver flukes but not

roundworms and tapeworms. Benzimidazoles are poorly soluble in wa-

ter and administered orally in the form of suspension, pellet, bolus,

granule, powder or paste. At therapeutic dose, the group is safe even in

87


sick, debilitated or young animals. At higher dose, they are teratogenic

and embryotoxic when administered at early gestation period.

Milk should not be consumed during treatment and meat during the first

few days. They should not be given to animals during their early gesta-

tion period.

Albendazole

Bolus, 120mg, 150mg, 200mg, 250mg, 300mg, 500mg, 600mg, 1000mg,

1125mg, 1500mg, 1875mg and 2500mg,

Oral powder, 20% and 30%,

Paste, 15g,

Oral suspension, 1.5%, 2.5%, 5%, 10% and 12.5%

Indication. Gastro-intestinal round worms, tapeworms and adult liver

flukes.

Side-effect. Hypersensitivity and also see notes above

Contraindication. The drug is not approved for use in lactating dairy

cattle. The manufacturer recommends not administering to female cattle

during the first 45 days of pregnancy or for 45 days after removal of

bulls. Albendazole has been associated with teratogenic and embry-

otoxic effects in rats, rabbits and sheep when given early in pregnancy.

Dose.Per oral as a single dose,

Roundworms: cattle, 7.5 mg/kg; sheep and horse, 5 mg/kg Tapeworm

and liver flukes: cattle, 10 mg/kg; sheep and goat, 7.5 mg/kg.

88


Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 14 days,milk 4 days.

Sheep: slaughter10 days, Should not be used in sheep producing milk

for human consumption

Fenbendazole

Bolus, 250mg and 750mg

Granule/ Powder, 4%, 20%, 22% and 25%

Paste, 20g

Oral suspension 2.5%, 5%, 10% and 12.5%

Indication.Gastro-intestinal roundworms, lungworms and tapeworms

in ruminants, horses, swine, carnivores and poultry

Contraindication. Side-effect. See notes above

Note: Cattle with heavy lungworm infestation may suffer from allergic re-

sponse to treatment as result of the death of worms insitue.

Dose. Oral, as single dose: cattle and horse: 7.5-mg/ kg;

Sheep, goat, swine: 5 mg /kg. Pets: 50 mg /kg daily for 3 days

Poultry: 20-mg/ kg


Sheep: slaughter 21 days, milk 5 days

Flubendazole

Powder 5%

89


Indication.Gastrointestinal roundworms, lungworms, gapeworm and

tapeworms in pigs and poultry

Contraindication . Side-effect. See notes above

Dose. Oral route, pigs: 5 mg /kg or 30g/tonne feed

Poultry: roundworms, 30g/tonne feed. Tapeworms, 20g/tonne feed-

broiler

Withdrawal period. Pigs: slaughter 14 days. Poultry: slaughter 7

days, egg 7 days

Mebendazole

Tablet, 100mg.

Oral granule, Powder 4% and 10%.

Paste, 4g/40g, 200mg/ g

Suspension, 33.3mg/ml and 166.7mg/ml.

Indication. Gastro-intestinal roundworms, lungworms and tape worm

in ruminants, horse, pets and poultry. It is also active against larval

stage of tapeworm (in intermediate host) and filarial infection of dog.

Contraindication.Administartion during first 4 months of pregnancy

in donkey treated for Dictyocaulus

Side-effect. Occasional mild diarrhoea

Dose. Per oral: sheep 10-19 mg /kg

Horses, donkey: roundworms, 5-10mg/kg, dictyocaulus arnfiledi in

donkeys, 15-20 mg/kg daily for 5 days

90


Poultry, 60 g/tonne feed and pets, 25-60 mg/kg three times daily for 5

days.

Withdrawal period. Poultry: slaughter 14 days. Sheep: slaughter 7

days, milk 1 day

Oxfendazole

Oral suspension, 22.65mg/ml, 90.6mg/ml

Indication. Gastrointestinal roundworms, lungworms, tapeworms and

also inhibits larvae of nematodes

Contraindication. First 35 days pregnancy in dogs

Side-effect. Hypersensitivity may occur

Note: Do not administer to non-ruminating cattle and concurrent with other bo-

lus, except specified by manufacturer. Do not administer to cattle vaccinated

against lungworm until 10 to 14 days after the second dose of vaccination.

Dose. As a single dose; cattle: oral, 4.5 mg/kg. Sheep: oral, 5 mg/kg.

Horse: oral, 10 mg /kg. Pets: oral 10 mg/kg daily for 3 days


Sheep: slaughter 21 days.

Oxibendazole

Bolus 400mg, 2000mg

Powder 5%

Oral suspension, 22.65mg/ml, 50mg/ml, 90.6mg/ml

91


Indication. Gastrointestinal roundworms and lungworms

Contraindication.Hypersensitivity and early gestation

Dose. As single dose,

Cattle and sheep: oral, 5-10 mg/ kg. Pigs: oral, 15 mg /kg. Horses: 10

mg/kg, Strongyloides westeri, 15mg/kg

Withdrawal period. Pigs: slaughter 14 days. Cattle: slaughter 14

days, milk 2 days

Triclabendazole

Bolus 200mg, 250mg, 300mg, 900mg and 1800mg

Oral suspension, 5 %, 10 %, 20 %,

Indication. Immature and adult liver fluke

Contraindication. Side-effect. See notes above.

Dose. As a single dose,

Cattle, horses: oral, 12mg/ kg

Sheep: oral, 10mg/ kg


Sheep: slaughter 28 days,should not be used in sheep producing milk


Febantel

Paste 7.5%

Oral suspension, 25mg/ml and 100mg/ml.

92


Indication. Gastro-intestinal roundworms, lungworms, tapeworm

Contraindication. See notes above

Side-effect. Horse: mouth irritation with resultant salivation, occa-

sional diarrhea and colic. Cats and dogs: salivation, anorexia, and diar-

rhea

Dose.Cattle: oral, 7.4 mg /kg. Sheep: oral, 5 mg/kg. Horses: oral, 6

mg/kg


Sheep: slaughter 14 days, should not be used in sheep producing milk

for human consumption.

1.4. 2. Imidazothiazole

Imidazothiazole is a group of anthelmitic drug effective against round-

worms. The group acts by interfering with parasitic nerve transmission

causing muscular paralysis that result in to rapid expulsion of the worm.

It is effective against adult and larval gastro-intestinal roundworm and

lungworm infection including Protostrongylus infection. Most worms

expelled with in 24 hours of administration.

Levamisole when given for prolonged period of time may improves de-

pressed cell mediated immune system of the body by restoring de-

pressed T-cell function, and also stimulates monocytes and phagocytes.

It also has antiviral and antifungal activity.

93


Levamisole

Bolus, 200mg, 300mg, 400mg, 600mg, 700mg

0.1g, 1g, 1125mg, 1.875g and 2.19g

Powder, 10% and 20%

Oral suspension, 100mg/ml, 75mg/ml, 50mg/ml, 30mg/ml and 15mg/ml,

Pour-on, 20 %

Injection, 2mg/ml, 75mg/ml and 100mg/ml

Indication.Gastrointestinal roundworms in ruminants, pigs, and pi-

geons; Type II ostertagiasis (not pretype II); lungworm in ruminants,

pigs and dogs; heartworm treatment in dogs; immune stimulation

Side-effect. Frothing, salivation, tremor, transient head shaking, lick-

ing of lips, urination, defecation, vomiting, ataxia, collapse and death

due to respiratory failure

Contraindication. Administration within 14 days of treatment with

organophosphorus compound or diethyl carbamazine . Don't exceed 4.5

g per dose in cattle

Dose. Horse: immune stimulation, oral, 6.5 mg/kg daily for 14 days; by

intramuscular injection, 5.5 mg/kg. Cattle: oral, or subcutaneous injec-

tion, 7.5 mg/kg; by 'pour-on' application, 10 mg/kg

Sheep: oral or subcutaneous injection, 7.5 mg/kg. Pigs: subcutaneous

injection, 7.5 mg/kg

Dogs: oral, 10 mg/kg for 3 days. Immune stimulation, 0.5-2.0 mg/kg

every 2-3 days

94


Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 28 days, milk 3 days. Sheep:

slaughter 28 days, should not be used in sheep producing milk for hu-

man consumption

Tetramisole

Bolus, 0.15g, 0.6g, 1g, 1.2g, 1.5g, 2g

Powder, 10%, 20%, 30%

Injection, 30 mg/ml, 100mg/ml

Indication.Contraindication.Side-effect. See notes under Leva-

misole

Dose. Cattle, sheep, goat, pig, 15 mg/kg. Dog and cat :5 mg/kg for 6

days

1.4.3. Microcyclic Lactones

Microcyclic lactones are compound derived from fermentation products

of soil dwelling bacteria of genus Streptomyces.The product is active

against both gastro-intestinal roundworms and ectoparasites in animal

when used at lower concentration. In nematodes and arthropodes, aver-

mectine potentiate GABA mediated neurotransmission and initiates the

chloride ion influx and lower cell membrane resistance resulting into

hyper polarization of the resting potential of post synaptic cells and

causes the flaccid paralysis and death or expulsion of the parasite. In

mammal, GABA mediated neurotransmission is limited to CNS, and the

95


compound do not readily cross BBB. This provides the product a wide

safety margin.

Ivermectine is active against many parasites including arrested and de-

veloping larvae and adults of the important cattle and sheep nematodes.

Abamectin, a closely related compound, has a similar spectrum of activ-

ity. Ivermectin displays no activity against cestodes or trematodes, pre-

sumably because these parasites do not utilize GABA as a neurotrans-

mitter.

In dogs, ivermectin should not be used at doses greater than those rec-

ommended for heartworm prophylaxis because it may cause toxicity in

certain blood-lines, for example rough-haired Collies. The clinical signs

of toxicity are ataxia, depression, tremors, recumbency, and mydriasis.

Horse carrying heavy infections of Onchocerca may develope transiet

oedema and pruritus following treatment. This may be due to the sud-

den death of large number of microfilariae.

Ivermectine

Injection, 10mg/ml,

Oral powder, 0.2%

Capsule, 10mg,

Bolus, 1.72g and 5mg

Oral solution, 800mcg/ml,

96


Pastes, 1.876%, 0.2% and 8%,

Solution, Pour-on; 5mg/ml.

Indication.Gastro-intestinal roundworms and lungworms in horses,

ruminants, and pigs; Type II ostertagiasis in horses, ruminants; horse

bots; some lice and mites on cattle and pigs; warble fly larvae in cattle,

nasal bots in sheep; heartworm prophylaxis in dogs for export; mites on

cats. In cattle, ivermectin is approved for use in the control of gastroin-

testinal roundworms (adults and 4th stage larva), lungworms (adults and

4th stage larva), cattle grubs (parasitic stages), sucking lice, and mites

(scabies).

Side-effects. Ataxia, depression, tremors, mydriasis, listlessness, mus-

culoskeletal pains, oedema of the face or extremities, itching and papu-

lar rash

Contraindication.Ivermectin is not recommended for use in puppies

less than 6 weeks old. The injectable products for use in cattle and

swine should be given subcutaneously only; do not give intramuscularly

or intravenously. Administration of ruminal boluses to non-ruminating

cattle; administration to calves less than 12 weeks of age

Dose.Horse: oral, 0.2mg/kg. Cattle: by 'pour-on' application, 0.5mg/

kg; by subcutaneous injection, 0.2 mg/kg. Sheep, goat: oral 0.2 mg/kg.

Pigs: oral, 0.1mg/kg daily for 7 days; by subcutaneous injection, 0.3

mg/kg. Dogs: heartworm prophylaxis, oral, 6 microgram/kg every

month. Cats:Otodectes, subcutaneous injection, 0.3 mg/kg, repeat after

3 weeks; Notoedres, subcutaneous injection, 0.4 mg/kg

97


Withdrawal period. Sheep, goat: slaughter 14 days. Cattle: slaugh-

ter 28 days. Pigs: slaughter 28 days

Abamectine

Injection, 10mg/ml,

Capsule, 10mg,

Tablet, 5mg,

Oral powder, 2mg/g,

Oral solution, 20mg/ml,

Paste, 20mg/g,

Pour-on, 5mg/ml

Indication. Treatment of gastrointestinal nematodes, lice, lung worm

infections, oestriasis and scabies

1.4.4. Other Anthelmintic Drugs

Oxyclozanide

Bolus 340mg and 2700mg,

Oral suspension; 34mg/ml

Indication. Mainly active against adult Fasciola in ruminants.

Dose. Cattle: Oral, 10 mg/kg. Sheep, goat, oral, 15 mg/kg

Side-effect. Occasional increased defaecation and inappetance in cattle


98


Sheep: slaughter 28 days, should not be used in sheep producing milk


Praziquantel

Bolus, 3125mg,

Tablet, 50mg,

Injection, 56.8mg/ml

Indication.Effective against all tapeworms; Echinococcus, Taenea,

Dipylidium caninum, Taenia pisiformis and Echinococcus granulosus in

dogs, and Dipylidium caninum and Taenia taeniaeformis in cats

Contraindication.Do not give to puppies of less than 4 weeks age

and kittens of less than 6 weeks age

Side-effect. It causes occasional vomiting, transient pain at injection

site

Dose.Horse: oral 10mg/kg. Dogs, cats: oral, 5mg/kg; subcutaneous or

intramuscularly injection, 3.5-7.5 mg/kg.Sheep, goats: for all species of

Moniezia, Stilesia, or Avitellina:

10 - 15 mg/kg

Piperazine

Tablet, 50mg and 500mg,

Powder, 65%,

Syrup, 100mg/ml

Indication. Roundworms in horses, pigs, dogs, cats, and poultry

99


Contraindication. Renal impairment

Side-effects. Occasional emesis and diarrhea

Dose. Horses: parascaris, up to 160 mg/kg. Pigs: Ascaris, up to 160

mg/kg. Dogs, cats: Toxocara, Toxascaris, 80 mg/kg; Ancylostoma,

Uncinaria, 120-240 mg/kg. Poultry: Ascaridia, 200 mg/bird;

Capillaria, 400 mg/bird

Drug interaction. Pyrantel, morantel, laxative

Closantel

Liquid, 50mg/ml, 150mg/ml

Indication. Immature and adult Fasciola, nasal bot and benzimidazole

-resistant Haemonchus in sheep

Dose. Sheep: 10 mg/kg

Withdrawal period. Sheep: slaughter 28 days, should not be used in

sheep producing milk for human consumption or manufacturing pur-

pose

Pyrantel pamoate

Paste, 9.5%

Indication.Gastro-intestinal roundworms in horses and dogs; tape-

worm in horses

Contraindications.Use with caution in severely debilitated animals.

Foal less than 4 weeks of age

Side-effect.Emesis in small animals

100


Drug interactions. Morantel, levamisole, organophosphate, diethyl-

carbamazine, piperazine

Dose.Horse: 6.6 mg (as base)/kg; 13.2 mg (as base)/kg for cestodes

Storage.Store at room temprature

1.4.5. Combined Anthelmintics

Multiple parasitic infestations are a rule rather than exception in domes-

tic animals. Animals are usually infected with roundworms, cestodes

and trematodes at the same time. This necessitates the use of combined

anthelmintic drugs that have complementary properties to attain ex-

tended ranges of activity. In ruminants the most combination of an-

thelmintic preparation includes drugs that are effective against both

trematode and roundworms of domestic animals.

Levamisole and Triclabendazole

Oral suspension, 37.5mg + 50mg/ml, 75mg + 120mg/ml

Indication. For roundworm and flukes in cattle and sheep

Contraindications. Impaired liver function

Dose.Oral suspension, levamisole hydrochloride 75mg, triclabendazole

120mg/ml, for roundworm and flukes in cattle: 0.1 ml/kg

Oral suspension, levamisole hydrochloride 37.5mg, triclabendazole

50mg/ml, for roundworm and flukes in Sheep:0.2ml/kg

Drug interaction. Pyrantel, organophosphates

101


Withdrawal periods. Cattle, sheep: slaughter 28 days, should

not be used in cattle and sheep producing milk for human con-

sumption

Levamisole and Oxyclozanide

Bolus, 0.3g + 0.6g, 0.450g + 0.450g, 1g+ 1.4g,

1.5g + 3g, 2g + 1.4g,

Oral suspension; 15mg+ 30mg/ml, 30mg + 60mg/ml

Indication.Prophylaxis and treatment of gastrointestinal and lung-

worm infections in cattle, calves, sheep and goats like:

Trichostrongylus,Cooperia,Ostertagia,Haemonchus,

Nematodirus,Chabertia,Bunostomum and Dictyocaulus spp.

Contraindications. Administration to animals with an impaired liver

function

Dose.Oral suspension, levamisole hydrochloride 15 mg, oxyclozanide

30mg/ml for roundworms and flukes in cattle, sheep:0.5ml/kg

Drug Interactions. Concurrent administration with pyrantel, moran-

tel or organophosphates

Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 28 days, milk 3 days. Sheep:


man consmption

Levamisole and Bithonoloxide

Oral suspension, 1.5% + 8%

102


Indication. Roundworm and trematodes

Levamisole and Niclosamide

Bolus, 150mg + 2250mg


Levamisole and Rafoxanide

Oral suspension, 1.5% + 3%, 1.5% +1.5% and 3% +3%.


Tetramisol and Oxyclozanide

Bolus, 150mg + 300mg, 450mg + 450mg, 450mg + 420mg and

2 g + 1.4 g

Oral suspension, 3% + 3%


Drug-interaction.Combination of two or more oganophosphorous

compund or drugs with anticholinestrase activity

Praziquantel and Pyrantel

Tablet, 20mg + 230mg

Indication.Used to remove Tapeworms (Dipylidium caninum, Taenia

taenieformis), Hookworms (Ancylostoma tubaeforme), and Large

Roundworms (Toxocara cati) in cats and kittens

103


Note: Tablets may be given directly oral or offered in a small amount of food.

