foundations and framework

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Foundations and FrameworkIn the Instructional Technology Field

Videsha SethiUniversity of Houston – Clear Lake

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Table of ContentsHeadings Slide

Numbers

Introduction 3-5

Section 1 – Psychological Foundation Theories and Models

6-12

Section II – Motivational Theories and Models 13-18

Section III – Learning Environments 19-23

Section IV – Learner Beliefs 24-27

Conclusion 28-29

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What is Learning and Instruction?Learning:

A result of internal cognitive processes occurring within the learner. The encoding which occurs from organization, integration, and translation of

information. Driscoll (2005) states, “it is a persisting change in human performance or

performance potential” (p. 9).

Instruction: It is the organizing and sequencing of information for the learner. It is the presentation and provision of examples, practice, and feedback. Driscoll (2005) states, “it is any deliberate arrangement of events to facilitate

a learner’s acquisition of some goal” (p. 23).

Note: Being presented with information does not always cause learning to occur; and the learning of information does not always result in the need for instruction.

Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Four Considerations for Instruction Technology

What are the different ways we learn?

How do we instruct?

Psychological foundation theories and models: They explain the different perspectives, different assumptions, and different beliefs about how we learn.

Learning environment theories and models: They provide a designed platform to facilitate learning through the use of media and instruction.

Learner motivation theories and models: These provide a designed framework where motivation characteristics are integrated when designing a learning environment.

How do we stay motivated to learn?

How do we incorporate our learner beliefs during instruction?

Learner’s psychological beliefs: These are integrated into the final product.

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Connecting Learning, Instruction, Motivation and Beliefs

o Psychological foundations are theories or models which provide input into the learning environment, such as: Situated Learning, Constructivism, Gagne’s Theory, and Cognitive Information Processing Theory.

o Learner motivation theories and models provide input into the design of a learning environment.

o Various learning environments are designed with the underlying notion of the psychological foundation being used and the integration of learner motivation theories and models.

o Learner philosophical beliefs are integrated into the final product.

Psychological Foundations

Learning Environments

Learner Motivation

Learner Beliefs

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Section 1: Psychological Foundation Theories and Models

Constructivism Cognitive Information Processing

Theory Gagne’s Theory of Instruction Situated Learning Theory

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Constructivism The learner is the active constructor of knowledge. Instructional technologist provide both a realistic or authentic learning environment which is complex in order to facilitate the above learning outcomes. Constructivism has greatly influenced instructional designers; Reiser and Dempsey (2007) declare that it “attempts to create learning situations that promote the engagement or immersion of learners in practice fields…and fields of practice” (p. 46). Anglin (1995) describes “the concept of constructionism (now called constructivism) was first proposed by Bruner in the mid-1960s and builds on earlier ideas of Piaget. Basically, it holds that the learner rather than the teacher are more important than instruction that originates from the teacher” (p. 41). See next slide for a pictorial depiction for constructivism which includes the following components: Learning Goals, Conditions for Instruction, and Methods of Instruction.

Anglin G. J. (1995). Instructional technology: Past, present, and future( 2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey J. V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (2nd ed.). Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice.

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Constructivism Continued

Constructivism

Methods of Instruction•Microworlds and hypermedia designs•Collaborative learning and problem scaffolding•Goal-based scenarios and problem-based learning•Open software and course management tools

Conditions for Instruction1. Complex and relevant

learning environments2. Social negotiation3. Multiple perspectives

and multiple modes of learning

4. Ownership in learning5. Self-awareness of

knowledge construction

Learning Goals include

• Reasoning• Critical thinking• Understanding and the use of knowledge•Self-regulation•Mindful reflection

Assumes knowledge is constructed

Driscoll’s (2005) pictorial representation of “constructivism” (p. 384).


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Constructivism ContinuedThe incorporation of constructivism has greatly affected instructional activities and

the instructional system design process. As a result, a new discipline has emerged called learning sciences.

According to Reiser and Dempsey (2007), “learning sciences are the convergence of design of activity systems, cognition, and sociocultural context” (p. 47). The learning environment relies upon constructivist cognitive discipline. They are complex learning environments which offer learners an authentic platform for learning. Learning sciences also uses concepts and practices from computer science.

