Fostering Transfer: A New Perspective on an Old Problem

Slava Kalyuga

School of EducationUniversity of New South Wales

Sydney, Australia

Transfer

Continues to be a hot research topic

Schoenfeld (1999) identified transfer as one of the most critical areas of research that need substantial progress in the 21st century

Transfer

Different views on the nature, extent, and underlying mechanisms

(e.g., Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Detterman & Sternberg, 1993; Holyoak & Koh, 1987; Lobato, 2006; McKeough, Lupart, & Marini, 1995; Ngu & Yeung, 2012; Schalk, Saalbach, & Stern, 2011; Tuomi-Grцhn & Engestrцm, 2003).

Flexible problem solving(adaptive expertise) problem solving in relatively new situations

vs.

routine performance

Prevailing view: transfer results from problem solving experiences rather than explicit instruction

Explicit learning of generalized conceptual frameworks (Karpov & Bransford, 1995).

Gick and Holyoak (1983): acquisition of abstract schemas as mediators of analogical transfer

Approaches

Cognitive load perspective

Solving novel problems: high levels of cognitive load (working memory load)

Thinking and problem solving skills: skills in managing cognitive load?

Knowledge base as a major means for managing cognitive load

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Cognitive Load TheoryTraditionally emphasizes direct instruction in

domain-specific concepts and procedures related to specific problem situations

(De Groot, 1947/65: chess expertise)

when automated, they release resources for dealing with novel problems

varying contexts of specific problem situations may enhance flexible problem solving

“empirical” vs “theoretical” approach

Levels of knowledge

domain-specific concepts and procedures:

1)specific domain knowledge

2)generalized domain knowledge (not domain-general!)

Generalized domain knowledge

Conceptual frameworks and problem solving strategies applicable to different problem classes in a domain

e.g., Basic principles of physics (e.g., energy conservation principle) Larkin (1985); Simon & Simon (1978)

Managing cognitive load in novel situations within a domain (Kalyuga, Renkl, & Paas, 2010; Kalyuga & Hanham, 2011)

Evidence of existence?

Chess expertise:

Walczak & Fishwick(1997): generalized chunks (patterns) of master players.

Gobet & Simon (1998), template theory: chunks that recur often in masters’ practice and study evolve into larger and more complex structures, called templates that account for more flexible aspects of masters’ performance in conditions of substantial variation among positions.

Evidence of existence?

Duncan (2007):

When solving problems in molecular genetics, students initially formulated their solutions in terms of a general solution frame rather than immediate domain-specific knowledge.

Components of the solution frame - domain-specific explanatory schemas and domain-specific heuristics - are associated with central mechanisms and entities in the domain and allow students to reason about novel problems.

Evidence of instructional effects

Learning generalized frameworks and higher level conceptual knowledge for deep understanding: reviewed by Karpov & Bransford (1995)

The progressive differentiation theory (Ausubel,1960): general (advance organizers) – to – detail sequence; effective for transfer (Mayer, 1979).

Elaboration theory (Reigeluth & Stein,1983): general ideas followed by "zooming in" for more details. Periodical "zooming out" to a wider picture to select the next idea for "zooming in“.

Function-Process-Structure (FPS) framework in describing technical systems:

Functions (purpose) a technical object was designed for (what is it for?)

Processes utilized in the object’s operation (how does it operate?)Structure and links between its components (what does it consist

of?)

Kalyuga (1984)Hmelo-Silver & Pfeffer (2004): "structure-behaviour-function“;

(SBF)

Generalized domain knowledge

Experiment 1 (Kalyuga & Hanham, 2011)

Hypothesis

Flexible problem solving could be enhanced by direct explicit instruction in generalized FPS schema and its relations to specific knowledge

Participants: 45 undergraduate university students with no prior

knowledge of the technical system

(air-conditioning system)

Experimental conditions

(1) Conventional description of the technical system without an explicit schema

(2) Single-level description of the technical system using the explicit FPS schema

(3) Hierarchically-structured description (high to low levels of generality) of the technical system using the FPS schematic framework

Conventional instruction The air-conditioning is used to lower the temperature of a room. It

takes in warm air, cools this air down, and then returns this cool air to the room. It uses a special substance (a refrigerant) that is contained within a set of cooling coils. An inner fan blows the room air over the cooling coils and back into the room. The refrigerant (in a cold liquid form) absorbs heat from the air and transforms into a vapourised gas. The absorption of heat has the effect of cooling the air. Once the air is cooled within the air-conditioner, it is re-circulated back into the room.