Do not withhold food from the cat prior to or after treatment.

Praziquantel and Niclosamide

Bolus, 350mg + 3650mg

Indication. Roundworm, tapeworm and trematodes

Praziquantel , Pyrantel embonate and Febantel

Tablet, 50mg + 144mg + 150mg

Indication. For removal of Tapeworms (Dipylidium caninum, Taenia

pisiformis, Echinococcus granulosus, and removal and control of

Echinococcus multilocularis). For removal of Hookworms (Ancy-

lostoma caninum, Uncinaria stenocephala), ascarids (Toxocara canis,

Toxascaris leonina), and whipworms (Trichuris vulpis) in dogs.

Contraindication. Do not use in pregnant animals.

Dogs treated with elevated levels (6 consecutive days with 3 times the

labeled dosage rate) of the combination of febantel and praziquantel in

early pregnancy demonstrated an increased incidence of abortion and

fetal abnormalities

Dose.1 tablet /10 kg

Storage.At room temperature

Abamectin and Praziquantel

Paste, 3.7mg + 46.3mg/dose

104


Indication.Roundworm, tapeworm, trematodes and external parasites

Ivermectin and Praziquantel

Injection, 1.2% + 12%, 1.2% + 15%.

Indication.Roundworm, tape worm, trimatodes and external parasites

Oxyfendazole and Oxyclozanide

Oral suspension, 22.65mg +62.5mg/ml

Indication.For roundworm, tapeworm, and flukes in cattle and sheep

Dose. Cattle and sheep :0. 2ml/kg


slaughter 28 days

Triclabendazole and Rafoxanide

Oral suspension, 14.6% + 2.5%

Indication.For roundworm, tapeworm, and flukes in cattle and sheep

2.Acaricides and Insecticides

Ectoparasiticides are compounds intended to control external parasitic

infestation that harbour in or on the skin of animals there by inflict in-

jury. Some ectoparasites such as oestrus ovis transiently survive in the

body.

105


External parasites cause high economic losses through weight loss, re-

duced milk yield, skin damage by injury or blood sucking or annoying

the animal. Some are still responsible to transmit economically signifi-

cant diseases such as Trypanosomiasis; Babesiosis and heart water,

African horse sickness.

The control of external parasitic infestation needs the use of different

preparations of ectoparasiticides. They are available for application by

various methods including dip, spray, “pour-on”, “spot-on” aerosol, col-

lar, tag, shampoo and parenteral. Different formulations are prepared to

indicate for different parasites.

Typically, formulations used are, liquid concentrations requiring dilu-

tion with water to produce an emulsion for application. However, de-

pending on individual circumstances such as availability of animal, han-

dling facilities and operation system, the more convenient ready-for-use

preparation such as ‘spot-on’ ‘pour-on’, collar and tags provide the user

with a broad choice of application system.

Systemic acting preparations are available in the form of injection. Iver-

mectin, pour-on solution is poured along the dorsal midline of animal or

spot-on method, applied to a smaller area on head or back.

Ectoparasiticids are toxic to animals and operators. They are also harm-

ful to the environment. As a result, care should be taken with dosage

handling, storage, disposal of unused materials and containers.

106


2.1.Organophosphates and Chlorides

Organophosphorus is a yellow to deep brown oily liquids or yellow to

white crystalline powder most have garlic like odour.

The compounds inhibit cholinesterase; thereby interfere with neuromus-

cular transmission in the ectoparasites. In animal over dosage cause ab-

dominal pain, diarrhea, salivation, tremor, pupil constriction and death

may occur from respiratory failure. Toxicity of organophosphorus is

combated with competitive antagonists such as atropine.

Although most organophosphorus compounds are not persistent in the

environment they may be toxic to livestock, human and wild life an ad-

equate precaution should be taken to avoid environmental contamina-

tion. Aquatic animals, bees and bird are susceptible to the compounds.

The common organophosphorus compounds in use are: chlorfenvin-

phos, diazinone, dichlorovos, fenthion and phosmet.

Organophosphoruses are indicated for, ticks, keds lice, biting flies war-

ble fly, oestrus ovis, gasterophylus larva, manges, keds, glossina species

and other biting flies.

Chlorfenvinphos

Liquid, 10%w/v

Indication. Blowfly larvae, keds lice and tick on sheep

107


Dose. Dip concentrate, chlorfenvinphos 10%, phenols 30.5 %, for

sheep; 4.5 litres, 11.25 litres, 22.5 litres to be diluted before use

Warnings. Not approved for sheep scab control

Withdrawal period. Sheep: slaughter 14 days, should not be used on

sheep producing milk for human consumption

Drug interactions. Combination of two or more organophosphorus

compounds or drugs with anticholinestrase activity

Diazinon

Liquid 15%w/v, 16.2%, 20% and 60% w/v

Collar, 15%w/v

Indication. Blowfly larvae, keds lice, Psoroptes and tick on sheep;

fleas and ticks on dogs and cats

Side-effect. Occasional skin irritation and alopecia

Warning.Some diazinon-containing dip concentrates contain

epichlorhydrin 1%; adequate ventilation should be provided for opera-

tor working continuously with these preparations. Children should not

be allowed to play with collar

Dose.Dip concentrate, diazinon 60%, for sheep, 2.5 litres, 5 litres. To

be diluted before use

Collar: cats, dogs; place around dog's or cat's neck

Withdrawal period. Sheep: slaughter 14 days, should not be used on

sheep producing milk for human consumption

108




Dichlorovos

Liquid, 76% w/v

Indication.For control fleas, gnats and mosquito



Fenthion

Liquid, 20mg/ml, 200mg/ml

Indication. Warble-fly larvae and lice in cattle, fleas on dog and cats

Contraindication. Calves less than 3 months of age, dogs less than 6

months of age; cats less than 1 year of age; dogs less than 3 kg body

weight, cats less than 2 kg body weight; pregnant animals before 1

months of delivery

Dose. Cattle: by 'pour-on' application, (100-200 kg body weight) 1g;

(200-300kg body weight) 1.5 g ;(300-400kg body weight) 2g;(more

than 400 kg body-weight) 2.5 g

Dogs: by ‘spot-on’ application, (3-10kg body weight) 80 mg, (11-25 kg

body-weight) 200mg, (26-50 kg body weight) 400 mg, (over 50 kg

body-weight) 600 mg. Cat: by ‘spot-on’ application, 30 mg

109


Warning. Dogs and cats should not be handled within 8 hours of ap-

plication. Milk producing animals should be treated immediately after

milking

Drug-interactions.Combination of two or more organo-phosphorus

compounds or compounds with anticholinestrase activity, levamisole,

diethylcarbamazine


Phosmet

Liquid, 200mg/ml

Indication.Warble-fly larvae in cattle, lice and mite on cattle, and

pigs; Sarcoptes, fleas, and ticks on dogs

Contraindication.Calves less than 3 month of age, dogs under 12

weeks of age,pregnant bitches .See notes under fenthion

Side- effect. All are toxic to animals and human by the virtue of

cholinesterase blocking activity. It is harmful to birds, bees, fishes and

other aquatic animals

Dose. Cattle: by' pour-on' application. Lice, 10mg/kg repeat after 10-

14 days. Mites and warble-fly larvae, 20 mg/kg as a single dose

Pigs: by 'pour -on' application, 20 mg/kg as a single dose.

Warning. Operators should take care when handling or using the com-

pounds. Personal protective equipments should be worn. Care should

be taken to avoid inhalation and any skin contamination should be

110


washed off immediately. Empty containers should be carefully disposed

to avoid environmental contamination

Drug-interactions.Combination of two or more organo-phosphorus

compounds or compounds with anticholinestrase activity

Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 14 days. Pigs: slaughter 35

days

Note. Animal producing milk for human consumption should be treated imme-

diately after milking at least 6 hours before the next milking

2.2. Carbamate

Carbaryl and propoxur are carbamates. These drugs cause inhibition of

cholinesterase at the parasite nerve synapses but unlike organophospho-

rus compounds spontaneous reversible.

Carbaryl and propoxur are used mainly for flea control.

Carbaryl

Collar, 5%

Indication. Fleas and ticks on dogs and cats

Contraindication. Use of other ectoparasiticides concurrently or

within 7 days of removal of collar; kittens less than 6 months of age

Side effect. Occasional skin irritationand alopecia

Drug interactions. Combination of two or more compounds or com-

pounds with anticholinestrase activity such as organophosphorous com-

pounds

111


Warning. Children should not be allowed to play with collar

Propoxur

Spray, 0.25%

Collar, 10%

Indication. Fleas and ticks on dogs and cats

Contraindication. Concurrent use with other insecticides, puppies

and kittens less than 12 weeks, nursing bitches or queens.

Side-effect.Occasional skin irritation and alopecia

Drug interactions. Combination of two or more compounds or com-

pounds with anticholinestrase activity such as organophosphorous com-

pounds

Warning. Children should not be allowed to play with collar

2.3. Pyrethrines and pyrethroids

The group exerts its action on sodium channels of parasites nerve ax-

ons, causing initial excitement then paralysis. They are applied as

spray, pour-on or spot-on.

Cypermethrin

Emulsifiable liquid, 5%, 10%w/v

Powder, 25%

Pour-on solution, 1%, 1.25%, 2%

112


Collar, 8.5%

Indication. Flies on horses and cattle; lice on horses, cattle and goats,

blowfly larvae, biting lice, tick, head flies on sheep; red mites on poul-

try

Contraindication. Treatment of lambs less than 1 week of age or dur-

ing hot weather

Side- effect. “Pour-on” preparations should not be applied to the tail

region of lambs because this could interfere with ewe-lamb recognition

Dose.Liquid concentrate, cypermethrin 5 %, for horses, poultry; 1 litre

to be diluted befor use

Horse: by spray, 125-500 ml of 0.1% solution. Poultry: by spray, 20ml

of 0.05 % solution

Sheep: by 'pour on'application. Blowfly larvae, treatment, 5-10 ml on

affected area; prophylaxis, by spray, (more than 12.5 kg body-weight

and less than 25 kg body weight), 20 ml, (more than 25 kg body-

weight) 40 ml. Headfly, 5 ml. Lice, 0.25 ml/kg (maximum 20 ml).

Ticks, (less than 10 kg body-weight) 0.5 ml/kg (maximum 40 ml).

Goat: by 'pour on' application, 0.25-0.5 ml/kg

Cattle: by 'pour on application', 10 ml

Warning. Wash udders of sprayed animals before milking apply only

on unbroken lesions

Withdarawal period. Sheep, goats: slaughter 7 days. Cattle: slaugh-

ter 7 days. Poultry: slaughter 21 days

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Deltamethrin

Pour-on solution, 1%

Emulsifiable liquid, 5%, 12.5%

Indication. Lice on cattle, sheep, pigs; flies on cattle; headflies, keds,

and ticks on sheep, blowfly larvae

Side- effect. Minor signs and discomfort with some cattle up to 48

hourse after treatment

Dose. Cattle: by 'spot on 'application, 10ml of 1% solution

Sheep, pigs: by 'spot on' application 5ml of 1% solution

Warning. Wash udder of sprayed animals before milking and adminis-

tration

Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 3 days, milk withdrawal pe-

riod is nil. Sheep: slaughter 7 days. Pigs: slaughter 21 days

Fenvalerate

Emulsified liquid, 10%, 20%

Indication. Flies, lice on cattle, tick and ticks on dogs and cats

Contraindication. Puppies less than 12 weeks of age, nursing

bitches; cats less than 6 months of age, pregnant and nursing queens

Dose. Cattle: by spray, 250-500ml of 0.1% solution

Warning.Avoid direct contamination of milk and milking machine

Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 1 days, milk withdrawal nil

114


Permethrin

Dusting powder, 1.05%,

Emulsified liquid, 0.5%,

Pour-on solution, 4%,

Shampoo, 1.05%

Indications. Culicoides and lice on horses; flies and lice on cattle;

fleas on dogs and cats

Contraindication. Puppies or kittens less than 12 weeks of age

nursing bitch or queens

Side-effect. Cats may show signs of hyperaesthesia with excitability

twitching and collapse if over dosage occurs

Dose. Dogs: by 'pour-on' application, (upto 15 mg body-weight)

1 ml; (more than 15 kg body-weight) 2ml.Do not re-apply until at least

7 days. Cattle: by 'pour-on' application, 0.1 ml/kg. Horse, donkey: by

'pour -on' application, 0.1ml/kg

Withdrawal Period. Cattle: slaughter 3 days, milk withdrawal pe-

riod is nil


diately after milking and at least 6 hours before next milking

Flumethrine

Emulsifiable liquid, 1%, 6%

Indication. Keds, lice Psoroptes, and ticks on sheep

115


Dose. Sheep: dip concentrate, flumethrin 6%, 1 litre. To be diluted be-

fore use

Withdrawal period. Sheep: slaughter withdrawal period nil, milk

withdrawal period nil


diately after milking

Warning. Not for control of blowfly larvae

2.4. Others

Amitraz

Powder/Granule, 12.5%, 25%

Pour-on, 2%w/v

Liquid, 12.5%

Indication. Lice, ticks, keds on sheep; lice, mite, and ticks on cattle;

lice and mites on pigs; Demodex on dogs

Dose. Liquid or dip concentrate, amitrazin 12.5%, for cattle, sheep,

pigs; 1 litre, 5 litres. To be diluted before use

Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 1 day, milk 2 days. Sheep:


man consuption. Pigs: slaughter 7 days

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3.Gastrointestinal Drugs

3.1. Antidiarrheal drugs

3.2. Drugs used in the treatment of bloat

3.3. Laxatives

3.1. Antidiarrheal Drugs

3.1.1. Adsorbents

3.1.2. Drugs used in the treatment of chronic diarrhea

The causative agents of diarrhea include dietary imbalance or hypersen-

sitivity, ingestion of toxins, stress, small intestinal bacterial over

growth, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, chronic inflammatory bowel

disease, colitis-X and granulomatous enteritis in horses, lymphangiecta-

sia, villous atrophy, infections due to bacteria, fungal, protozoa, viruses,

or endoparasites, and neoplasia. Diarrhea may also result as a side-ef-

fect of drug treatment. Diarrhea may cause changes in the gastro-intesti-

nal tract resulting in malabsorption of fluids and reduced digestibility of

nutrients.

Treatment includes elimination of the causative agent and supportive

therapy such as fluide and electrolyte replacement and dietary control.

Food is withheld for 24 hous in dogs and cats and about 2 to3 days in

ruminants and pigs, and oral elextrolytes are provided. This is followed

by a balanced diet and gradual reintroduction in to normal feed. Elec-

trolyte replacement solution should be offered in place of drinking wa-

117


ter or milk. Severly dehyderated animals may require parenteral fluid by

intravenous infusion in addition to oral soultion.

3.1.1.Adsorbents

Adsorbents, given oral, adsorb toxins from gastro-intestinal tract, which

may prevent irritation and erosion of the mucosa. Bismuth salts, char-

coal, zinc oxide and kaolin are available in compound preparations with

antacids and electrolyte for the treatment of non-specific diarrhea.

Kaolin does not adsorb E -coli enterotoxins and therefore has limited

use in neonatal diarrhea and may even be contraindicated. Bismuth salts

and activated charcoal may adsorb these toxins. Some absorption of sal-

icylate will occur from administration of bismuth salicylate; care should

be taken with administration to cats.

Bismuth salicylate, Sodium salicylate, Magnesium trisilicate

and Kaolin

Oral suspension, 7 g + 5g + 3.3g + 10g/100 ml

Indication. For the treatment of unspecific diarrhea

Drug interactions. Lincomycine, tetracycline

Kaolin and Pectin

Oral suspension, 200mg +4.3 mg/ml

Indication. For the treatment of unspecific diarrhea

Dose. Calves, dogs; 1-2 ml/kg 2-3 times daily

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Drug interactions. Lincomycine, tetracycline

Withdrawal period. Calves: slaughter withdrawal period nil

3.1.2.Drugs used in the treatment of chronic diarrhea

Chronic diarrhea may be caused by dietary imbalance, small intestinal

disease, parasitism, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, colitis, or occur

as a result of other systemic disease.

Sulphasalazine

Tablets, 500 mg of 100, 500

Oral suspension 50 mg/ml of 500

Indication.Treatment of Chronic colitis and maintenance of remission

Side-effects. Anorexia, vomiting, prolonged administration may cause

keratoconjunctivitis sicca

Dose.Dogs: 15-30 mg/kg 3 times daily units response then reduced to

lowest effective maintenance dose. Dose may be increased up to 40

mg/kg 3 times daily if required

Cats: 10-20 mg/kg once daily

3.2. Drugs used in the Treatment of Bloat

The normal process of fermentation of cellulose in the rumen results in

the production of gas, which is periodically eructed. Bloat occurs when

119


either the eruction reflex is inhibited, or the gas is for other reasons un-

able to escape; the gas accumulates in a stable foam form or as free gas.

Treatment of free gas bloat includes ruminal intubation or trocharisation

to allow the release of gas. Medication treatment of frothy bloat re-

quires the administration of an antifoaming agent to break down the sta-

ble foam.

Poloxalene is a nonionic surfactant used for the treatment and preven-

tion of frothy bloat. Silicones such as dimethicone reduce the surface

tension of gas bubble causing them to coalesce.

The prevention and control of bloat includes limited pasture access,

avoiding finely milled feeds, and maintaining high fibre content in the

diet. Antifoaming substances may be included in the feed, drinking wa-

ter, or sprayed on the crops.