Research and design functions in learning sciences are merged into one activity called design research. Reiser and Dempsey (2007) state, “design research integrates the design of learning environments with the development of prototheories (emergent development theories)” (p. 48).

Design research allows a more contextually bound understanding of learning. This occurs when the design process starts with a thought experiment, rather than beginning with the analysis phases.

For the instructional technology field, the learning is more local and useful in solving instructional problems.


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Cognitive Information Processing TheoryAtkinson and Shiffrin’s cognitive information processing theory implies that the

learner’s mind works like a computer. Educational implications from Roblyer and Doering (2010) state that “instruction must gain attention, provide the right kinds of application, and provide sufficient practice to ensure encoding, retention, and retrieval” (p. 36).

The cognitive information processing view states that the learner is a processor of information in much the same way as a computer is. Driscoll (2005) states that “when learning occurs, information is input from the environment, processed and stored in memory, and output in the form of some learned capability “(p. 74).

The three stages of memory are: Sensory memory – This stage is focused more on the five senses, where a learner can hold

information very briefly in memory, and begins the actions of pattern decoding of the environment.

Working memory – This memory is considered short-term memory, where the learner will remember a limited amount of information for a very short amount of time.

Long-term memory – This memory allows the learner to transfer information from working memory for permanent or long term storage.


Roblyer, M. D., & Doering, A .H. (2010). Integrating educational technology into teaching (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

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Gagne’s Theory of InstructionGagne’s Theory of Instruction encompasses

three components: A Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes: 1.

verbal information; 2. intellectual skills; 3. cognitive strategies; 4. attitudes; 5. motor skills

Conditions of Learning: For each of the above learning outcomes, external conditions exist for learning the different varieties of outcome.

Nine Events of Instruction:

1. Gaining attention2. Informing learners of objectives3. Stimulating recall of prior learning4. Presenting the stimulus5. Providing learning guidance6. Eliciting performance7. Providing feedback8. Assessing performance9. Enhancing retention and transfer

Driscoll (2005) states, “because Gagne eventually adopted information-processing theory as a foundation for his theory, the conditions for learning include both internal events (such as previously encoded information) and external events (such as preparation to facilitate encoding). Additionally, the events of instruction refer to methods or procedures designed to facilitate the processes (such as encoding, retentions, retrieval, etc.) thought to occur during learning” (p. 355).


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Situated Learning Theory In situated learning, both declarative and procedural knowledge are

integrated into a single framework. The basis of cognition has both a social and situated aspect.

Driscoll (2005) states “what people perceive, think, and do develops in a fundamentally social context” (p. 157).

The theory focuses on communities of practice. Reiser and Dempsey (2007) state, “learning from a situated perspective occurs through the learner’s participation in the practices of a community, practices that are mutually constituted by the members of the community” (p. 40).

Examples of learning environments based upon this theory is stated by Roblyer and Doering (2010), “Technology-based materials, such as the Jasper Woodberry Problem Solving Series, videodisc-based mathematics materials created by the now-disbanded Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV), and more recently, GeoThentic, were designed to provide learning environments that reflected situated cognition, or instruction anchored in experiences that learners considered authentic because they emulated the behavior of adults” (p. 41).




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Section 1I: Motivational Theories and Models

Motivational Principles and Strategies

Achievement Motivation Time-Continuum ModelARCS Model

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Achievement MotivationStudies on specific motivational characteristics lead to developing the achievement motive in children. The approach was to change behavior and improve self-motivation by strengthening this motive, instead of making instruction more appealing.

Alschuler, A. S., Tabor, D., McIntyre, J. (1971) state, “when desire for achievement becomes a dominant concern for a person, it is expressed in restless driving energy aimed at attaining excellence, getting ahead, improving on the past records, beating competitors, doing things better, faster, more efficiently, and finding unique solutions to difficult problems” (p. 6).

To increase motivation, the way of learning should be changed rather than what is being learned.

This work consisted of teaching achievement motivation to students and teachers through workshops which contained sequences of steps to be followed. It also encompassed teachers making changes to the classroom in order to encourage and reward students’ achievement motivation in a systematic way.