To function effectively, the air-conditioner needs to continuously transform the warm vapourised refrigerant back into a cool liquid form. The warm vapourised refrigerant is pressurised by a compressor to become liquid and then is pumped through the hot coils at the back of the air-conditioner where the warm refrigerant gives off its heat to the outside air and transforms back into a cold liquid form. The outer fan transfers heat from the hot coils to the air outside. The expansion valve removes the pressure from the liquid refrigerant entering the cooling coils to allow its vapourisation by absorbing heat from the room air.

Single-level instruction Any technical device could be described by its functions (purpose), the processes that allow achieving these

functions, and the structure (components) that are used to implement the processes. This approach is used in the following description of the air-conditioning system.

Functions: 1) to lower the temperature of a room by taking in warm air, cooling this air down, and then returning this cool air

to the room;2) to continuously transform the warm vapourised refrigerant back into a cool liquid form that could be

repeatedly used to absorb heat from the air.

This is achieved byProcess: 1) (see the left-hand part of the diagram)cool liquid refrigerant absorbs heat from the air and transforms into a warm vapourised gas; the absorption of

heat has the effect of cooling the air; once the air is cooled within the air-conditioner, it is re-circulated back into the room.

2) (see the right-hand part of the diagram) the warm vapourised refrigerant is compressed to become liquid and then is pumped through the coils at the

back of the air-conditioner. In the process, the refrigerant gives off its heat and transforms back into a cold liquid form. The pressure is then removed from the liquid refrigerant to allow vapourisation by absorbing heat from the room air.

To achieve this the air-conditioner usesStructure: a refrigerant cooling coils with the refrigerant in cold liquid form to absorb heat from the room air;inner fan to blow the room air over the cooling coils and back into the roomcompressor to pressurize the vapourised refrigerant;hot coils for the warm refrigerant to give up its heat;outer fan to transfer heat from the hot coils to the air outside;expansion valve to remove the pressure from the liquid refrigerant entering the cooling coils.

Hierarchically-structured instruction Any technical device could be described by its

functions (purpose), the processes that allow achieving these functions, and the structure (components) that are used to implement the processes. This approach is used in the following description of the air-conditioning system.

General description:

Function: to lower the temperature of a room.

This is achieved by Process: absorbing heat from the room air.

To achieve this the air-conditioner uses Structure: a special substance (refrigerant).

More detailed description

Function: to take in warm air, cool this air down, and then return this cool air to the room.

This is achieved by Process: refrigerant absorbs heat from the air and

transforms into a warm vapourized gas; the absorption of heat has the effect of cooling the air; once the air is cooled within the air-conditioner, it is re-circulated back into the room.

To achieve this the air-conditioner uses Structure: a refrigerant contained within a set of cooling

coils and an inner fan which blows the room air over the coils and back into the room.

Most detailed description:

Function: to continuously transform the warm vapourised refrigerant back into a cool liquid form that could be repeatedly used to absorb heat from the air.

This is achieved byProcess: cool liquid refrigerant absorbs heat from the room air and transforms into a warm vapourised gas; the warm vapourised refrigerant is compressed to become liquid and then is pumped through the coils at the back of the air-conditioner. In the process, the refrigerant gives off its heat and transforms back into a cold liquid form. The pressure is then removed from the liquid refrigerant to allow vapourisation by absorbing heat from the room air.

To achieve this the air-conditioner usesStructure: cooling coils with the refrigerant in cold liquid form to absorb heat from the room air;inner fan to blow the room air over the cooling coils and back into the roomcompressor to pressurize the vapourised refrigerant;hot coils for the warm refrigerant to give up its heat to the air outside;outer fan to transfer heat from the hot coils to the air outside;expansion valve to remove the pressure from the liquid refrigerant entering the cooling coils.

Pre-test questions

1. List main components of an air conditioner.

2. What is the role of a compressor in the air conditioner?

3. Briefly describe how a refrigerator works.

Test questions

Recall (5)Describe the transformations between liquid

and vapourised refrigerant

Transfer (5)How can an air-conditioner be used for

warming the room (a reverse-cycle air conditioner)?

Look at the provided diagrams of a window air conditioner. car air conditioner, and submarine air conditioner. Identify the main parts of these devices and explain their operation.

Experimental

condition

Retention

scores

(max score

19.50)

Transfer

scores

(max score

24.25)

Difficulty of

learning

material (max

score 9)

M SD M SD M SD

Hierarchical (n =15) 12.83 4.90 16.32 6.13 4.27 1.83

Single-level (n =15) 8.95 4.53 11.72 5.57 4.40 1.88

Conventional (n =15) 10.25 4.51 11.62 5.47 4.33 2.02

Future research questions • Should direct instruction in generalized schemas

be presented first followed by their applications to concrete cases, or should instruction start from specific cases followed by generalizations?