Dimeticone

Oral suspension, 1 %, 2%

Indication. Frothy bloat

Dose. Cattle: 100 ml, sheep: 25 ml

Poloxalene

Oral suspension, 830mg/ml, 55%, 25g/30ml

Premix, 530mg/g

120


Indications. Treatment and prevention of frothy bloat

Dose. Oral liquid, poloxalene 830mg /ml, for cattle;(up to 227kg body

weight) 30ml diluted in 500 ml water;(more than 227kg body-weight)

60ml diluted in 500ml water

Premix, poloxalene 530 mg /g, for cattle; 22 mg of poloxalene /kg

body weight daily. May be increased to 44mg of poloxalene/kg

Withdrawal periods. Cattle: slaughter 3 days, milk withdrawal

periods nil

Docusate

Oral suspension, 240 mg

Indications. Treatment and prevention of frothy bloat

Contraindications. Use with caution in patients with pre-existing

fluid or electrolyte abnormalities; monitor.

Side-effects/Warnings. At usual doses, clinically significant adverse

effects should be very rare. Cramping, diarrhea and intestinal mucosal

damage are possible. The liquid preparations may cause throat irritation

if administered oral.

Drug Interactions.Theoretically, mineral oil should not be given with

docusate (DSS) as enhanced absorption of the mineral oil could occur.

However, this interaction does not appear to be of significant clinical

concern with large animals. It is less clear whether there is a significant

problem in using this combination in small animals and the concurrent

use of these agents together in dogs or cats cannot be recommended. If

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it is deemed necessary to use both docusate and mineral oil in small ani-

mals, separate doses by at least two hours.

Doses. Horses : oral, 10-20 mg/kg diluted in 2 L of warm water; may

repeat in 48 hours. 7.5-30 g (150-600 mls of a 5% solution) per oral;

or 3-5 g (60-100 mls of 5% solution) if used with mineral oil

Storage.Docusate sodium solutions should be stored in tight containers

and the syrup should be stored in tight, light-resistant containers.

3.3. Laxatives

3.3.1.Lubricant laxatives

3.3.2. Bulk-forming laxatives

3.3.3. Osmotic diuretics

3.3.1. Lubricant laxatives

Lubricant laxatives soften and lubricate the faecal mass, which allows

expulsion. Liquid paraffin and white soft paraffin are commonly used

and are thought generally safe, although prolonged use may cause prob-

lems.

Liquid paraffin may be used in the treatment of Horse colic due to im-

paction. When liquid paraffin is administered to large animals it should

be mixed with ginger or mustard to prevent inhalation, except which

given by stomach tube.

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Paraffins

Oral paste 474mg/g

Indications. Constipation

Contraindications. Prolonged use especially in young animals

Side-effects. Reduced absorption of nutrients; granulomatous lesions

may develop with prolonged use

Warning. Accidental administration into the trachea and bronchial tree

may lead to lipid pneumonitis

Dose. Cats: ½-1 inch of paste 1-2 times daily

3.3.2. Bulk-forming Laxatives

Ispaghula takes up water in the gastro-intestinal tract, thereby increas-

ing the volume of the faeces and promoting peristalsis. It is used in the

management of chronic constipation and when excessive rectal strain-

ing is to be avoided, such as following surgery for perineal hernia repair

or anal sac removal. Due to their ability to increase faecal mass they are

also used in the control of diarrhoea.

Adequate fluid intake should be provided when using bulk laxatives to

avoid intestinal obstruction.

Ispaghula husk

Oral powder, 49 %; 200 g

Oral granule, 90%; 200g

123



Contraindications.Abdominal pain, vomiting; intestinal obstruction

Warnings. Water must be available all times

Dose. Oral granules, ispaghula husk: 90 %; 200 g

Dogs: by addition to food, one-three 5 ml spoonful 1-2 times daily

Cats: by addition to food, one 5ml spoonful 1-2 times daily

Oral powder, ispaghula husk 49 %; 200 g

Dogs: by addition to food, one-three 5-ml spoonfuls 1-2 times daily

Cats: by addition to food, one 5ml spoonful 1-2 times daily

3.3.3. Osmotic Laxatives

Osmotic laxatives are hypertonic solutions of poorly absorbed sub-

stances that retain and absorb water from the tissue into the intestinal

lumen. The resulting bowel distension promotes peristalsis. Fluid

should be available throughout treatment. These drugs are particularly

contraindicated as laxatives in dehydrated animals and should not be

used in patient with renal failure.

Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt) is effective within 3 to 12 hours in

monogastric animlas and after 12 to 18 hours in ruminants.

Magnesium Hydroxide Mixture

Cream, 55 mg/ml


124


Dose. Dogs: 5-10ml

Cats: 2-6ml

Drug interactions. Muscle relaxant

Magnesium Sulfate (Epsom salt)

Powder, 49 %, 90 %


Dose. Horse: 100-400g/450kg.

Cattle: 250-500g.

Pigs: 25-125g.

Dogs: 5-25g.Cats: 2-5g

Drug interactions. Muscle relaxant

4. Cardiovascular Drugs

4.1. Diuretics

4.1.1 Thiazides

4.1.2. Loop Diuretics

4.1.3. Osmotic Diuretics

Diuretics are mainly used in veterinary medicine to reduce oedema in

cases of heart failure, hepatic disease, cerebral oedema, hypopro-

teinaemia, inflammation, and trauma.They act by promoting sodium ex-

cretion, thus reducing the volume of extracellular fluid.They also have

125


vascular effects. Diuretics reduce hypertension and have been claimed

to aid therapy of Horse epistaxis.

With prolonged therapy, there may be excessive loss of potassium and

magnesium in urine. Hypokalaemia increases the animal’s susceptibility

to toxicity from cardiac glycosides and to cardiac dysrythmiasand may

impair carbohydrate metabolism. The risk of hypokalaemia is increased

by anorexia.

Diuretics are usually classified according to their site of action because

this affects their likely side-effects.

4.1.1. Thiazides

The thiazides inhibit sodium reabsorption in the early distal tubule.

These drugs act proximal to the site of aldosterone stimulated sodium

and potassium exchange. The delivery of increased amounts of sodium

to this area causes greater potassium loss and potassium supplementa-

tion may be necessary when using thiazides for diuresis. Thiazides re-

duce urinary calcium excretion.

Thiazides are used to treat cardiac or hypoproteinaemic oedema and

may also be used as an adjunct to hormonal therapy in pseudopreg-

nancy. Thiazides have also been used in the treatment of diabetes in-

sipidus.

126


Hydrochlorothiazide remains effective for up to 12 hours and is thus

given in divided doses.

Chlorothiazide

Tablet, 500 mg

Indications. Oedema

Contraindications. Renal failure with anuria

Side-effects.Hypokalaemia (may require potassium supplementation)

Dose. Dogs, cats: 10-20 mg/kg daily

Drug-interaction.Acetazolamide, antidiabetic drugs, beta-blockers,

corticosteroids, lignocaine, quinidine

Hydrochlorothiazide

Tablet, 25mg

Indications. Oedema; inhibition of lactation in pseudopregnancy in

the bitch; diabetes insipidus

Contraindications. Side-effects .See under chlorothiazide

Dose. Dogs, cats: 1-2 mg/kg daily

Drug interaction. See under chlorothiazide

4.1.2. Loop diuretics

Loop diuretics are the most potent group of diuretics, with a rapid onset

of effect but a short duration of action. These drugs block sodium reab-

127


sorption in the loop of Henle. Loop diuretics increase magnesium excre-

tion and, as with thiazides, may cause severe potassium loss. Loop di-

uretics may potentiate the ototoxic effects of aminoglycoside antibi-

otics.

Frusemide is used to decrease oedema in conditions such as cardiovas-

cular and pulmonary oedema, hepatic and renal dysfunction, hydrotho-

rax, ascites, and non-specific oedema.

Frusemide

Tablet, 40 mg

Injection, 50 mg/ml

Syrup, 1 %

Indications. Oedema

Contraindications. Renal failure with anuria, acute glomerular

nephritis, concurrent dosing with aminoglycosides antibiotics

Side-effects. Hypokalaemia (may require potassium supplementation)

ototoxicity, hyponatraemia

Warnings.Hypokalaemia may potentiate the toxic effects of cardiac

glycosides

Dose.Horses: by intramuscular or intravenous injection, 0.5-1.0 mg/kg

1-2 times daily

Cattle. Oral; 2-5 mg/kg; by intramuscular or intravenous injection,

0.5-1 mg/kg

128


Pigs: by intramuscular or intravenous injection, 5 mg/kg

Dogs, cats: oral, 5 mg/kg 1-2 times daily, may be reduced to 1.2 mg/kg

twice daily for maintenance; by intravenous or intramuscular injection,

2.5- 5 mg/kg 1-2 times daily

Drug interactions. Acetazolamide, aminoglycoside, antidiabetic

drugs, beta-blockers, captopril, cardiacglycosides, cephalothin and other

cephalosporins, corticosteroids, lignocaine, quinidine, oestrogen

4.1.3. Osmotic Diuretics

Osmotic diuretics include hypertonic solutions of mannitol. Adminis-

tration of mannitol causes water retention with in the nephron, which

dilutes urinary sodium and opposes its reabsorption especially in the

proximal tubule and loop of Henle.

Mannitol is used to promote urine output, as in acute renal failure, or to

reduce cellular oedema in cerebral oedema. It is not suitable for the mo-

bilization of general or local oedema because it may lead to cardiac

overload. Excessive administration of mannitol can produce severe hy-

povolaemia and maintenance of extarcellular fulid volume may require

administration of an electrolyte solution such as compound of sodium

lactate intravenous infusion.

Mannitol

Injection, 10%, 20%, 25%

129


Indications. Cerebral oedema, forced osmotic diuresis

Contraindications. Congestive heart failure, pulmonary oedema

Warnings.Extravasation causes inflammation and thrombophlebitis.

Dose. Dogs: by intravenous injection, 250-500 mg/kg test dose. Re-

peat as necessary if diuresis occurs

Methenamine

Powder, 10 %

Indications. Cerebral oedema, forced osmotic diuresis

5. Central Nervous System Drugs

5.1. Analgesics/Antipyretics

5.2. Sedatives

5.1. Analgesics/Antipyretics

5.1.1 Opioid analgesics

5.1.2. Non-opioid analgesics

5.1.1 Opioid Analgesics

Opioid analgesics interact at opioid receptor sites in the CNS and other

tissues. There are three main receptor type: (mu), k (kappa), and

130


(delta). Stimulation of receptor provides analgesic (mainly at

supraspinal sites), respiratory depression, miosis, reduced gastro-intesti-

nal motility, and euphoria. K receptors stimulation gives

analgesia(mainly in the spinal cord) and less intense miosis and respira-

tory depression.Stimulation of receptors probably provides analgesia.

In the CNS, opioid analgesics modify pain perception and behavioural

reaction to pain. They also relieve anxiety and distress but may induce

drowsiness from which the animal can usually be aroused.

Opioids are contraindicated in head injury because they induce an in-

crease in cerebrospinal fluid and raise intracranial pressure, which or

may interfer with neurological examination.

Morphine remains the drug of choice for severe pain as in injury sus-

tained in road traffic accidents. Side-effects of morphine include, con-

striction of pupils, peripheral vasodilatation, respiratory depression,

vomiting, exaggerated spinal-cord reflexes, initially defaecation fol-

lowed by constipation, transient hypotension, urinary retention, sweat-

ing in horses, bradycardia but high dose can cause tachycardia in horses

and dogs, and respiratory depression in neonates if used in pregnant ani-

mals before birth.

Pethidine is a synthetic opioid analgesic that is structurally unlike mor-

phine. It produces a prompt but short -acting analgesia. Side effect and

contra-indications are similar to that morphine, although it is less likely

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to cause vomiting; it also causes less respiratory depression, which

makes it more suitable for pregnant animal prior to birth.

Buprenorphine is a partial agonist with similar side-effects and con-

traindications to morphine, although it causes less respiratory depres-

sion, only mild sedation, and does not cause constipation, excitment, or

vomiting.

Buprenorphine Hydrochloride

Injection, 0.3 mg/ml

Indications. Moderate to severe pain

Contraindications.Side-effects.See under Morphine Sulphate; less

sedation than morphine and does not cause excitement, constipation, or

vomiting

Warnings. Repeated doses may cause over-dosage

Dose. Dogs: by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, 10- 40 mcg/

kg

Cats: by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, 5 -10 mcg/kg

Drug interactions. Metoclopramide, combination with any other

CNS depressant drug

Morphine Chloride


Indication. Severe pain

132


Contraindications. Head injury and raised intracranial pressure


Dose.Dogs: by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, 200 mcg/kg

Cats: by subcutaneous injection, 100 mcg/kg

Drug interactions. Metoclopramide, combination with any other

CNS depressant drug

Pethidine Hydrochloride

Injection, 50 mg/ml

Indications. Moderate to severe pain

Contraindications.Renal impairment; see under Morphine hy-

drochloride

Side-effects.See under Morphine hydrochloride; less respiratory de-

pression and vomiting than morphine

Warnings. Hyperexcitability in cats

Dose. Horses: by intramuscular injection, 2 mg/kg

Dogs, cats: by intramuscular injection, 3.3 mg/kg

Drug interactions. Cimetidine

5.1.2. Non-opioid Analgesics

NSAIDs are analgesics, antipyretics, and have peripheral anti-inflam-

matory activity. Most act primarily by inhibiting cyclo-oxygenase lead-

ing to reduced synthesis of prostaglandins and related compounds.

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NSAIDs have been used for their analgesic and anti oedematous action

in acute inflammatory conditions including the control of pain follow-

ing surgery. Drugs such as flunixin seem to provide pain control in re-

covery period compare to and even better than that achieved with opioid

analgesic. Analgesics may be more effective if administered before re-

covery from anaesthesia. Flunixin can very occasionally precipitate

acute renal failure. Flunixin therefore cannot be recommended for use

until the patient has regained consciousness. NSAIDs have also been

used to control joint pain in various arthritides; particularly osteoarthri-

tis and they may ameliorate symptoms of endotoxaemic shock, for ex-

ample, in peracute mastitis. Flunixin has been used to reduce morbidity

and mortality in calf pneumonias by suppressing pulmonary oedema.

NSAIDs are also used to reduce pain in Horse colic.

The principal side-effect of NSAIDs is gastro-intestinal irritation and

ulceration. Lesions may occur throughout the gastro-intestinal tract and

may lead to a life-threatening plasma protein-losing enteropathy in the

horse. Other side-effects include vomiting, blood dyscrasias, hepatotox-

icity due to cholestatic and parenchymal cell damage, renal papillary

necrosis, and occasionally skin rashes. Some NSAIDs, such as aspirin,

have been shown to be teratogenic in animal studies.

Paracetamol is an analgesic but has no demonstrable anti-inflammatory

activity. It should not be administered to cats. Cats have a reduced ca-

pacity for glucuronide conjugation and the drug is converted to a reac-

tive electrophilic metabolite in this species.

134


Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin)


Bolus 15.6g, 1.4 g

Indications. Inflammation and pain, thromboembolic disorders

Contraindications. Pregnant animals, gastro-intestinal ulceration and

haemorrhage

Side-effects. Prolonged use may cause gastro-intestinal lesions

Dose. Horses: 15-100 mg/kg twice daily. Dogs: 10-25 mg/kg 3 times

daily. Cats: 10-25 mg/kg once daily or every 2 days. Cattle: 100 mg/kg

twice daily. Pigs: 10 mg/kg three or four times a day

Drug interaction. Acetazolamide, antacids, diuretics, heparin,

methotrexate ,metoclorpramide, phenytoin, warfarin

Storage. Store below 40 °C (104 °F), preferably between 15 and 30

°C (59 and 86 °F), unless otherwise specified by manufacturer

Phenylbutazone

Tablet, 25 mg, 100 mg, 200 mg


Indications. Inflammation and pain

Contraindications. Cardiac, hepatic, or renal impairment, anemia

Side-effects. See under aspirin, occasional oedema of limbs.

Dose. Horses: oral, 4.4 mg/kg twice daily on day one then 4.4 mg/kg

once daily for 4 days; by slow intravenous injection, 2.2 - 4.4 mg/kg for

up to 5 days

135


Dogs: oral or by slow intravenous injection, 2g/kg daily (maximum 800

mg) parenteral treatment should only be given for up to 3 days

Cats: 25 mg twice daily for up to 5 days. Reduce dose to 25 mg daily or

on alternate days

Drug interactions. Methotrexate, phenytoin, sulphonylureas, thyrox-

ine, warfarin

Paracetamol

Tablet, 150 mg

Indications. Controlling fever and pain; in dogs, with codeine can be

used in cases of severe, usually postoperative, pain.

Contraindications. Should not be administer to cats, should not be

used in animals with known hypersensitivity or allergy to the drug.

Side-effects. Damage to kidneys, liver and gastrointestinal tract

Dose. For dogs, 5 to 10 mg per pound (10 to 20 mg/kg), two to three

times daily.

Drug interactions. Metoclopramide, warfarin

Metamizole sodium

Injection, 150 mg/ml, 500 mg/ml

Indications. It is commonly used in the horse as an antipyretic, anal-

gesic, and anti-inflammatory

136


Side-effects.The common side-effect is injection site reactions. Pro-

longed use of metamizole may cause bone marrow suppression

(leukopenia, agranulocytosis).

Drug interaction. Chlorpromazine, phenylbutazone or barbiturates

Flunixin meglumine

Injection 50mg/ml

Indication.For the alleviation of inflammation and pain associated

with musculoskeletal disorders and alleviation of visceral pain associ-

ated with colic in the horse. In cattle it is approved for the control of

pyrexia associated with bovine respiratory disease and endotoxemia,

and for the control of inflammation in endotoxemia.

Contraindication. Patients with a history of hypersensitivity reac-

tions; not recommended to be used in breeding bulls

Side-effects. In horses following intramuscular injection, reports of lo-

calized swelling, induration, stiffness, and sweating, GI intolerance, hy-

poproteinemia, and hematologic abnormalities. In dogs, GI distress is

the most likely adverse reaction.