According to Alschuler, A. S., Tabor, D., McIntyre, J. (1971), “the need to achieve (or n-Ach for short) involves a special way of planning to attain excellence, a set of strong feelings about doing well, and specific action strategies” (p. 1). The n-Ach is a six-step sequence in arousing and internalizing a motive: 1. Attend; 2. Experience; 3. Conceptualize; 4. Relate; 5. Apply; 6. Internalize.

Alschuler, A. S., Tabor, D., McIntyre, J. (1971). Teaching Achievement Motivation Middletown, CT: Education Ventures, Inc.

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Motivational Principles and Strategies Brophy advocates the use of the following motivational principles and strategies

for planning curriculum and instruction: A. General Principles; B. Strategies for Supporting Students’ Confidence as Learners; C. Strategies for Motivating through Extrinsic Incentives; D. Strategies for Connecting with Students’ Intrinsic Motivation; E. Strategies for Stimulating Students’ Motivation to Learn; F. Adaptations to the Needs of Individual Students; G. Your Development as a Motivator.

Each of the above principles contain statements which support it; these can be used as a checklist.

These motivational principles and strategies were identified through research in the classroom; thus derived systematically in order to provide a checklist of motivation principles for the both the motivator and student.

Student motivation to learning is either a disposition or state. Brophy (2004) states, “as a disposition, it is an enduring tendency to value learning- to approach the process of learning with effort and thought and to seek to acquire skills and knowledge. In specific situations, a state of motivation to learn exists when a student engages purposefully in an activity by adapting its goal and trying to learn the concepts or master the skills it develops” (p. 16).

Brophy, J. (2004). Motivating students to learn (2nd ed.). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

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Time-Continuum ModelWlodkowski’s time-continuum model consists of six major motivational factors: attitudes, needs, stimulation, affect, competence, and reinforcement. These factors are organized by three time frames: beginning, during, and ending of an instruction.Before Instruction – attitudes and needsDuring Instruction – stimulation and affectEnding Instruction – competence and reinforcement

Wlodkowski (1986) states, “by continuously attending to the six factors outlined, the teacher can, in any learning situation, design motivational strategies for his/her students throughout the learning process” (p. 23).

The model is prescriptive on actions that an instructor should take to ensure motivation of learners.

Hodges (2004) states, “the model is presented in the form of a handbook for developing instruction and draws on approaches from linguistics, cognitive psychology, and motivation research” (p. 3).

Hodges, C. B. (2004). Designing to motivate: Motivational techniques to incorporate in e-learning experiences. The Journal of Interactive Online Learning. Retrieved from http://www.ncolr.org/jiol/issues/PDF/2.3.1.pdf

Wlodkowski , R. J. (1986). Motivation and teaching: A practical guide. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association of the United States.

http://www.ncolr.org/jiol/issues/PDF/2.3.1.pdf

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ARCS ModelKeller’s ARCS model has been developing for over 15 years. According to Driscoll (2005), “it is an integrated model for understanding motivation and for systematically incorporating motivational concerns into instruction” (p. 332).

The acronym, ARCS is derived from the model’s four conditions of motivation: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.

The model supports for self-regulating learning to take place. Driscoll (2005) states, “learners become increasingly self-regulated when they acquire skills to plan their learning, monitor their own progress, and evaluate the success of their efforts so as to improve their strategies in the future” (p. 332).

According to Dick, W., Carey, J.O., Carey, L. (2001), the, “ARCS represents the principles for (1) gaining and then maintaining learner attention through instruction that is (2) perceived by the learners to be relevant for their personal needs and goals, (3) at the appropriate level of difficulty so that learners are confident they can succeed if they try, and (4) perceived by learners as satisfying in terms of rewards for their investments” (p. 364).

Dick W., Carey, J.O., Carey, L. (2001). The systematic design of instruction (5th ed.). New York, NY: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc.