• Would the optimal sequence depend on levels of learner prior knowledge in a domain?

• Would a gradual reduction of levels of instructional support in the form of explicitly presented general schemas facilitate the development of flexible knowledge and skills?

Experiment 2 (Kalyuga, 2013)

Research questions:1. Would explicitly provided generalized frameworks

be more efficient in facilitating transfer than a conventional format without explicit schemas?

2. Should generalized schemas be learned first followed by further specifications and applications to concrete cases, or should learning start from specific exemplars followed by generalizations?

Participants: 49 undergraduate university students (17 males

and 32 females; average age of 21) with low prior knowledge of the technical system

Experimental conditions

2 (schema) x 2 (direction)

(1) schema-based general-to-specific

(2) schema-based specific-to-general

(3) non-schema-based general-to-specific

(4) non-schema-based specific-to-general condition

The experimental sessions were conducted individually and involved:

- short questionnaire- pre-test- instructional phase- rating of subjective difficulty- post-test phase: transfer test (two scorers, 4-point scale for a question).

Overall length: no more than 2h.

Experimental procedures

Schema-based, general-to-specific Any technical device could be described by its

functions (purpose), the processes that allow achieving these functions, and the structure (components) that are used to implement the processes. This approach is used in the following description of the air-conditioning system.

General description (Level 1):

Function: to lower the temperature of a room.

This is achieved by Process: absorbing heat from the room air.

To achieve this the air-conditioner uses Structure: a special substance (refrigerant).

More detailed description (Level 2)

Function: to take in warm air, cool this air down, and then return this cool air to the room.

This is achieved by Process: refrigerant absorbs heat from the air and

transforms into a warm vapourized gas; the absorption of heat has the effect of cooling the air; once the air is cooled within the air-conditioner, it is re-circulated back into the room.

To achieve this the air-conditioner uses Structure: a refrigerant contained within a set of cooling

coils and an inner fan which blows the room air over the coils and back into the room.

Most detailed description (Level 3):

Function: to continuously transform the warm vapourised refrigerant back into a cool liquid form that could be repeatedly used to absorb heat from the air.

This is achieved byProcess: cool liquid refrigerant absorbs heat from the room air and transforms into a warm vapourised gas; the warm vapourised refrigerant is compressed to become liquid and then is pumped through the coils at the back of the air-conditioner. In the process, the refrigerant gives off its heat and transforms back into a cold liquid form. The pressure is then removed from the liquid refrigerant to allow vapourisation by absorbing heat from the room air.

To achieve this the air-conditioner usesStructure:

Etc.

Experimental condition Transfer post-test scores

(out of 36)

Ratings of cognitive load

(out of 9)

M SD M SD

Schema-based

general-to-specific 16.38 7.58 4.08 2.11

Schema-based

specific-to-general 14.23 4.64 5.54 1.85

Non-schema-based

general-to-specific 11.58 7.24 5.67 1.88

Non-schema-based

specific-to-general 7.88 2.57 4.83 1.95

Two-way ANCOVA using pre-test scores as a covariate

Transfer scores:significant main effect of schema condition, F(1, 44) = 12.80, MSE = 32.08, p =.001, ηp

2 = .225 (a large effect), favouring the schema-based condition;

near significant effect (p < .1) of the direction of the description, F(1, 44) = 3.25, MSE = 32.08, p =.078, ηp

2

= .069 (a medium effect) - a potential trend favouring the general-to-specific condition.

No significant interaction, F(1, 44) = .68, MSE = 32.08, p =.41, ns.

Two-way ANCOVA using pre-test scores as a covariate

Ratings of cognitive load: no main effects;significant interaction between the conditions, F(1, 44) = 4.72, MSE = 17.96, p =.035, ηp

2 = .097 (a medium effect).

Near significant simple effect for the schema-based condition, F(1, 22) = 3.20, MSE = 4.10, p =.088, ηp

2

= .127 (a large effect) - a trend favouring the general-to-specific condition with a lower cognitive load

no simple effect for the non-schema-based condition,

Future research questions

• Fully equalizing the amount of presented information (e.g., by supplementing the non-schema-based formats with an equivalent amount of technical non-schema-related information)

• More sensitive measures of cognitive load?

• Would the optimal sequence depend on levels of learner prior knowledge in a domain?

References• Kalyuga, S. (2013). Enhancing transfer by learning

generalized domain knowledge structures. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28, 1477–1493

• Kalyuga, S., & Hanham, J. (2011). Instructing in generalized knowledge structures to develop flexible problem solving skills. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 63-68.

• Kalyuga, S., Renkl, A., & Paas, F. (2010). Facilitating flexible problem solving: A cognitive load perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 22, 175-186.