Cautions. Flunixin be used cautiously in animals with preexisting gas-

tro-intestinal ulcers, renal, hepatic or hematologic diseases; do not inject

intra-arterially as it may cause CNS stimulation (hysteria), ataxia, hy-

perventilation, and muscle weakness.

Dose.Horses: by Intravenous injection or oral: 1.1 mg/kg once daily

for up to 5 days.

137


Cattle: by Intravenous injection, 2.2 mg/kg once daily for up to 5 days.

Dogs: muscloskeletal disorders, post-operative pain and inflammation,

oral, 1mg/kg daily for up to 3 days. Three-day course may be repeated

once weekly for chronic musculoskeletal disorders: by subcutaneous in-

jection, 1 mg/kg daily for up to 3 days

Endotoxic shock, by slow intraveneous injection, 1mg/kg up to twice

daily for a maximum of 3 doses

Drug interactions. Phenytoin, valproic acid, oral anticoagulants,

other anti-inflammatory agents, salicylates, sulfonamides, and the sul-

fonylurea antidiabetic agents. Additionally, use flunixin cautiously with

warfarin, methotrexate, and aspirin or other ulcerigenic agents.

Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 7 days, milk 1.5 days

Diclophenac sodium

Injection, 5g/100ml

5.2. Sedatives

Sedatives produce calmness, drowsiness, and in difference to the sur-

roundings. Generally, sedatives are used for restraint, to facilitate han-

dling and transport of animals, and to modify behaviours, for example

to prevent fighting amongst pigs. They are also used to facilitate minor

surgery and x-ray examination.

There is continuous gradation of levels of sedation from light sedation

to a depth approaching anaesthesia .the level of sedation is determined

138


by the drug, dosage, route of administration, the interacting effect of

any other drugs that are being used to treat the animal at the time of ad-

ministration, and the initial degree of excitement of the animal .In gen-

eral sedatives should be administered before an animal become exited.

Once upset the animal may require a much higher dose of sedatives or

the sedative may not have an appreciable calming effect.

Phenothiazines

Phenothiazine derivatives are effective sedatives widely used in veteri-

nary practice. Acepromazine is the most commonly used representative

of the group. It produces mild to moderate sedation, but has no anal-

gesic properties .Its effect is variable and may be unpredictable, with

some excitable animals failing to show an observable response. Oral ad-

ministration particularly produces unreliable results, especially in dogs

and cats. While some effect may be seen after 15 minutes, maximum ef-

fect generally only achieved after one hour following administration.

Likewise absorption following subcutaneous is variable and hence in-

tramuscular or intravenous administration is preferred.

Contraindication for the use of phenothiazine derivatives include pre-

medication for procedures that may promote epileptiform seizures, such

as myelograph, premedicaton of known epileptic animals, and treatment

of status epilepticus because these drugs decrease the seizure threshold.

Sedation of post-trauma patients is also contra-indicated because ace-

promazine causes hypotension, which may be fatal in hypovolaemic an-

139


imal. In the male horse the drug can cause priapism, paraphimosis and

paralysis of the retractor penis muscle.

Alpha2-adrenoceptor Stimulants

Xylazine is alpha2-adrenoceptor stimulant, with marked sedative, mus-

cle relaxant, and analgesic properties. Sedation is dose dependant for all

drugs, but at higher doses there is an increased incidence of side-effects.

Characteristics of the group is the marked bradycardia produced at even

moderate doses. There is a subsequent moderate hypotension, hypergly-

caemia and polyuria with all drugs in this groups.

Xylazine is used in cats, dogs, horses, and cattle as a sedative to allow

minor procedure (with local anesthesia) and to facilitate handling .In

dogs and cats, vomiting frequently occurs after administration of xy-

lazine. Therefore, it is contra-indicated in animals with gastro-intestinal

obstruction.

Acepromazine maleate


Injection, 2 mg/ml, 10 mg/ml

Oral paste, 8.9 mg/ml

Indications. Pre-anesthetic medication; sedation; motion sickness

Contraindications. Manufacturer does not recommend use in male

horses, pregnant female animals, epileptics, concurrent use with

140


organophosphorus compounds or procaine hydrochloride in horses;

horses should not be ridden within 36 hours of treatment.

Side-effects.Hypotension,thrombocytopenia; platelet dysfunction,

protrusion of nictitating membrane in dogs and cats

Warning. May cause syncope in canine brachycephalic breeds, cause

in renal impairment, large breed dogs

Dose. Horses: oral, 130 -250 mcg/kg; by intramuscular or slow intra-

venous injection, 30-100 mcg/kg

Dogs: oral, 0.25-3 mg/kg, by subcutaneous, intramuscular or slow in-

travenous injection, 30-125 mcg/kg (maximum 4 mg).

Drug interactions. Antiepileptic drugs, antimuscarinic drugs, meto-

clorpramide, combination with any other CNS depressant drugs

Xylazine

Injection 20mg/ml, 100mg/ml

Indications. Sedation, pre-anaesthetic medication; general anaesthesia

in combination with ketamine

Contraindications. Latter stage of pregnancy in animals, except par-

turition, mechanical obstruction of the gastro-intestinal tract in dogs and

cats; concurrent administration of sympathomimetics.

Side-effects.Vomiting in dogs and cats; cardiac arrhythmias; bradycar-

dia; polyuria, hypoxaemia

Warnings.Caution when pulmonary disease is present or suspected;

transient rise followed by fall in blood pressure in horses

141


Dose. Horses: by intramuscular injection, 2.2-3 mg/kg; by slow intra-

venous injection, 0.6-1.1mg/kg

Cattle: by intramuscular injection, 50-300mcg/kg

Dogs: by subcutaneous, intramuscular (preferred), or intravenous injec-

tion, 1-3 mg/kg

Cats: by intramuscular injection, 3mg/kg

6. Drugs used in anaesthesia

6.1. General Anaesthetics

6.2. Local Anaesthetics

6.1. General Anaesthetics

6.1.1. Antimuscarinic pre-anaesthetic medication

6.1.2. Injectable Anaesthetics

6.1.3. Inhalation Anaesthetics

The main aims of general anaesthesia are to produce unconsciousness,

immobility, and muscle relaxation so that surgical or other procedures

may be performed painlessly. Most anaesthetic drugs also cause pro-

found alteration in the function of vital body systems, in particular the

cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Careful techinique with atten-

tion to basic principle such as airway management, constant patient

monitoring, and the use of properly maintained equipment, all contrib-

ute to good anaesthetic practice with minimal complications.

Most anaesthetic drugs have a narrow therapeutic index and careful at-

tention to dose rates is required. Anaesthetic drugs cause respiratory

142


depression and, in general, during anesthesia the inspired oxygen con-

centration should not be less than 30 %, which necessitates supplemen-

tal oxygen in all cases.

Pre-anesthetic medication is appropriate in most patients. The main

aims are to calm the patient, provide analgesia if needed, reduce the

dose of anaesthetic agent, reduce or counteract the side-effects of anaes-

thetic drugs, and to provide a smooth anaesthetic induction and recov-

ery. These aims are generally achieved by using sedatives, opioid anal-

gesics, and antimuscarinic drugs either alone or in combination.

6.1.1. Antimuscarinic Pre-anaesthetic Medication

Antimuscarinic drugs are used to reduce salivation and bronchial secre-

tion and to prevent and treat vagally-mediated cardiac arrhythmias

caused by the procedure or anaesthetic drugs.

Atropine is not recommended as premedicants in horses because the

central excitation and mydriasis that these drugs produce can be un-

pleasant, and gastro-intestinal motility will be reduced.

Administration of antimuscarinic drugs to ruminants does not inhibit

salivation but results in production of more viscid saliva and is therefore

generally contraindicated in these species.

Atropine sulphate

143


Injection, 600 mcg/ml, 1 mg/ml

Indications.Drying secretions; adjunct in gastro-intestinal disorders

characterized by smooth muscle spasm

Contraindications. Glaucoma; pre-existing tachycardia, ventricular

arrhythmias; known myocardial ischaemia

Side-effects. Tachycaradia, constipation; urinary retention, dilatation

of pupils and photophobia.

Dose. By subcutaneous injection: Horses, cattle: 30-60 mcg/kg

Sheep: 80-160 mcg/kg. Pigs: 20-40 mcg/kg

Dogs, cats: 30-50 mcg/kg

Drug interactions. Ketoconazole, methoclorpramide, phenothiazine

derivatives

Withdrawal period. Cattle: slaughter 14 days (parasympatholytic

use), 28 days (antidote use); milk 3 days (parasympatholytic use), 6

days (antidote use). Sheep, pigs: slaughter 14 days (parasympatholytic

use), 28 days (antidote use).

6.1.2. Injectable Anaesthetics

Injectable anaesthetics have a rapid onset of action and are commonly

used as induction agents to effect rapid passage through the light planes

of anaesthesia during which the patient may struggle.

Most injectable anaesthetics cause respiratory depression; periods of,

but are not hazardous provided the patient in monitored closely and

144


other effect of injectable anaesthetics include hypotension and tachycar-

dia.

Thiopentone is the standard drug for induction with which others are

compared. Thiopentone should be used with a sedative pre-anaesthetic

medicant in dogs and horses. If used alone the recovery may be violent

in these species.

Methohexitone is short acting and cause greater respiratory depression.

Induction and recovery are generally more excitable than with thiopen-

tal. The solution is irritant and care should be taken to avoid extravasa-

tion.

Ketamine is a dissociative drug and interrupts the cerebral association

between the limbic and cortical system. The animal may appear to be in

a light plane of anesthesia but is insensitive to surgical stimulation. Ke-

tamine may be used as a sole anesthetic in cats and primates. Ketamine

may be given intramuscularly or intravenously, although intramuscular

injection is painful.

Pentobarbital is mainly used for the treatment of status epilepticus con-

trol of muscle rigidity and convulsions as a result of poisoning, and eu-

thanasia. As an anaesthetic, excitment may occur during induction be-

cause pentobarbital is slow to cross the blood-brain barrier. Respiratory

and cardiovascular depressions are marked and hypothermia is common

as a result of the long recovery period. In the majority of species, onset

145


of action, and recovery from pentobarbitone are protracted and as an

anaesthetic it has been superseded by other agents such as thiopentone.

Methohexitone sodium

Powder for injection, 500 mg (25 mg/ml)

Indication. Induction of general anaesthesia

Side-effects. Transient apnoea on induction

Dose. General anaesthetic induction (without pre-anaesthetic medica-

tion). Dogs, cats: by intravenous injection, 11 mg/kg

Drug interactions. Antacids, corticosteroids ,chloramphinicol,

warfarin

Ketamine hydrochloride


Indications. General anaesthesia, in combination with Detomidine,

Medetomidine, Romifidine, or xylazine

Contraindications. Sole anaesthetic in horses, donkeys, or dogs; he-

patic or renal impairment; latter stages of pregnancy in animals

Side-effects. Excessive salivation in cats; hypotension, increased car-

diac output; tachycardia, muscle twitching and mild tonic convulsions

in cats

146


Dose. General anesthesia, (without pre-anaesthetic medication). Cats:

by subcutaneous, intramuscular (preferred), or intravenous injection,

11 -33 mg/kg.

Pentobarbitone sodium


Indications.General aneasthesia; convulsions and muscular rigidity

Contraindications.Hepatic impairment

Warning.Respiratory depression may be enhanced; extravasation may

cause local irritation and slough

Dose.General anaesthesia (without pre-anaesthetic medication). Sheep,

goat: by slow intravenous injection, 24 mg/kg

Dogs and cats: by slow intravenous injection, 26.4 mg/kg

Drug interactions. Antacids, corticosteroids ,chloramphenicol,

warfarin

Quinalbarbitone sodiumInjection, 400mg/ml

Indications.Induction of general anaesthesia

Drug interactions. Antacids, corticosteroids ,chloramphenicol,

warfarin

Thiopentone sodium

Powder for injection, 2.5g/5g

Indications.Induction of general anaesthesia

147


Contraindication. Animal less than 3 month of age; condition caus-

ing diminished cardiac output

Side-effects.Respiratory depression; transient apnoea; hypotension;

tachycardia; reduction in pain threshold at sub-anaesthetics doses

Warning.Extravasation may cause local irritation and slough; caution

in hepatic impairment, cardiovascular disease, and hypoglycaemia asso-

ciated with shock

Dose. General anaesthetic induction (without pre-anaesthetic medica-

tion). Horses, cattle, sheep, pigs: by intravenous injection, 10mg/kg;

calves: by intravenous injection, 15 mg/ml of 5% solution

Drug interactions. Antacids, sulphonamides, corticosteroids,

Chloramphenicol, warfarin

6.1.3. Inhalational Anaesthetics

Inhalation anesthetics may be gases or volatile liquids. They can be

used for induction and maintenance of anesthesia, and may be used fol-

lowing induction with an injectable anaesthetic. Halogenated inhala-

tional anaesthetics such as halothane and isoflurane are the most com-

monly used agents.

Human should not be exposed to inhalational anaesthetics for long peri-

ods, even in small doses, and some form of waste gas scavenging is es-

sential when these agents are used.

148


Halothane is the most commonly used halogenated inhalational anaes-

thetic. It is a potent agent and the vapour is non-irritant. Adverse ef-

fects associated with the use of halothane include vasodilatation, hy-

potension, cardiac arrhythmias, and shivering and tremor on recovery;

malignant hyperthermia has been reported in pigs, horses and dogs.

Halothane and isoflurane are much less soluble in blood than ether and

the concentration in the brain and myocardium can rise quickly if high

inspired concentration are given, producing severe cardio-respiratory

depression. These adverse effects caused by halothane are dose depen-

dent and the horse is particularly susceptible. Induction with halothane

is accelerated if it is vaporised in a mixture of oxygen and nitrous oxide.

Isoflurane has similar physical properties to halothane, but is slightly

less soluble in blood. So induction and recovery are more rapid than

with halothane.

Ether is largely obsolete because it forms explosive mixtures with oxy-

gen and full anti-static precautions must be taken if it is used. Induction

and recovery are slow with ether. It irritates the airways and antimus-

carinic premedication is advisable.

Halothane

Inhalation, 250 ml, 0.05 %

Indications. Inhalational anaesthesia

149


Contraindications. Concurrent administration of adrenaline

Side-effects.Cardiovascular depression; cardiac arrhythmias; hypoten-

sion, vasodilatation, see also notes above.

Dose. Induction of anaesthesia, inspired concentration of 2- 4 % Main-

tenance of anesthesia, inspired concentration of 0.5-1.5 %

Drug interactions. Sympathomimetics

Isoflurane

Inhalation, 100%


Side-effects. See under halothane and notes above

Dose. Maintenance of anaesthesia, inspired concentration of 1.0 -2.5 %

Drug interactions. Sympathomimetics

Ether

Inhalation, 100g, 250 g


Dose. Fish: 10-15mg /l water for anaesthesia

Drug interactions. Aminoglycosides

6.2. Local Anaesthetics

Local anaesthetics act by blocking conduction in nerve fibres and other

conduction pathways such as myocardial cells.Conduction block in

150


nerves results in muscle paralysis; loss of sensation, or both depending

on the type of fibre involved.

Local anaesthetics are often used to block conduction in pain fibres,

producing complete analgesia. This may be required for diagnostic pur-

poses or to permit minor surgery.

The drug, its concentration, the accuracy of injection, and the site of the

nerve determine the spread of onset of neuronal blockade produced by

local anaesthetic drugs.

Local anaesthetics will cause systemic toxicity if excess amounts are

used or if absorption is too rapid, which may occur if injected into in-

fected or inflamed tissues. The signs of toxicity seen in animals are con-

vulsions followed by CNS depression.

Lidocaine is widely used for most applications. It diffuses readily

through the tissues and has a rapid onset of action. Its duration of action

is about 45 minute without adrenaline and 90 minute with adrenaline at

concetration of 1 in 200,000(5 microgram/ml).

Lidocaine hydrochloride

Injection, 20mg/ml

151


Indications. Lidocaine without adrenaline. Epidural, field block, and

perineural anaesthesia

Dose. Expressed as Lignocaine 2 % (20 mg/ml)

Horses: by epidural, including caudal epidural injection, 6-10 ml; by

field block injection, maximum 200 ml

Horses: by epidural, including caudal epidural injection, 6-10 ml; by

field block injection, maximum 200 ml

Cattle: by caudal epidural injection, 5-6 ml; by field block injection,

maximum 200 ml: by perineural injection, up to 10 ml depending on

site for nerve: by cornual injection, 2- 6 ml

Sheep: by caudal epidural injection, 3-4 ml; by field block injection,

maximum 60 ml

Pigs: by field block injection, 60 ml

Dogs: by epidural injection, 0.2 ml/kg; by field block injection, 25 -50

ml, by perineural injection, 2-4 ml/site

Cats: by epidural injection, 0 .2 ml/kg; by field block injection, 5-20

ml.

Drug interactions. Beta -blockers, cimetidine, diuretics

Lidocaine and Adrenaline

Injection, 40mg+20mcg/ml, 20mg+10mcg/ml

Indication.Field block and perineural anaesthesia, see notes above

Contraindications. Intra-articular, intravenous, epidural, or intra-dig-

ital administration

152


Dose.Lidocaine hydrochloride 20 mg, adrenaline 10 microgram/ml, for

horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats; 100 ml for field block and per-

ineural injection, including cornual injection

Drug interactions. Beta-blockers, cimetidine, diuretics

Lidocaine hydrochloride and Noradrenaline

Injection, 20mg + 0.08mg/ml

Drug interactions. Beta- blockers, cimetidine, diuretics

7. Drugs used in Endocrine disorders

7.1. Drugs used to promote gonadal function

7.2. Myometrial stimulant

7.3. Sex Hormones

7.4. Prostaglandins

7.1. Drugs used to promote Gonadal function

Chorionic gonadotrophin is a complex glycoprotein that has a similar

effect to luteinising hormone (LH) secreted by the anterior pituitary

gland in both male and female.