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ARCS Model - Continued1. Obtain

course information

2. Obtain audience information

3. Analyze audience

4. Analyze existing materials

5. List objectives and assessments

6. List potential tactics

7. Select and design tactics

8. Integrate with instruction

9. Select and develop materials

10. Evaluate and revise

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Section 1II: Learning Environments

Integrated Learning Systems Distance Learning Advance Organizers Learning Communities

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Integrated Learning Systems Integrated Learning Systems (ILS) – These systems were introduced in the

1970s; they provide computer based instruction, additional resources which support instruction. They also provide summary reports on student progress. They can be networked or online sources.

For the future, ILSs are becoming more complex tutorial systems for the intention of replacing teachers in delivering instruction.

According to Roblyer and Doering (2010), “ILS products useful for constructivist purposes typically have an information bank (electronic encyclopedias), symbol pads (word processing and/or desktop publishing software), construction kits (Logo or other graphic languages or tools), and phenomenaria (computer simulations and/or problem-solving resources)” p. 102).

The emphasis is “exploration” through simulation, instructional game, and problem- solving; rather than learning through demonstration or skill practice.


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Distance LearningThe United States Distance Learning Association (USDL) (2008), defines Distance Learning as “the application of information technology (and infrastructure) to educational and student related activities linking students and teachers in differing places” (p. 44).Distance Learning’s birth is attributed from technology advancements, especially the invention of the personal computer and Internet. These innovations allowed for an inexpensive way of delivering instruction.

Distance learning is also called “online learning” and “e-learning” According to Morley (2009), “the majority of distance learning coursework is

completed over the Internet via class Web pages, discussion groups, chat rooms, and e-mail…distance learning classes often utilize Web-based training components” (p. 140).

Roblyer and Doering (2010) state, “distance courses are made possible by a course management system (CMS), an online collection of web course design and delivery tools” (p. 231). The CMS is further supported by other online tools, such as site capturing software, intranets, and whiteboards.

Morley, D. (2009). Understanding computers in a changing society (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.


The United States Distance Learning Association (2008). About Us. Glossary_Distance. Retrieved from http://www.usdla.org/Glossary_Distance.pdf

http://www.usdla.org/Glossary_Distance.pdf

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Advance OrganizersAdvance organizers are utilized as introductory material, which can bridge the

gap between what the incoming learner already knows about the subject with what the learner will need to know in order to create meaningful learning.

Advance organizers can reduce cognitive load and they also facilitate the learning of subjects which make no sense to them. Driscoll (2005) states, “learners will be better able to construct and automate an appropriate schema or mental model for a particular class of problems when the instruction minimizes extraneous cognitive load but increases germane cognitive load” (p143).

Students with special needs can benefit with advance organizers. In considering of study aids; some online advance organizers are used to improve reading comprehension are SparkNotes, NovelGuide, Free Book Notes, and Pink Monkey.

Demsey and Sales (1993) state, “Ausubel has confirmed the supposition that increase the availability of relevant subsumers in cognitive structure through the use of organizers enhances the meaningful learning of such material” (p. 62).

Demsey, J. V. & Sales, G. C. (1993). Interactive instruction and feedback. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications.


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Learning CommunitiesLearning communities allow for learners to have incoming distributed levels of

expertise by focusing on a problem of interest. Through collaboration, they build knowledge by contributing towards a communal database.

The focus of this learning environment is learning received from a community of practice.

Learning communities can be established globally when a flexible online infrastructure is manifested in order to allow learners to communicate with other learners with various expertise levels.

According to Reiser and Dempsey (2007)) distributed learning, “could include any combination of campus lectures, CBT training modules, online seminars, videoconferences, weblogs, simulations, performance support systems, and numerous other elements by which learning is accomplished” (p. 290).

Roblyer and Doering (2010) state, “now more than ever partnerships are being encouraged between schools, business, corporations, and individuals. It is very common for businesses within a community to partner with school programs, initiatives, and individuals…” (p. 66). An example of a partnership is the GoNorth! Adventure Learning Series.Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey J. V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (2nd ed.).

Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice.