In veterinary practice, it is used to supplement or replace luteinising

hormone in case of ovulation failure or delay and to induce lactation

post partum. In males, chorionic gonadotrophin stimulates the secretion

153


of testosterone by interstitial testicular cells. It is used to treat genital

hypoplasia and reduced libido.

Serum gonadotrophin is also a complex glycoprotein. It is extracted

from mare's serum during a well-defined stage of pregnancy and is

more accurately referred to as pregnant and mare serum gonadotrophin

(PMSG, or equine chorionic gonadotrophin). The effects of serum go-

nadotrophin in animals are similar to both luteinising hormone and,

more predominantly, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by

the anterior pituitary gland.

Serum gonadotrophin is commonly used to induce follicular growth and

ovulation in sheep and cattle following the application of progestogen-

impregnated vaginal sponges in sheep, or the insertion of an intravagi-

nal device containing oestradiol benzoate and progesterone. It is used

routinely to induce superovulation in cattle, sheep, and goats for use as

donors in embryo transfer programmes. In males, serum gonadotrophin

promotes spermatogenesis. Individual may show a variable response to

serum gonadotrophin.

Before hormonal treatment is administered the status of the reproduc-

tive tract should be ascertained by rectal papilation or milk-progestrone

assays. The efficacy of therapy will depend on both the presence and re-

sponsiveness of the target tissue.

154


Both chorionic gonadotrophin and serum gonadotrophin may become

ineffective after repeated doses due to antibody formation.

Serum gonadotrophin

Powder for Injection, 500 units, 1000units

Indications. See notes above and under dose

Warnings.Immune-mediated decreased effect after repeated doses ;oc-

casional anaphylactic reactions.

Dose.Horses.Females: anoestrus, by subcutaneous or intramuscular in-

jection, 3000-6000units followed by chorionic gonadotrophin 1500-

3000 units at time of insemination

Male: impaired spermatogenesis, by intramuscular injection, 1000-3000

units twice weekly for 4-6 weeks

Cattle.Female: anoestrus, by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection,

1500-3000 units, following treatment with progesterone

Males: impaired spermatogenesis, by intramuscular injection, 1000-

3000 units twice weekly for 4-6 weeks

Sheep, goats. Females: anoestrus, by subcutaneous or intramuscular

injection, 1000 units, followed by 750 units after 1 day is required

Male: impaired spermatogenesis, by intramuscular injection, 500-750


Pigs. Females: anoestrus, by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection,

1000 units. Note. Fertile oestrus usually follows in 3-7 days

155


Males: impaired spermatogenesis, by intramuscular injection, 500-750


Dogs. Females: to induce oestrus, subnormal oestrus with non accep-

tance, by subcutaneous injection, 50-200 units daily for up to 3 weeks

(usually 8-10 days)

Males: impaired spermatogenesis, by intramuscular injection,

400-800 units twice weekly for 4-6 weeks

7.2. Myometrial Stimulants

This group includes extracts of mammalian posterior pituitary gland or

the synthetic equivalents, and preparation of oxytocin. They stimulate

contraction of the oestrogen-sensitised uterine myometrium and mam-

mary myoepithelial cells. This activity may be benefit in dystocia due to

secondary uterine inertia. Myometrial stimulant should not be used

when dystocia is due to malpresentation or obstruction.

Myometrial stimulants are also used in the control of postpartum hem-

orrhage in all species and to remove retained placenta in mares, sow,

bitches, and queens. Oxytocics are also used to reduce the size of a uter-

ine prolapse after replacement in cattle and occasionally mares. My-

ometrial stimulants are used for milk "let down" in all species.

Oxytocin

Injection, 10 IU/ml

156


Indication. See notes above

Contraindications. Dystocia due to obstruction

Side-effects.Occasionally swelling and sloughing at site of injection

Dose.Horses, cattle: uterine inertia, by subcutaneous or intramuscular

injection, 10-40 units; by slow intravenous injection, 2.5-10 units of di-

luted solution

Agalactia, by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, 20-80

units; by slow intravenous injection, 5-20 units of diluted solution

Sheep, goats, pigs, dogs: uterine inertia, by subcutaneous or intramus-

cular injection, 2-10 units; by slow intravenous injection, 0.5-2.5 units

of diluted solution

Agalactia, by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, 4-20 units; by

slow intravenous injection, 0.5-1.25 units of diluted solution

Cat: uterine inertia, by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, 2-5

units; by slow intravenous injection, 0.5-1.25 units of diluted solution.

Agalactia, by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, 4-10 units; by

slow intravenous injection, 1.0-2.5 units of diluted solution

Drug interactions. Clenbuterol

7.3 Sex Hormones

7.3.1. Oestrogens

7.3.2. Androgens

7.3.3. Progestogens

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7.3.1. Oestrogens

Oestrogens are responsible physiologically for intiating behavioural

signs of heat, preparing the female reproductive tract for fertilisation

and developing the secretory tissue of the mamamary gland. They also

have anabolic activity.

In veterinary practice, they are used to induce oestrus during suboestrus

and anoestrus, and in cattle to aid removal of detritus following retained

placenta, pyometra, or mummified fetus. The status of the reproductive

tract should be ascertained before treatment. Oesrogens are used in the

treatment of misalliance in the bitch. They act by inhibiting the move-

ment of the fertilized ova down the oviducts in addition to causing hy-

pertrophy of the uterine mucosa. Urinary incontinence in the speyed or

entire bitch may also be controlled with oestrogens.

In males, oestrogens are used in the treatment of excess libido, anal ade-

noma, and prostate hyperplasia.

Oestrogens may cause aplastic anaemia in dogs and cats and endome-

trial hyperplasia in bitches, and overdose can cause severe inhibition of

piutitary function and cystic ovaries particularly in cattle and pigs.

Oestradiol Benzoate

Injection, 5mg/ml

Indications.See notes above and under dose; urinary incontinence

158


Contraindications. Misalliance in cats

Warnings. Overdosage may cause severe inhibition of pituitary func-

tion; aplastic anaemia in dogs

Dose. By subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. Horses: suboestrus,

10-15mg as a single dose; fillies, 5-10mg as a single dose

Cattle: removal of detritus, 15mg immediately post partum

Retained placenta, 10-20mg, repeats after 3 days if required

Metritis, pyometra, 20-25mg weekly for 2-3 weeks

Mummified fetus, 20-25 mg, repeat with concomitant dose of oxytocin

Sheep, goats: anoestrus, 250microgram daily for 4 days

Pigs: anoestrus, 5-10mg at least 40 days after farrowing

Dogs: Females: misalliance, 5-10mg as a single dose and within 4 days

of insemination

Male: anal adenoma.5-10mg weekly as a single dose

Prostatic hyperplasia, 5 mg weekly

Drug interactions. Diuretics

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7.3.2. Androgens

Testosterone esters and methyl testosterone promote and maintain pri-

mary and secondary anatomical, physical, and psychological male sex-

ual characteristics.

Androgens are used in the treatment of hypogonadism and deficient li-

bido in males. They are administered in the treatment of hormonal

alopecia in dogs and cats and for mammary tumours and psuedopreg-

nancy with lactation in bitch. These drugs may be used for suppression

of oestrus.

Care should be taken to avoid inducing excess virilism. Androgen ther-

apy should not be given to animals suffering from conditions known to

be aggravated by testosterone such as prostatic hypertrophy in dogs.

The effect of testosterone phenylpropionate last for 14 days.

Testosterone phenylpropionate

Injection, 10mg/ml

Indications .See notes above

Contraindications.Dogs with prostatic hypertrophy; pregnant ani-

mals; liver impairment; congestive heart failure

Side-effects. Virilisation with overdosage; masculization in female an-

imals

160


Warnings.Use with caution in female animals intended for breeding

Dose. Dogs, cats: by subcutaneous injection, 0.5-1.0mg/kg. Repeat

after 7-10 days

7.3.3. Progestogens

Progestogens are steroids that mimic the effect of progesterone and thus

prepare and maintain the female reproductive tract for implantation and

pregnancy. They cause development of the mammary glands to the

point of lactation. Progestogens inhibit oestrus and ovulation by de-

pressing the production of hormones from the anterior pitutary gland,

and consequently, the development of ovarian follicles. In male ani-

mals, progestogens reduce testosterone production.

Progesterone is administered to cattle by using a progesterone -releasing

intravaginal device.

In dogs and cats, progestogens are used to suppress oestrus. They are

used for the treatment of psuedopregnancy, oestrogen-dependent mam-

mary tumours in bitches, and prostatic hyperplasia in dogs. In cats,

eosinophilic granuloma and 'miliary dermatitis' (crusting dermatosis)

are responsive to progestogens.

Progestogens should be used with caution. All synthetic progestogen

differ in their pharmacological profile and their capacity to produce

side-effects in different animal species.

161


Progestogen stimulate the proliferative and secretory activity of the

uterine endometrium leading to cystic endometrial hyperplasia, mu-

cometra, or pyometra. Therefore, progestogen should not be adminis-

tered the animal with the history of vaginal discharge or reproductive

abnormalities, sexually immatured animals, or dogs and cats intended

for breeding. When used for suppression of oestrus in dogs and, cats an-

imal should be allowed to have a normal cycle every 18 to 24 months.

Progestogens antagonise the hypoglycaemic effects of insulin and there-

fore should not be given to diabetic animals. The possibilty of pre-ex-

sisting disease should not be considered when treating patients requiring

long-term progestogen therapy. Progestogen may induce acromegaly in

entire bitches. Subcutaneous injection of progestogen may cause hair

discoloration and localised alopecia.

Preparations containing progestogens should be handled with care, par-

ticularly by women of child-bearing age. Impervious gloves and suit-

able protective overalls should be worn when in cotact with such prepa-

rations.

Progesterone

Injection, 25mg/ml of 50ml


Contraindication. Side-effect.See notes above

162


Caution. Preparation containing progesterone should be handled with

care, particularly by women of child-bearing age

Dose. By subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. Dogs: 1-3 mg/kg.

Cats: 0.2-2.0mg/kg

Drug interactions. Antidiabetic, barbiturates, griseofulvin,

phenytoin, theophylline, warfarin

7.4. Prostaglandins

Prostaglandins cause functional and morphological regression of the

corpus luteum, associated with either the oestrus cycle or pregnancy. In

veterinary practice, they may be used to terminate pregnancy.

Prostaglandins are effective in causing abortion from early pregnancy

until about day 150 of gestation in cattle. They are used to advance par-

turation if administered within one week of full term in cattle or 3 days

in pigs.

Prostaglandins cause luteolysis of a persistent corpus luteum associated

with retained mummified fetus, pyometra and luteal cysts in cattle or

psuedopregnancy in horses. Prostaglandins are also used to synchronize

oestrus in groups of animals.

Side-effects such as transient sweating and mild colic with or without

diarrhea frequently follow the use of prostaglandins in mare. On occa-

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sion some prostaglandins may produce severe reactions at the site of in-

tramuscular injections, severe cellulitis, and sometimes even death.

Prostaglandin can be absorbed through the skin and care should be

taken when handling them and their preparations.

Cloprestenol sodium

Injection, 250mcg/ml, 0.075mg/ml


Contraindications. Concurrent treatment with non-steroidal anti-in-

flammatory drugs; pregnant animals unless termination required


Warnings. Operators should wear protective clothing and wash hands

after use. Prostaglandins should be handled with care by women of

child -bearing age and by asthmatics

Dose. By intramuscular injection. Horses: 250-500 micrograms;

Ponies: 125-250 micrograms

Donkey: 125-250 micrograms

Cattle: 500 micrograms

Pigs: 175 micrograms

Withdrawal periods. Cattle: slaughter 1 day, milk withdrawal period

nil. Pigs: slaughter 1 day

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8. Blood products and drugs affecting the blood

8.1. Anticoagulant

8.2. Haemostatics

8.1. Anticoagulants

Anticoagulant drugs are much less frequently used in veterinary

medicine than in human patient because atherosclerotic disease and pro-

longed postoperative recumbency are not common veterinary problems.

Anticoagulants are part of the management of disseminated intravascu-

lar coagulation but are most commonly used to maintain patency of vas-

cular catheters.

The main use of anticoagulants is to prevent thrombus or the extension

of an existing thrombus. These drugs act by affecting the clotting mech-

anisms.

8.1.1. Parenteral Anticoagulants

The action of heparin prevents thrombus formation but does not affect

fibrin that is already present. Heparin is rapidly effective, which makes

it suitable for emergency situations.

If hemorrhage occurs it is usually sufficient to withdraw heparin, but if

rapid reversal of the effects of heparin is required, protamine sulfate is a

specific antidote.

165


Heparin sodium

Injection, 1000,5000 units/ml

Solution, 10 units/ml

Indications. Venous thrombosis, disseminated intravascular coagula-

tion; pulmonary thrombo-embolism

Contraindications. Hepatic impairment; haemorrhage

Side-effects. Haemorrhage

Dose. Dogs: by subcutaneous injection, 40-80 units/kg 3 times daily:

by intravenous injection, initial dose 10-20 units/kg then 5 units/kg ev-

ery 3 hours

Cats: by subcutaneous injection, 200 units /kg 3 times daily

Drug interactions. Aspirin

8.1.2. Oral anticoagulant

Warfarin is well absorbed from the intestine and is highly bound to

plasma albumin. The onset of effect is 8 to 12 hours, with full benefit

realised after 2 to 3 days. The effect of warfarin therapy should be mon-

itored.

Many drugs are capable of displacing warfarin from plasma albumin,

causing an increase in free warfarin and possible haemorrhage.

166


Warfarin Sodium

Tablets, 1mg, 3mg, 5mg

Indication. Venous thrombosis; navicular disease

Contra-indications. Purpura malnutrition; haemorrhage

Side-effects. Haemorrhage

Warnings. Monitor effects of warfarin therapy

Dose.Horses: 70-160microgram/kg increasing gradually to desired ef-

fect (usual dose range: 16-170 micrograms/kg)

Drug-interactions. Aspirin, barbiturates, anabolic steroids,chloram-

phenicol,cimetidine,erythromycin,ketoconazole,metronidazole,micona-

zole,nalidixic acid, neomycin,paracetamol,

quinidine,sulphonamides,tetracyclines,thyroxine,phenylbu-tazone,and

possibly other NSAIDS

8.2. Haemostatics

The use of vitamine k1 in the treatment of anticoagulant poisoning

is described in section 9.2.

9.Vitamins

9.1.Water Soluble Vitamins

9.2. Fat-soluble Vitamins

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Vitamins are a group of organic substances, which are present in very

small quantities in natural feed. They are essential to the well being of

animal, and usually called as accessory feed factors. The deficiency of

vitamins is very common in animals kept in intensive farms where the

animals are reared on synthetic or semi-synthetic feeds.

Though certain animal species do not require some vitamins, it does not

mean vitamin deficiency does not occur. For instance, Vitamin B12 defi-

ciency occurs in ruminants especially on cobalt free feed. Because ru-

minant flora only synthesise in the presence of cobalt.

On the other hand, the presence of a vitamin in feed doesn’t guarantee

its deficiency, for other factors may prevent the assimilation. For exam-

ple, liquid paraffin prevents the assimilation of vitamin A, while luck of

bile salt and pancreatic enzyme prevent the absorption of fat-soluble vi-

tamins.

Traditionally, vitamins are classified as water-soluble such as vitamins

B and Vitamin C, and fat- soluble including vitamins A, E, K and D.

9.1.Water soluble Vitamins

Vitamin B

The complex of B Vitamins is widely distributed in both plant and ani-

mal feed sources. These include thiamin (B1), nicotinic acid (niacin), ri-

168


boflavin (B2), pyridoxine (B6), folic acid and vitamin B12. All of these

can be synthesized by the microflora in the gastro-intestinal tract of ru-

minants and deficiencies are therefore uncommon in ruminants. B vita-

mins, required by non-ruminants, are derived from varity of plant and

animal source. Dried yeast provides a rich supply of these vitamins. B

Vitamins are not stored in the body to any great extent and animals with

prolonged impedance or chronic diarrhea may become deficient in these

vitamins. The deficiency of these vitamins affects the nervous and gas-

trointestinal system and skin.

Ruminants are able to use cobalt to synthesis vitamin B12 in the rumen.

Therefore, defeciency of vitamin B12 occurs in these species when

cobalt is defecient in the diet. In carnivores, vitamin B12 defeciency

may occur as a result of inadequate absorption of the vitamin from the

gastro-intestinal tract or increased body requirements.

In all species vitamin B12 is required for maintenance of tissues, protien

synthesis, and haematopoiesis. Clinical signs of deficiency include

anorexia, unthriftiness, anaemia, and incoordination.

Thiamine deficiency may occur as a result of inadequate dietary intake

or destruction of the vitamin by thiaminases, which may either be

present in or contaminate the diet. A nutritional deficiency is unlikely in

herbivores but may occur in carnivores when vitamins in feed are de-

stroyed by excessive heating during processing. Secondary thiamine de-

169


ficiency may occur in carnivores, because of the thiaminase present in

raw fish, and in horses because of the thiaminase present in bracken.

Secondary thiamine deficiency can be treated successfully with thi-

amine supplements if the therapy is started shortly after the onset of

clinical signs. Thiamine may be used in the treatment of cerebrocortical

necrosis in cattle and sheep.

Thiamine (Vitamin B1)

It is a white crystalline powder with characteristic odour, soluble in wa-

ter and glycerol.

Indication. Treatment of thiamine deficiency

Dose.Horse: by subcutaneous or intramuscular, or slow intravenous

injection, 0.25-1.25 mg/kg twice daily for up to 7 days

Cattle, sheep: by subcutaneous or intramuscular, or slow intravenous

injection, 5-10 mg/kg repeat every 3 hours as necessary

Cats: intramuscular injection, 50 mg 1-2 times daily

Riboflavine (Vitamin B2)

Indication.Deficiency is confined to simple stomach animal or pre ru-

minant, resulting into slaw growth rate, ocular disorder, generalized

dermatitis and decreased fertility. In chicken, curl toe paralysis, in-

170


flamed vent, in calf, scours, and salivation, in pig, skin ulcer abnormal

gait and stillbirth.

Daily nutritional requirement: Horse: 2-4 mg/kg body weight

Pig: 3-4 mg / 50 kg body weight. Dog: 40mg /kg body weight

Poultry: 1.8-2 5 mg p/kg feed.

Nicotinic acid (Niacin)

Niacin is an American Synonym for nicotinic acid, and the term pella-

gra-preventing factor is applied. It is a white crystalline odorless pow-

der with slight acid fast and amine with bitter.

Indication.Pellagra (man), rough scaly skin, gastrointestinal ulcer with

diarrhea (pig), perosis, dermatitis chicken, brown moth (dog). De-

creased growth rate and fertility.

Dietary requirement. Pig: 12.5 mg per 50 kg body weight

Dog :0. 22 mg/ kg body weight daily. Poultry: 12-20 gm per tonne feed

Dose. Calf: 25 mg daily. Pig: by subcutaneous 0.1-0.3 g

Dog: By intramuscular injection, 5-10 mg/kg im

Folic Acid

It is a yellow or orange yellow odorless crystalline powder, insoluble in

water and organic solvent but soluble in alkaline or acid.

Indication.Macrocytic anemia, diarrhea, reduced growth rate, skin le-

sion and perosis

Nutritional requirement. 10-20 mg per tonne feed, by intramus-

cular injection 10mg.

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Cyanocobalamin

Vitamin B12 deficiency occurs in ruminants when kept on cobalt defi-

cient feed.

Indication. Treatment of vitamin B12 deficiency

Dose. By intramuscular injection, Cattle and Horse: 1-3 mg 1-2 times

weekly. Calves and foals :0. 5 -1.5 mg 1 -2 times weekly

Sheep and pigs: 250-750 microgram 1-2 times weekly

Dogs, cats: 250-500 microgram1-2 times weekly

9.2. Fat Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin A

Indication. Hyperkeratosis of the skin, cornea (xerophthalmia), blind-

ness, decreased growth rate and low fertility rate

Nutritional requirement. Dogs and Cats 66units/kg body weight

daily. Cattle, horse, Sheep, pig: 3000 units/50 kg body weight

Poultry : 4000-8000unit/ kg feed daily

Dose. Injection, vitamin A (as palmitate) 50,000 units/ml; 2ml

Vitamin K

A bright yellow crystalline powder with a faint but characteristic smell.

The powder is irritant to all mucous membrane, 50 Menaphthone is

added for parenteral preparation

172


Indication. Warfarin poisoning, sweet-clover disease, epistasis, quo-

nine poisoning, salicylate poisoning hepatitis and gastroenteritis.

Dose. By intramuscular or intravenous injection: 100g

Large animal: 0.5-1mg/kg daily

Dogs and cats: 3-5 mg/kg daily in divided doses. May also be adminis-

tered orally

Drug interactions. Warfarin

Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

It is yellow almost odorless viscous oil, oxidizes easily and darkens

with exposure to air and light.

Indications. Muscular disorder, especially in claves and lambs, stiff

lamb disease of lamb. The muscles most affected are skeletal (locomo-

tors a supporting), thoracic (intercostals and diaphragm) and cardiac. It

is also indicated for infertility, edema in cattle and sheep.

Dose. Subcutaneous or intramuscular injection;

Calves: 0.3-2 g, 0.02 -0.04 ml. Lamb: 0. 1 -0.5 g. Pig :0.5 g

Dog: 30-100 mg. Total: 2-5 ml. Large animal: 100 ml

10.Anti-inflammatory Drugs

10.1.Corticosteroids

Glucocorticoids are used in pharmacological doses primarily for their

anti-inflammatory property. Glucocorticoids are capable of producing

173


symptomatic improvement in many conditions, but without treating the

underlying diseases. In musculoskeletal disorders the benefits of sup-

pression of the disease process are weighed against the protective ef-

fects of reduced mobility if therapy is withheld. Glucocorticoids are not

indicated where only mild analgesia is required.

Clinical signs of hypersensitivity disorders including allergic dermatitis

and urticaria, and auto-immune diseases such as haemolytic anaemia,

thrombocytopenia, systemic lupus erythermatosus, myasthenia gravis,

and pemphigus variants may be improved by glucocorticoid administra-

tion.

Administration of glucocorticoids. Acceptable doses of glucocorti-

coids vary widely depending upon the potency of the drug employed, its

formulation, rate and route of administration; the nature and severity of

the condition being managed; and the goal of the therapy. Betametha-

sone, dexamethasone, methylprednisonole, predisolone, are commonly

used for their anti-inflammatory activity. The anti-inflammatory effect

of a corticosteroid parallels its gluconeogenic potency.

Side-effects of glucocorticoids, prolonged corticosteroid treatment with

both rapidly eliminated formulations and dept preparations may have

suppressive effects on the HPA axis and lead to adrenal atrophy. Un-

necessarily prolonged therapy should be avoided in order to minimize

the possibility of precipitating signs of adrenal insufficiency during su-

perimposed stress or when glucocorticoid treatment is finally with

174


drawn. Corticosteroids should be used with caution in pregnant animals

because they may cause abortion.

Catabolic effects of glucocorticoids include muscle wasting, cutaneous

atrophy, telogen arrest of hair follicies, and delayed wound healing. Di-

abetes mellitus may be unmasked by glucocorticoid therapy and alter-

ation of insulin requirements in established diabetics may occur. Gastric

and colonic ulceration, sometimes with perforation, may occur in pa-

tients given glucocorticoid treatment.

Immunosuppressive effects and modification of inflammatory reactions

by glucocorticoids may facilitate the spread of concurrent infectious

disease. In pre-existing infections, an appropriate antimicrobial drug

should be administered at the same time if glucocorticoids are used.

Corticosteroids should not be administered on conjunction with a vac-

cine.

Betamethosone

Injection, 2mg/ml

Tablet, 0.25mg

Indications. Shock, inflammatory and allergic disorders, ketosis; in-

duction of parturition in cattle

Contraindications. Side-effects. Warnings. See note above

175


Dose. Horses: by intramuscular or intravenous injection, 20-200 mi-

crogram/kg. Cattle: by intramuscular or intravenous injection, 20-200

microgram/kg

Induction of parturition, by intramuscular injection, 20-30 mg and re-

peat after 3 days if required.

Sheep, goats, pigs: by intramuscular or intravenous injection, 20- 200

micrograms/kg

Dogs, cats: oral, 25 micrograms/kg daily. Adjust dose for each individ-

ual animal; by intramuscular or intravenous injection, 40 -80 micro-

grams/kg.

Drug Interactions. Acetazolamide, antidiabetic drugs, barbiturates,

phenylbutazone, phenytoin, diuretics

Dexamethasone

Tablet, 250mcg

Injection, 1mg/ml, 2mg/ml, 5mg/ml

Indications. Shock; inflammatory and allergic disorders; ketosis; indi-

cation of parturition in cattle and sheep; hypoadrenocorticisim

Contraindications. Side-effects. Warnings. See notes above

Dose. Horses: oral, 10-30 mg, repeat after 2 days if required; by intra-

muscular and intravenous injection, 20-200 micrograms/kg shock, by

intravenous injection, 3 mg/kg, repeat after 3-6 hours if required

Cattle: oral, 10-30 mg; repeat after 1-2 days if required; by intramuscu-

lar or intravenous injection, 20- 200 micrograms/kg

176


Shock, by intravenous injection, 3 mg/kg, repeats after 3-6 hours if re-

quired

Sheep: by intramuscular or intravenous injection, 20-200 micrograms/

kg shock, by intravenous injection, 3 mg/kg, repeat after 3 -6 hours if

required

Dogs, Cats: oral, 50 micrograms/kg in divided doses; by subcutaneous,

intramuscular, or intravenous injection, 20-200 microgram/kg

Shock, by intravenous injection, 3 mg/kg, repeats after 3-6 hours if re-

quired


pigs: 21 days



Prednisolone Acetate


Indications. Shock; inflammatory and allergic disorders adrenocorti-

cal insufficiency.

Contraindications. Side-effects. Warnings. See notes above

Dose. Dogs, cats: 0.1-2.0 mg/kg daily



177


11. Disinfectants and Antiseptics

Antiseptics and disinfectants are nonselective, anti-infective agents that

are applied topically. Their activity ranges from simply reducing the

number of microorganisms to within safe limits of public health inter-

pretations (sanitization), to destroying all microbes (sterilization) on the

applied surface. In general, antiseptics are applied on tissues to suppress

or prevent microbial infection. Disinfectants are germicidal compounds

usually applied to inanimate surfaces. Sometimes the same compound

may act as an antiseptic or as a disinfectant, depending on the drug con-

centration, conditions of exposure, number of organisms, etc. To

achieve maximum efficiency, it is essential to use the proper concentra-

tion of the drug for the purpose intended.

Topical anti-infective agents are extensively used in surgery for antisep-

sis of the surgical area and surgeon's hands and to disinfect surgical in-

struments, apparatus, and hospital premises. Other common uses are as

disinfectants for home and farm premises, in water treatment, in public

health sanitation, etc, and as antiseptics in soaps, teat dips, dairy sanitiz-

ers, etc. Antiseptics also have been used for treating local infections.

However, in most cases, systemic chemotherapeutic agents are pre-

ferred because they often penetrate better into the foci of infection and

are less likely than the topical anti-infectives to lose their potency when

in contact with body fluids and debris in the infected area.

178


Ideally, antiseptics and disinfectants should have a broad spectrum and

potent germicidal activity, with rapid onset and long-lasting effect.

They should withstand environmental factors (eg, pH, temperature, hu-

midity, etc) and must retain activity even in the presence of pus,

necrotic tissue, and other organic material. High lipid solubility and

good dispersibility increase their effectiveness. Antiseptic preparations

should not be toxic to the host tissues and should not impair healing.

Disinfectants should be nondestructive to applied surfaces. Offensive

odor, color, and staining properties should be absent or minimal.

Antimicrobial activity may be diminished through interaction, adsorp-

tion on to rubber or plastics, or by combination with organic matter, and

may be depend upon pH; the extent to which the different groups of dis-

infectants are affected varies. Aqueous solutions of disinfectants, par-

ticularly quaternary ammonium compounds, chlorhexidine, and phe-

nols, may be susceptible to contamination with microorganisms. To re-

duce this risk many preparations are provided for clinical use, in sterile

form for single use.

Alcohol

Alcohol is a bactericidal antiseptic and disinfectant with little activity

against bacterial spores. It is used as a disinfectant for skin and hard

surfaces, as a solvent, and as a pharmaceutical preservative. Alcohol 70

% is commonly used for its solvent properties for the removal of super-

179


ficial contamination. Alcohol should not be used to disinfect instru-

ments because of its low efficacy against spores.

Crystal Violet

Crystal violet is a triphenylmethane antiseptic dye effective against

some Gram-positive bacteria, particularly Staphylococus spp. And some

pathogenic yeast such as candida spp. It is much less active against

Gram-negative bacteria and ineffective against acid-fast bacteria and

bacterial spores. Its activity increases as PH increases.

Crystal violet has been applied topically as a 0.5 % or 1 % aqueous so-

lution or a 1.2 to 1.6 % cream for the treatment of bacterial and fungal

infections, but in the UK its use is not restricted to application to unbro-

ken skin because of concern at animal carcinogenicity. However, it may

be used as a 0.5 % solution with brilliant green 0.5 % (Bonney’s blue)

for skin marking prior to surgery.

Potassium Permanganate

Potassium permanganate possesses oxidizing properties which in turn

confer disinfectant and deodorizing properties. It is also a stringent.

Though bactericidal in vitro its clinical value as a bactericide is mini-

mized by its rapid reduction in the presence of body fluids.

180


Solutions are used as cleansing applications to wounds, ulcer, or ab-

scesses and as wet dressings and in baths in eczematous conditions and

acute dermatatitis.

Phenol

Phenol is commonly used in mouthwashes, scrub soaps and surface dis-

infectants, and is the main disinfectant found in household disinfectants.

Phenols are effective against bacteria (especially Gram-positive bacte-

ria) and enveloped viruses. Phenols are not effective against non-en-

veloped viruses and spores. Enveloped viruses include BRs, BVP,

corona virus, IBR, Leukemia, PI3, pox, Rabies and stomatitis virus.

Non-enveloped viruses include Bluetongue, papilloma, parvo and Rota

virus. Common spore forming bacteria of cattle include all the

clostridias (such as tetanus, and bacillus (such as anthrax)-phenols

maintain their activity in the presence of organic material and therefore

are more useful in footbaths and areas which organic material cannot be

completely removed. Phenolic disinfectants (including cresols and pine

oil) are generally safe, but prolonged exposure to the skin may cause ir-

ritation. It is contradicted to cats.

Iodine Compounds

181


Iodine compounds are bactericidal, sporicidal, virucidal and fungicidal.

Iodine is inactivated in the presence of organic material and they must

be applied multiple times in order to thoroughly disinfect. Iodine tinc-

tures can be very irritating to tissues, can stain fabric can be corrosive

and concurrent use of other antiseptics or detergents is contraindicated.

Chlorhexidine

Chlorhexidine, a biguanid, is one of the most widely used disinfectants.

Chlorhexidine is relatively non-irritating to tissues. Chlorhexidine,

while considered bactericidal, virucidal and fungicidal, is less effective

against these agents than many other disinfectants. Chlorhexidine main-

tains effectiveness in the presence of some organic material, but clean-

ing before application is recommended. To be effective chlorhexidine

must remain in contact with the surface for at least five minutes. Hard

or alkaline water will cause precipitation of the active ingredients nec-

essary for disinfection.

Chlorine Compound

Chlorine eliminates both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Chlo-

rine also is effective against fungi, bacteria, and algae. Chlorine in high

concentrations irritates the mucus membranes, eyes and skin. Organic

material such as faeces inactivate chlorine disinfectants, therefore, sur-

faces must be clean before using a chlorine disinfectant in order to ob-

tain maximum results with chlorine disinfectants they must remain in

contact with surfaces for several minutes.

182


Formaldehyde

Formaldehyde solution is a disinfectant active against bacteria fungi,

and many viruses, with a slow action against bacterial spores.

Indications. Ectoparasitic infections

Contraindications. Should not be mixed with potassium perman-

ganate; fish with gill disease

Dose. By bath, 25ml/litre or 17 ml/litre, for 30 to 60 minutes

By prolonged immersion, 0.02ml/litre for 12 hours

Warning. Operator should avid contact with skin and inhalation of

formaldehyde fume

12.Antidotes and other substances used in poisoning

Activated Carbon

Granules, 475g+100g

Oral suspension, 104mg/ml+62.5mg/ml

The principal veterinary use of carbon is as an antidote to toxic sub-

stances and analogous medical applications include use as a detoxifier.

It is regarded as the poison antidote of choice and the universal antidote

to toxic substances. There is no reported overdosage or acute toxicity.

Activated charcoal is highly effective against both natural and synthetic

toxins. Studies show activated carbon to be effective in removing vari-

ous mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, tri-

chothenes, and zearalenone. Natural toxins from plants are also re-

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moved or attenuated by activated charcoal treatment or supplementa-

tion. Activated carbon can also be used to remove synthetic pesticides

from animals that might contaminate milk or meat. Treatment with acti-

vated carbon when using certain parasiticides can help reduce the resid-

ual levels in flesh and fatty tissue. Finally, activated charcoal is used to

treat animals for drug overdoses, with efficacy established on pigs,

dogs, and rabbits.

Yohimbine Hydrochloride

Injection, 2mg/ml

Indications. Should be used in dogs when it is desirable to reverse the

effects of xylazine and as an antidote for overdoses of xylazine.

Contraindications. Doses in excess of those recommended should

not be given. While yohimbine is tolerated in dogs at 0.55 mg/kg ,

doses of this magnitude may occasionally produce seizures and muscle

tremors of short duration.

Side-effects. Occasionally a dog that has been reversed will show

signs of apprehensiveness, but this state quickly subsides.

Precautions. Clinical tests with yohimbine have not been conducted

in pregnant dogs. Therefore yohimbine should not be used in these ani-

mals. Careful consideration should be given before administering to

dogs known to be epileptic or seizure prone. The drug reverses the anal-

gesic effects of xylazine as well as the sedative effects. If the animal

was given xylazine for its analgesic properties, then reversal will allow

pain perception; caution should be used.

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Dose. For intravenous injection. The usual dose is 0.11 mg/kg to re-

verse the sedative effects of xylazine. The dosages may be repeated to a

total of 0.33 mg/kg to reverse the cardiac effects (especially arrhythmia

and bradycardia). As an antidote for overdosage of xylazine, treat to ef-

fect up to a total of 0.55 mg/kg

Atropine Sulfate

Injection, 15 mg/ml

Indications.An antidote in the treatment of organophosphate insect-

cide poisoning

Dose.Cattle: intravenous injection followed by intramuscular or sub-

cutaneous injection, 66mg/kg

Horses: intravenous injection followed by intramuscular or subcuta-

neous injection, 14 mg/kg

Sheep: intravenous injection followed by intramuscular or subcuta-

neous injection, 110mg/kg

13.Immunological Preparations

Vaccines are preparations of antigenic material, which are administered

to induce active immunity in the recipient animal against specific bacte-

ria or viral infection. Vaccines may be based on the nature of organ-

isms; vaccines are usually prepared in different forms, mainly live vac-

cine, inactivated vaccine and toxoid vaccine.