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Section 1V: Learner Beliefs

Behavioral, Cognitive, and Social Psychologist - Beliefs

Learner Belief – Motivation Characteristic Self-Efficacy Six guidelines which encompass

attitudes, values and beliefs

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Learner BeliefsBehavioral psychologists advocate that learning is observable from both behavior and environment. Cognitive psychologists state that learning occurs by thought processes in the learner. Social psychologist warrant that learning is dependent upon the learner’s interactions with his/her socio-cultural environment. Driscoll (2005) states that all “these beliefs dictate what questions about learning will be investigated and what theoretical constructs will be invented to provide explanations” (p. 6).

Examples of some characteristics of motivation are provided by Reiser and Dempsey (2007), “people differ in the amount of curiosity they bring to a situation, their desires to be competitive in pursuing challenging goals, and their beliefs as to whether success and failure result from luck, personal effort, or ability” (p. 85).

A learner’s beliefs of their capabilities in achieving goals affects the expectancy of success; this is “self-efficacy”. Bandura (1977) states, “in the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from four sources of principal information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and psychological states. The more dependable the experiential sources, the greater are the changes in perceived self-efficacy” (p. 191).

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavior change. Psychological Review. Retrieved from http://libproxy.uhcl.edu:2057/ehost/pdf?vid=3&hid=2&sid=81d72442-3e29-492f-8ee0-8eab39ce0318%40sessionmgr12



http://libproxy.uhcl.edu:2057/ehost/pdf?vid=3&hid=2&sid=81d72442-3e29-492f-8ee0-8eab39ce0318@sessionmgr12

http://libproxy.uhcl.edu:2057/ehost/pdf?vid=3&hid=2&sid=81d72442-3e29-492f-8ee0-8eab39ce0318@sessionmgr12

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Learner Beliefs ContinuedRegarding the self-efficacy theory, Anglin (1995) states, “this theory suggests that students invest effort on the basis of their beliefs about, or attitude toward, two factors: (1) the requirements of a task, and (2) the students’ assessment of their own skills related to task requirements” (p. 359).

When reading scholarly works about the field, many authors mention learner beliefs within the context of learner attitudes and learner values. There are six revised guidelines in utilizing instructional media in order to facilitate attitude change or formulation. Briefly, they are restated as: Attitude change is favorable when learners are presented with authentic,

relevant, and technically stimulating messages. Discovery of useful and new information can allow the learner to be

favorably persuaded. Messaged delivered in authentic and credible context with the use of

instructional technology affects learners in a positive way. Learner involvement in planning, production, or delivery of mediated

instruction react favorably to the situation and towards the delivery of media messages delivered.

Anglin G. J. (1995). Instructional technology: Past, present, and future (2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

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Learner Beliefs Continued Learner participation in critiquing discussions openly develop an attitude

that is favorable towards the situation and towards messages. Media-rich instructional situations provides learners with purposeful

emotional involvement which will likely change their attitudes in the advocated direction.

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Conclusion The use of psychological foundation and motivational theories/models have created

present-day learning environments that address various ways in which learning can be accomplished as well as ensuring motivation in learning.

The use of systematic approaches could not have been accomplished without past research and studies. These systematic approaches being employed in designing learning systems today provide credibility for stakeholders.

In addition, when a instructional systems design in conducted in this manner, a concrete baseline is established and can be furthermore used in measuring human potential and performance.

The trend of improving motivation in learners that are geographically distant from instruction through the use of computing technologies is being addressed in the field currently.

Even today, it is important for instructional technologists to continue to test the effectiveness of learning, motivation, instructional environments, and learner beliefs with the needs of the learner, especially due to advances in technologies.

Learner beliefs are also learner values and attitudes. Learner beliefs can be manipulated to be changed or formulated based upon the design of the instructional system.

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Conclusion Continued The instructional technology field depends upon the reliability of computing

devices and software applications in order for instruction to be delivered. The field is not immune to problems associated with this platform that are unrelated to instruction; for example: performance issues, viruses, network connectivity, etc.)

Instructional technologists do not work alone in creating a learning environment; they have to leverage other personnel in order to carry out the number of activities and tasks associated with designing a system. In addition, they must also consider personnel (besides the learner and their team) that have considerable stake over the success of a learning platform. These people could be in human resources positions, executives in strategic planning, software developers, and hardware suppliers.

foundations and framework

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