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Live vaccines are nonpathogenic forms of the infecting organisms, such

as marek’s disease, or modified forms of the organisms, like bovine her-

pes virus. Live vaccines stimulate production of antibodies locally, sys-

temically or both.

The degree of protection afforded by live vaccine varies depending up

on the antigen and the animal type. They usually produce high and of

long duration. Antibodies especially maternal derived, may inhibit the

replication and the live microorganisms in the vaccine and thus interfere

with the process of immunization for several weeks.

Therefore, further doses of vaccine may be recommended at suitable in-

terval to allow interfering antibodies to decline.

The inactive vaccines contain sufficient antigen to stimulate antibody

production but generally requires two doses with an appropriate interval

in order to produce a satisfactory immune response and protection. The

organisms within inactivated vaccines do not replicate. These vaccines

contain adjuvant that enhances the immune reaction. The adjuvant may

cause local irritation and swelling at injection site. Therefore, asepsis or

administration is very important. Booster doses of inactivated vaccines

often administered annually, are usually employed to maintain and en-

during immunity.

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Toxoid vaccines are toxins obtained from microorganisms and heat or

chemical treated to destroy their deleterious properties without affecting

the ability to stimulate the formation of antibodies.

Warning and Contraindication of vaccines

Unhealthy or febrile animals should not be vaccinated.

Animals should not be vaccinated with in three to four weeks of re-

ceiving immunosuppressive drugs or corticosteroids.

When live vaccines derived from bacteria are administered, care

should be taken in the use of antibiotics.

In mass vaccination of multi-age group with live vaccines, the

transmission of infection due to the organisms in the vaccine to sus-

ceptible young animal should be considered.

The full vaccination course as recommend by manufacturer should

always be administered.

Stressing animals to be vaccinated should be avoided.

Accidental Self-injection with oil-based vaccines can cause intense

vascular spasm, which may be ever result in loss of limbs. When

happened prompt medical attention is essential.

Do not vaccinate through dirty, wet skin.

The repeated use of needles and syringes within herd/flock is unde-

sirable.

Containers that have held live vaccines can be potentially hazardous

and should be made safe.

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Injectable vaccines should be stored and reconstituted as recom-

mended by the manufacturer.

Liquid preparations should always be adequately shaken before use

to insure uniformity of the material to be injected.

Side-effects of Vaccines

Some live vaccines may be able to cross the placenta and cause abortion

or fetal abnormalities. In general inactive vaccines are safer than active

vaccines, but handling and vaccinating animals in late pregnancy is as-

sociated with risk.

Storage and handling

Care must be taken to store all vaccines and other immunological prepa-

rations. Store under the conditions recommended by the manufacturer.

Refrigerated store at 2oC to 8oC is usually necessary. Unless other wise

specified, vaccines should not be frozen and should be protected from

light. Some vaccines such as Marek’s disease vaccine are stored in

solid carbon dioxide or liquid nitrogen. Live antigens may be inacti-

vated by disinfectants or alcohol and these substances must not be used

to sterilize syringes. Only sterile needles and syringes should be used

for vaccination and injections given with aseptic precautions to avoid

the possibility of abscess formation or the transmission of incidental in-

fections.

188


Anthrax Vaccine

Description. It is a freeze-dried live bacterial vaccine produced using

Sterne 34 F2, strain of Bacillus anthracis saponin adjuvated. Spores

freeze-dried with saponin and 4 % skimmed milk as stabilizer. Each

field dose contains 107 viable spores. The concentration of saponin is

according to the batch of saponin (1 % to 2 %).

Indication. Prevention or control of anthrax.

Presentation. The vaccine is freeze-dried available in 20 ml vials of

100 doses.

Dose. Reconstitute the product in 100 ml of sterile Saline water.

Cattle: inject 1 ml subcutaneous in the loose skin of the neck just in

front of the shoulder.

Sheep and goats: inject 0.5 ml subcutaneous in the loose skin of the

neck or in inner face of thigh.The latter is preferable for goats.

Horse: Inject 1 ml subcutaneous at the neck.

Note. Vaccinations should be carried out every year before the anthrax season.

Immunity. Develops in 10 days and lasts for one year.

Side- effect. Benign reaction, usually in the form of a swelling at the

injection site. It normally disappears in 2-3 days.

Precaution.Subcutaneous injections only, no intramuscular injections

Animals to be vaccinated should be above 3 months old.

The vaccine is not recommended for use in pregnant animals.

Withdrawal period. Meat 6 weeks following vaccination (due to ad-

juvant vaccine)

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Storage. Store the vaccines in a refrigerator at 40C.

Bovine Pasteurellosis Vaccine

Description.This vaccine is prepared from a whole broth culture of

Pasteurella multocida type B (20 billion germs/ml), killed by formalin

(0.3 % final concentration) and precipitated by 1 % aluminum potas-

sium sulphate (final concentration).

Presentation. The vaccine is a liquid suspension available in vials of

100 ml for 50 doses.

Dose.For best results vaccinate the animals in the earliest convenient

time according to regional conditions (at least 21 days before the haem-

orrhage septicemias season). Shake the product vigorously before use.

Cattle (including calves)-injection 2 ml subcutaneous.

Immunity. Immunity appears in 10- days after vaccination and lasts

for 6 to 8 months. Re-vaccination is advised after 6 months.

Side-effect. Anaphylactic (shock-allergy) reactions may appear occa-

sionally after vaccination of Zebus. These reactions appear very often

and very serious on some European cattle breeds, particularly on ani-

mals, which have been vaccinated many times against foot-and-mouth

disease, Blackleg or Anthrax. Do not vaccinate European breed cattle

before having checked the animal’s sensitiveness. In case of reaction,

immediate injection of antihistamine is recommended.

Storage. At room temperature for 6 months; at+ 4oC for 1 year; avoid

light and heat.

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Ovine Pasteurellosis Vaccine

Description. This product contains a whole broth culture of

Pasterurella multocida type A (10 billion germs/ml), killed by formalin

0.3 % and precipitated by 1% Aluminum potassium sulphate (final con-

centration)

Indications. Control or prevention of pasteurellosis in sheep.

Presentation. The vaccine is liquid suspension available in vials of 50

ml for 50 doses.

Dose. Shake the product vigorously before use and Vaccinate 1 ml sub-

cutaneous. For best results vaccinate according to regional conditions,

at least 3 weeks before the rainy season.

Immunity. Immunity appears in 10 days after vaccination and lasts for

6 to 8 months

Warning. Contraindication. Side-effect. See notes at the begin-

ning.

Storage. At +20oC for 6 months, at +40oC for 1 year; Avoid light and

heat.

Blackleg Vaccine

Description. This product contains a whole broth culture suspension

of Clostridium chauvoe (local isolate) killed by formalin0.5 % (final

concentration) and precipitated by 1 % aluminium potassium sulphate

(final concentration)

Indication. Control or prevention of black leg disease in cattle

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Presentation. It is a liquid suspension vaccine available in 100 ml

vials for 50 doses.

Dose. Shake the product vigorously before use and vaccinates Cattle

including calves, 2 ml subcutaneous.

Immunity. Immunity develops in 10 days after vaccination and lasts

for one year.

Warning. Contraindication .Side-effect. See notes at the begin-

ning.

Storage. At + 200C for 6 months, at + 40 C for 1 year. Avoid light and

heat

Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) Vaccine

Description. It is a freeze-dried live attenuated bacterial vaccine pro-

duced using T144 and T2SR strains of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp,

mycoides small colony (MmmSC). Each field dose contains at least 107

viable mycoplasma organisms.

Indication. Control or prevention of black leg disease in cattle

Presentation.The freeze-dried vaccine contains 100 doses per vial.

Dose. Reconstitute the vaccine in100 ml of cold and sterile saline wa-

ter.

Inject 1 ml of the reconstituted vaccine only subcutaneous. Vaccinate

all animals above the age of 6 months.

Immunity. It develops 3 weeks post-vaccination and lasts for about 1

year

192


Side-effect. A rare case of post-vicinal reaction (mild swelling at the

site of injection) can occur. If it ever happens antibiotics like Tetracy-

cline, Oxytetracycline, Erythromycin and Tylosine can be used.

Precautions. The reconstituted vaccine must be protected from light

and health and must be used immediately (the maximum limit is one

hour when kept under cold condition.

For further warning, contraindication and Side-effect see note at the be-

ginning.

Storage. At + 4oC for 6 months, at – 20oC for several years

Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) Vaccine

Description. It is an inactivated bacterial vaccine produced using F-38

Kenyan strain of Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. Capripneumonia

(MCCP).

Well grown Mycoplasma culture is inactivated by saponin which has

also an adjuvant effect.

The minimum protein content in each field dose is 0.15 mg/ml.

Indication. To control or prevent CCPP in goat.

Presentation. The vaccine is a liquid suspension available in 100 ml

for 100 doses.

Dose.Shake the vaccine before use and vaccinate 1 ml/goat subcuta-

neous (thoracic wall area is advisable)

Immunity.CCPP vaccine confers immunity for 1 year. Re-vaccination

is advised after 1 year.

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Side-effect.Slight edematous reaction is induced by saponin, which

normally disappears in 48 hours. For further warning, contraindication

and Side-effects, see note at the beginning.

Storage. The vaccine should be stored at +4oC at least for 1 year.

Peste Des Petits Ruminants (PPR) Vaccine

Description.Lyophilize virus vaccine PPR strain cultured on vero-

cells

Freeze-dried vaccine with a minimum titer of 2.5 TCID50 per field dose

Indication. To control or prevent PPR in goat and sheep

Presentation. 20 ml vial of 100 dose of lyophilized vaccine.

Dose.The injected 1ml of dilute vaccine subcutaneous is recommended

for all goats and Sheep. Early immunization before 6 months of age can

interfere with parental acquired antibodies and inhibit the development

of active immunity. Annual vaccination is recommended for the young

animals during consecutive years.

Warning.Contraindication.Side-effect. See note at the beginning.

Immunity. Eight days after vaccination and may last for life.

Storage.Vaccine should be stored at a temperature of – 20oC

Sheep and Goat Pox Vaccine

Description. Lyophilized live freeze dried Capripox virus strain, cul-

tured on Vero-cells

Freeze dried vaccine with a minimum titer of 2,5 TCID50 per field dose

194


Indication. To control or prevention of sheep and goat pox.

Presentation.20 ml vials of100 doses of Lyophilized vaccine

Dose.Reconstitute 20ml of the product in 100ml of cool and ster-

ile saline water and inject 1ml of diluted vaccine subcutaneous on

the inner face of the thigh

This vaccine can be associated with freeze-dried Anthrax vaccine

Immunity. Eight days after vaccination and may last for two years

Warning.Contraindication.Side-effect. See note at the beginning.

Storage. Vaccine should be stored at a temperature of 20oC

Lumpy Skin Disease Vaccine

Description. Lyophilized live freeze dried Capriopox virus strain, cul-

tured on Vero-cells Freeze dried vaccine with a minimum titer of 3

TCID50 per filed dose

Indication. Control or prevention of lumpy skin disease in cattle,

sheep and goat.

Presentation.20 ml vials 100 dose of Lyophilize vaccine.

Dose. Reconstitute the product in 100 ml of cool and sterile saline wa-

ter. Inject 1 ml of diluted vaccine subcutaneous on the inner face of the

thigh.

This vaccine can be associated with freeze-dried Anthrax vaccine.

Immunity.Eight days after vaccination and may last for two years.

Warning. Contraindication. Effect. See note at the beginning.

Storage. Vaccine should be stored at a temperature of 20o C

195


Rinderpest Vaccine

Description. Lyophilized virus vaccine Kebete -strain cultured on

Vero-cells Freeze-dried vaccine with a minimum titer of 2,5 ml per

field dose.

Indication. To control or prevent rinderpest in ruminant.

Presentation. 20 ml vials 100 dose of Lyophilized vaccine

Dose. Reconstitute the product in 100 ml of cool and sterile saline wa-

ter and injection of 1 ml of diluted vaccine subcutaneous is recom-

mended for all cattle, regardless of size. Early immunization before 6

months of age can interfere with parental acquired antibodies and in-

hibit the development of active immunity. Annual vaccination is recom-

mended for the young animals during consecutive years.

Imunitym. Immunity develops eight days after vaccination and may

last for life.

The vaccination against Rinderpest can be associataed with the vaccina-

tion against-Blackleg, Anthrax, Pasterurllosis and CBPP Vaccines.

Side-effect. Post vaccination, a light fever may occur in exotic breeds.

Warning.Contraindication. See note at the beginning.

Storage. Vaccine should be stored at a temperature of –2000c

African– Horse Sickness

196


Description. Lyophilize virus vaccine Neurotropic type 9-strain cul-

tured on vero-cells. Freeze-dried vaccine with a minimum titer of 2.5ml

per field dose

Indication. To control or prevention of African horse sickness

Presentation. 20 ml vials of 20 dose of Lyophilized vaccine

Dose. Reconstitute the product In 20 ml of cool and sterile saline water

and the injection of 1 ml of diluted vaccine subcutaneous is recom-

mended for horses, donkeys or mules regardless of size or age. Early

immunization of foals born from immunized mares must not be vacci-

nated before six months.

Immunization. Appears 1 month after vaccination and may last for

one year

Side- effect. Generally, post vaccination, benign but hypothermia can

occur at 48 hours, or between the seventh and fourteenth day after vac-

cination. The animals should be able to rest during the fifteen days after

vaccination

Warning. Contraindication. Side-effect. See notes at the begin-

ning.

Storage. Vaccine should be stored at a temperature of +4oC

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) Vaccine

Description. Bivalent vaccine, O and C – strain type propagated on

monolayer cell-culture. This virus is absorbed in to Aluminum Hydrox-

197


ide gel (Al (OH) 3) concentrated, Inactivated with 0,3 % of formalde-

hyde and adjuvated with saponin.

Indication. Control or prevention of Foot and Mouth Disease in cat-

tle.

Presentation. 50 ml and 100 ml vials of 10 or 25 dose

Dose. Shake the bottle before use and inject 4 ml per cattle subcuta-

neous, preferably in dewlap region. First vaccination -two injections at

6 months of interval. Then, revaccination - one year after the second

injection and every year. Since the season of outbreaks in Ethiopia is

generally between November and January, it is advisable to vaccinate

animals before this period so as to obtain a sufficient rate of antibodies

when the risk of outbreak is maximal.

Immunity. 2-3 weeks after vaccination and may last for one year.

Side-effect. Swelling may occur at the place of inoculation and persist

for a few weeks.

Precaution. After puncture of the stopper the whole bottle of vaccine

must be used within 24 hours. Do not vaccinate the cattle under 6

months of age. It is better not to associate other vaccination with FMD

and not to make other vaccination one month before and after FMD

vaccination. For further information for warnings, contraindications and

Side-effects, see note at the beginning.

Storage. Store the vaccine at + 4oc.

198


Newcastle Disease Vaccine

Live Newcastle disease vaccine

Description. Lyophilized virus vaccine Hichner b1/lasota strain cul-

tured on embryonated SPF eggs. Freeze-dried vaccine with a minimum

titre of 107 ELD50.

Indication. Control or prevention of Newcastle disease in poultry.

Dose. Reconstitute according to the number of chicken to be vaccinated

and dilute the required amount of vaccine.

The water must be free from antiseptics (Well or spring water).

The chicken will not be given drinking water the evening before vacci-

nation

Lasota and Hitner B1

Ocular route: Use an eyedropper. To calculate the volume of water,

which should be added, to dilute the number of doses of the vaccine per

vial follows the instructions below. Measure 1 ml of water to the drop-

per. Count the number of drops in this 1 ml of water. Calculate the vol-

ume of diluents required to dilute the number of doses of the vaccine

per vial with the eyedropper in use.

Volume of diluents (ml) = No. Of doses of vaccine per vial No. Of drops formed per ml

199


Example: How much diluents should be added to a vial containing 250

doses of ND vaccine given that 1 ml of water in the ye-dropper yielded

50 drops

Volume of diluents (ml) = 50 dos2es per vial = 5 ml per vial 50 drops per ml

Oral drench – Dissolve the 200 doses in 200 ml, the 100 doses in 100

ml and the 50 doses in 50 ml. Administer by oral drench 1 ml of dis-

solved vaccine squirting into the beak of each bird using a clean plastic

syringe.

Drinking water –the quantity of water generally required per bird for

the drinking water vaccination is as follows:

For 10 – 14 days-old birds 10 – 15 ml

For 3 – 8 week-old birds 20 – 30 ml

For other birds 40 ml

To calculate the volume of water required to dilute the vaccine, multi-

ply the number of doses of the vaccine per vial by the amount of ml re-

quired per bird according to the above table.

Example: to dilute 500 doses of vaccine for 8 week-old birds multiply

500 by 30 that means you need 15 liters of water to dilute the 500 doses

of vaccine per vial.

200


Vaccination Program

Age at vaccination

The parent flocks vaccinated but not infected, so their progeny could re-

spond to vaccination from 14 days. The parent flocks recently been in-

fected with virulent virus; in this flock, levels of antibody known to in-

terfere with vaccination until 42 days. In situation of this kind, approx,

60 % of birds will respond at about 21 days, while the remaining 40 %

are refractory until approx, 42 days.

While vaccination at one day of age may give active protection to

chicks with the lowest levels of antibody, vaccination at this age may be

largely ineffective in the majority of chicks and hence should be re-

garded as a preliminary step rather than a recognized protective proce-

dure.

For example, in flocks of chicks having high level of maternal antibody,

it has been found that approx, 60 % of the chicks will actively respond

to vaccination at 18 – 21 days of age, while at 14 days of age the per-

centage of chicks that will respond may be under 40 %.

Revaccination: In the case of broilers in low risk areas, revaccination

at 14 days of age 21 days of age will prove adequate protection. In high

risk areas application of vaccine at this age only may be inadequate.

Therefore, it must be necessary to revaccinate at 42 days of age using

the Lasota vaccine by the drinking water.

201


In the case of layers, further boosting of immunity is necessary after 10

weeks of age. This is to protect the birds from the disease during the re-

mainder of the growing period, and to provide at point of lay an im-

mune level that will effectively protect the pullets with the minimum of

revaccination during the laying period.

If the time interval between the primary and secondary vaccination is

<21 days, the antibody produced by the first dose of vaccine is more

likely to interfere with the multiplication of the second dose of virus.

An interval during which no further vaccine is given should be allowed

until the final dose of vaccine is administered about two weeks before

the birds come into egg production. There fore, the following vaccina-

tion program is recommended.

Day of vaccination Type of vaccine Route of

AdministrationDay old HB1 IntraocularDay 21 Lasota IntraocularDay 42 Lasota By the drinking waterBetween 10 and 12 weeks of age

Inactivated Intramuscular 0.5 ml/bird

At point of lay Inactivated Intramuscular 0.5 ml/bird

Storage. Vaccine should store at a temperature of +4oC.

Inactivated Oild Emulsion Newcastle Disease Vaccine

202


Description. The vaccine is prepared in embryonated eggs injected

with the lentogenic strain Lasota, containing in at least 108 EID50 inac-

tivated and suspended in light mineral oil adjuvant. It is selected for its

long lasting immunity.

Indication. To control and prevent Newcastle disease in poultry.

Dose. The inactivated type vaccine is recommended for flocks of lay-

ing and breeding birds. Shake well before and during use. The vaccine

is injected 0.5 ml/bird subcutaneous at the back of the neck or intra-

muscularly in the breast muscle. Only healthy poultry should be vaccinated.

Vaccination program

First Vaccination 10-12 weeks of age. Second Vaccinations given at

point of lay. Best immunity is obtained when birds are vaccinated with

live Newcastle vaccines prior to the application of inactivated vaccine.

Warning. Contraindication. Side-effect. See note at the begin-

ning.

No local post vicinal reaction occurs, but trace of oil may be found for

some time at the site of injection. Accidental injection of this vaccine to

the user (vaccinator can cause localized reaction for which physician

advice should be sought at once, informing him that the vaccine is an

oil emulsion.

Storage. Store the vaccine in a refrigerator at a temperature of 4 to 80C

until it issued. Before use allow the vaccine to reach the room tempera-

ture (20oC).

203


Newcastle Thermo-Stable Vaccine

Description. It is a live viral vaccine produced in an embryonated spe-

cific pathogen free (SPF) eggs using the relatively heat stable variant

strain, developed at Queens land University Australia.

Each field dose contains at least log 107. ELD50 viral particles

Indication. Control or prevention of Newcastle disease in poultry.

Presentation. The vaccine is available in vials of 250, 100 and 50

doses

Storage. Since thermo-stable minority populations are present in the

relatively heat stable strain 12 the vaccine can be stored at + 4oC.

Dose.

Ocular route. Use an eyedropper.To calculate the volume of water,

which should be added, to dilute the numbers of doses of the vaccine

per vial follow the instructions below:

Measure 1 ml of water to the dropper. Count the number of drops in this

1 ml of water. Calculate the volume of diluents required to dilute the

number of doses of the vaccine per vial with the eyedropper in use:

Volume of diluents (ml) = No. of doses of vaccine per vial

No. of drops formed per ml

Example. How much diluents should be added to a vial containing 250

doses of ND vaccine given that 1 m l of water in the ye-dropper yielded

50 drops

Volume of diluents (ml) = 250 doses per vial

204


50 drops per ml

= 5 ml per vial

Oral drench. Dissolve the 200 doses in 200 ml, the 100 doses in 100

ml and the 50 doses in 50 ml. Administer by oral drench 1 ml of dis-

solved vaccine squirting into the beak of each bird using a clean plastic

syringe.

Drinking water .the quantity of water generally required per bird for

the dinking water vaccination is as follows:

For 10-14 day old birds10-15 ml

For 3-8 week old birds 120-30 ml

For other birds 40 ml

To calculate the volume of water required to dilute the vaccine, multi-

ply the number of doses of the vaccine per vial by the amount of ml re-

quired per bird according to the above table.

Example. To dilute 500 doses of vaccine for 8 week-old birds multiply

500 by 30 that means you need 15 liters of water to dilute the 500 doses

of vaccine per vial

Vaccination program

First vaccination; Day old and above (preferably up to 10 days); Second

vaccination, 4 weeks; third vaccination 3-4 Months; repeat every 3-4

months.

205


Fowl Typhoid Vaccine (Live vaccine)

Description. It is a live, freeze-dried vaccine against Fowl Typhoid in

chickens. Each vial contains 5 x 107 CFU of Salmonella gallinarum

strain

Indication. To control or prevent fowl typhoid in poultry

Presentation. The vaccine is available in vials of 20 ml with 100

doses

Dose. Reconstitute the vaccine in 50 ml of cool sterile distilled or

saline water .0.2 ml of the reconstituted vaccine by subcutaneous injec-

tion into the low part of the back of the neck. A single dose of vaccina-

tion should be given at 6 weeks of age followed by a booster dose at 12

weeks of age

Immunity. Appears in about 10 days. Duration of the vaccine after

two injections is for 6-8 months

Warning. Contra-indication.Side-effect. Birds should not be vac-

cinated within 14 days of the start of laying period. For further informa-

tion see note at the beginning.

Storage. The vaccine can be stored at 4oC for 6 months and at – 20oC

for several years.

Fowl-pox Vaccine

Description. It is a live freeze dried viral vaccine produced on the

Chicken Fibro blast, cells of embryonated specific pathogen free (SPF)

206


eggs using modified Fowl pox virus. Each vaccine batch contains 10 3.5

EID50/ dose.

Indication. To control or prevent fowl-pox infection in poultry

Presentation. Each 20 ml vial contains 100 doses of freeze-dried vac-

cine

Dose. Use wing web method

Reconstitute the 100 doses with 2 ml of sterile cold-buffered solvent

and vaccinate by transfixion of inner side of the wing membrane of

each bird dip the stylet before vaccination into the viral suspension so

that the groove is filled. Take care to touch the needle against the inside

of the vial in order to remove adhering drops. The stylet is inserted

from beneath through the wing web and care should be taken to push

the feathers side so as to avoid damaging the blood vessels. The wing

web should be slightly stretched.

Vaccination program:

1.Healthy environment; Vaccination from the 8th week of life with a

yearly boost

2.Contaminated environment; Vaccination from the 3rd week of life

Booster 3 months later and then yearly.

Warning.Contraindication.Side-effect.See notes at the beginning

Storage. The vaccine can be stored at + 4oC.

Canine Distemper Vaccine

207


Indication. Against canine distemper infection.

Dosage form. Vial of 1 dose powder for reconstitution.

Dose. Subcutaneous or intramuscularly injection of 1dose.

Contraindication, warning and side-effect. Vaccination of pup-

pies under 6 weeks and age is not recommended. For additional infor-

mation see notes above.

Canine Parvo Virus Vaccine

Indication. Against canine parvo virus infection.

Dosage form. Vial of 1 dose powder for reconstitution.

Dose. Subcutaneous or intramuscular injection of 1 dose. Puppies are

vaccinated at 2 to 4 weeks intervals from 6 to 8 or 18 weeks of age. Al-

though immunity following modifier live vaccine administration is

probably of long duration, annual boaster vaccination is recommended.

Contraindication.Warning.Side-effect.storage. See note above.

At early age and less than 6 weeks, maternal-derived antibodies may in-

terfere with vaccination but not protect from infection.

Avian Coccidiosis Vaccine

Indication .To avoid problems related to drug resistance and the con-

tinuous use of medication to control Eimeria species in domestic bird.

Dose. The vaccine is given in the drinking water as a single dose at be-

tween 5 and 9 days of age. A single dose is sufficient to protect broilers

and replacement layer pullets.

208


Contraindication.Warning.Side-effect. Storage. See notes

above.

Marek’s Disease Vaccine

Indication. Against Mark’s disease in poultry

Dosage form. Powder for reconstitution

Dose. Chickens are ideally vaccinated at day-old in the hatchery, and

also chickens up to 3 weeks of age may be vaccinated. Occasionally re-

vaccination is done at 2 to 4 weeks of age. The vaccine is injected im

at 0.2 m/g per chick.

Contraindication.Warning. Side-effect.Storage. See notes above

IndexAbamectin + praziquantel,

103Abamectine, 97Acepromazine maleate, 139Acetylsalicylic acid (as-

pirin), 134Activated carbon, 182Adsorbents, 116

209


African – horse sickness, 196

Albendazole, 87Alcohol, 179Alpha2-adrenoceptor stimu-

lants, 139Aminoglycosides, 27Amitraz, 115Amoxycillin, 10Amoxycillin and clavulanic

acid, 13Ampicillin, 12Ampicillin and cloxacillin,

13Ampicillin and cloxacillin

benzathine, 14Ampicillin and dicloxacillin,

14Amprolium and ethopabate,

83Amprolium and sulfaquinox-

aline, 84Amprolium hydrochloride,

75Amprolium hydrochloride

and vitamin k, 84Amprolium, furazolidone,

vitamin k and vitamin a, 84

Amprolium, sulfaquinoxa-line and ethopabate, 83

Amprolium, sulfaquinoxa-line, ethopabate and pyremethamine, 83

Amprolium+ sulfaquinoxa-line+ vitamin k, 84

Anthrax vaccine, 188Anticoagulants, 164Atropine sulphate, 143Avian coccidiosis vaccine.,

208Benzathine penicillin, 4Benzimidazoles, 85Benzyl penicillin, 4Benzyl penicillin,, 3Beta-lactamase resistant

penicillins, 7Betamethosone., 175Bezanthine penicillin g and

procaine penicillin, 6Bismuth salicylate, sodium

salicylate, magnesium trisilicate and kaolin, 117

Blackleg vaccine, 191Bovine pasteurellosis vac-

cine, 189Broad-spectrum penicillin's,

9Bulk-forming laxatives, 122Buprenorphine hydrochlo-

ride, 131Canine distemper vaccine,

207Canine parvo virus vaccine,

207Carbamate, 110Carbaryl, 110Cephalexin, 18

210


Cephalosporins, 14Cephapirin, 17Chloramphenicol, 37Chloramphenicol, 38Chlorfenvinphos, 106Chlorhexidine, 181Chlorothiazide, 126Chlortetracycline, 23Chlortetracycline and benzo-

caine, 25Chlortetracycline and

neomycin sulphate, 67Clopidol, 77Cloprestenol sodium, 163Closantel, 99Cloxacillin, 7, 8Cloxacillin benzanthine and

neomycin sulphate, 67Cloxacillin benzathine, 8Cloxacillin sodium,

neomycin sulfate and predinsolone, 67

Contagious bovine pleurop-neumonia (cbpp) vaccine, 191

Contagious caprine pleurop-neumonia (ccpp) vaccine, 192

Copper sulfate, 73Corticosteroids, 173Co-trimazine. SeeCrystal violet, 179Cyanocobalamin, 171Cypermethrin, 111

Decoquinate, 77Deltamethrin, 112Dexamethasone, 175Diazinon, 107Dichlorovos, 107Diclophenac sodium, 137Dihydrostreptomycin and

benzathin penicillin g, 67Dihydrostreptomycin and

streptomycin, 30Dihydrostreptomycin sul-

phate and procaine peni-cillin g, 67

Dimeticone, 119Diminazene aceturate, 80Diminazene aceturate and

phenazone, 81Diuretics, 124Docusate, 120Doxycycline, 25Enrofloxacin, 42Erythromycin, 34Erythromycin, sulfadiazine

and Trimethoprim, 68Ether, 149Etramisole, 94Febantel, 91Fenbendazole, 88Fenthion, 108Fenvalerate, 113Flubendazole, 88Flucloxacillin, 8Flumequin, 44Flumethrine, 114

211


Flunixin meglumine, 136Folic acid, 170Foot and mouth disease

(fmd) vaccine, 197Formaldehyde, 182Fowl typhoid vaccine, 205Fowl-pox vaccine, 206Frusemide, 127Furazolidone, 64Gentamicin sulfate, 30Griseofulvin, 72Haemostatics, 166Halothane, 149Heparin sodium, 165Homidium, 81Hydrochlorothiazide, 126Imidazothiazole, 92Inactivated oild emulsion

newcastle disease vaccine, 202

Iodine compounds, 181Isoflurane, 149Isomethamidium chloride,

82Ispaghula husk, 122Ivermectin and praziquantel,

103Ivermectine, 95Kanamycin, 32Kanamycine sulphate, ben-

zathin penicillin and pro-caine penicillin g, 68

Kaolin and pectin, 117Ketamine hydrochloride, 145

Ketoconazole, 72Lasalocid, 78Levamisole, 92Levamisole and triclabenda-

zole, 100Levamisole and oxy-

clozanide, 101Levamisole with bithonolox-

ide, 101Levamisole with

niclosamide, 101Levamisole with rafoxanide,

102Lidocaine and adrenaline,

151Lidocaine hydrochloride,

151Lidocaine hydrochloride and

noradrenaline, 152Lincomycin and spectino-

mycin, 68Lincomycin hydrochloride,

36Loop diuretics, 126Lubricant laxatives, 121Lumpy skin disease vaccine,

194Macrolides, 33Magnesium hydroxide mix-

ture, 123Magnesium sulfate (epsom

salt), 124Mannitol, 128

212


Mark’s disease vaccine., 208

Mebendazole, 89Metamizole sodium, 135Methenamine, 129Methohexitone sodium, 145Metronidazole, 65Metronidazole, 66Microcyclic lactones, 94Monensin, 78Natamycin, 71Neomycin sulphate, 32Newcastle disease vaccine,

198Newcastle thermo-stable

vaccine, 203Niacin. SeeNicotinic acid, 170Nitrofurans, 63Nitrofurazone, 65Nitrofurazone +urea, 65Nitroimidazoles, 65Non-opioid analgesics, 132Norfloxacin, 43Oestradiol benzoate, 158Oestrogens, 157Opioid analgesics, 129Oral anticoagulant, 165Organophosphates and chlo-

rides, 105Osmotic diuretics, 128Osmotic laxatives, 123Ovine pasteurellosis vaccine,

190

Oxfendazole, 90Oxibendazole, 90Oxyclozanide, 97Oxyfendazole and oxy-

clozanide, 104Oxytetracycline, 23Oxytetracycline and furazoli-

done, 69Oxytetracycline and genitian

violet, 25Oxytetracycline and Lido-

cain hydrochloride, 25Oxytocin, 156Paracetamol, 135Paraffins, 121Parenteral Anticoagulants,

164Penicillin g procain, dihy-

drostreptomycin sulphate and methylhydrobenzoate, 69

Penicillin g procaine, peni-cillin g benzathin and di-hydrostreptomycin sul-phate, 69

Penicillin g sodium, peni-cillin g procain and dihy-drostreptomycin, 69

Penicillin g). SeePenicillin g, formosulphathi-

azol and streptomycine sulphate, 69

213


Penicillin g, penicillin g pro-caine and streptomycine sulphate, 69

Penicillins, 1Pentobarbitone sodium, 146Permethrin, 113Peste des petits ruminants

(ppr) vaccine, 193Pethidine hydrochloride, 132Phenothiazines, 138Phenylbutazone, 134Phosmet, 109Poloxalene, 119Potassium permanganate,

179Praziquantel, 97Praziquantel and pyrantel

embonate + febantel, 103Predisolone acetate, 176Procaine Penicillin, 3Procaine penicillin and

Streptomycine sulphate, 70

Procaine penicillin G, 5Procaine penicillin G and

neomycin, 70Procaine penicillin g, dihy-

drostreptomycin and pro-caine hydrochloride, 70

Progesterone, 161Progestogens, 160Propoxur, 110Prostaglandins, 162Pyrantel pamoate, 99

Quinalbarbitone sodium, 146Quinapramin sulfate, 82Quinolones, 40Riboflavin, 169Rinderpest vaccine, 195Robendine, 78Sedatives, 137Sheep and goat pox vaccine,

194Spiramycin, 36Streptomycin sulphate, 29Sulfadiazine, tetracycline hy-

drochloride and neomycin sulphate, 70

Sulfathiazole, penicillin g, streptomycine sulphate and ethinyloestradiole, 70

Sulphadiazine and trimetho-prim, 58

Sulphadimethoxine, 50Sulphadimidine and sulpha-

diazine and sulphathiazole, 62

Sulphadimidine and trimethoprim, 63

Sulphadimidine sodium, 48Sulphadimidine, trimetho-

prim and atropine sulfate, 61

Sulphamerazine, 51Sulphamerazine, sulfadi-

azine, sulfathiazole and trimethoprim, 61

Sulphamethazine, 52

214


Sulphamethoxazole and trimethoprim, 60

Sulphamethoxypyridazine, 49

Sulphaquinoxaline and pyrimethamine, 61

Sulphaquinoxaline And Trimethoprim, 56

Sulphasalazine, 118Sulphonamides and potenti-

ated sulphonamides, 45Testosterone phenylpropi-

onate, 159Tetracycline, 26Tetracyclines, 18Tetramisol with oxy-

clozanide, 102Thiamphenicol, 40Thiazides, 125Thiopentone sodium, 147

Tocopherol. SeeToltrazuril, 79Triclabendazole, 91Triclabendazole and rafox-

anide, 104Tylosin, 35Tylosine and chlorampheni-

col, 70Tylosine, chloramphenicol

and prednisolone, 70Vitamin B2. SeeVitamin E, 172Vitamin K, 172Vitamin B1. SeeWarfarin sodium, 166Xylazine, 140Yohimbine hydrochloride,

183Zinc sulphate, 74

215

formulary for veterinaries

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