founding inequalities in acolhuacán, mexico:...
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Founding Inequalities in Acolhuacán, Mexico: 1453-1540s Benjamin D. Johnson, UMass Boston
Starvation, the central Mexicans knew, came in the middle of the year as the new corn
grew to maturity in the ground. It was during this time of hunger and waiting that the political
and religious elites of the Triple Alliance saw fit to congratulate themselves for another harvest
well-administered, during the celebrations of the Greater and Lesser Feast of Lords. These were
the feasts of exclusion, social distance, and submission. In Texcoco, the capital of Acolhuacan,
the lesser feast began with a popular exchange of gifts and flowers, evoking the collective effort
necessary for the harvest; but the principal attraction came with the lords and nobles solemnly
crowning themselves with diadems and setting their concubines free to dance in the streets.
During the Greater Feast of Lords, the performance of social distance was even more striking, as
an effigy representing political power was crowned in gold, while a dancer paraded through the
streets with a fresh corn tortilla, showing to the multitude the plenteous outpourings flowing
from the combined forces of the political and religious order. A virgin was killed, first fruits
were laid before the altar, and everyone took the first bite of a fresh tamale in months.1
Or, at least this was how things were supposed to go. In the year 13 House (1453) as
misfortune would have it, crops failed miserably at exactly the time of yearly hunger and lordly
celebration. Starvation had hit the valley before, but 13 House was particularly bleak. There was
no food for either sustenance or ritual, people died in much larger numbers than usual, and the
1 Duran (OLD), around 287. As will be the case throughout this chapter, almost all historical reports of the Triple
Alliance come from early colonial sources, produced in a changed political and intellectual environment.
Nevertheless, these sources can be usefully mustered. For a deeper methodological discussion, see Federico
Navarrete Linares, “Los libros quemados y los nuevos libros. Paradojas de la autenticidad en la tradición
mesoamericana” in Alberto Dallad, La abolición del arte: El Coloquio Internacional de Historia del Arte (Mexico
City: UNAM, 1998), pp. 53-71 and the Various entries in Elzabeth Hill Boone and Gary Urton, eds., Their Ways of
Writing: Scripts, Signs, and Pictographies in Pre-Columbian Americ (Washington, Dumbarton Oaks, 2011).
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cosmic and temporal orders were called into question. Things became even worse in 1 Rabbit
(1454), and Texcocan annals like the Codex en Cruz recall this and the following year with the
image of a naked individual vomiting profusely. Nezahualcoyotl, the leader of Acolhuacan at the
time, responded as he could. He raised a temple to the Mexica god Huitzilopochtli, as a sign of
his allegiance to and leadership within the consolidating power of the wider Triple Alliance; he
sacrificed some foreign dignitaries in a plea for full harvests; and he celebrated the eventual
return of good yields on the top of the pyramid of the rain god Tlaloc.2
The poor cultivators of Acolhuacan, for their part, experienced the drought not as a
problem of order, but of survival. New expressions entered into the popular Nahua lexicon:
necetochhuiloc—roughly, “there was 1 Rabbiting”—
became a jarring and poetic testament to the horrors of
that year. Across the lake in the Mexica capital of
Tenochtitlán, Huehue Moteuczoma erected his famous
“hunger stone” monument, and freed individuals from
tribute and other commitments to seek survival where
they could. Annals from neighboring regions show the
twisted forms of commoners lying in the dust, as stray
dogs scavenged the bodies of the deceased. “The
2 Codex en Cruz, 2 vols. Charles E. Dibble, ed. (Salt Lake City: Utah UP, 1981).
Figure 1. “1 Rabbiting.” Códice de
Huichiapan, f. 37r. Used by permission of
the Biblioteca Nacional de Antropología e
Histoira, Mexico. (There is a slight error in
this text’s calendar, but the image still holds.)
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famine was very rigorous and people ate each other,” noted one record from the hills far
northwest of Texcoco. In this year in particular, death was brutal and survival even more so.3
During these lean years, slavery became a viable option for commoners and their children.
“There was Totonacing,” netotonachuiloc, is what people
said; referring to the rising exchange of slaves, both
adults and children, for food with the Totonac people of
the Gulf Coast. This trade expanded during the killing
famine of 1453-5, and once again during the subsequent
appearance of the 13 House-1 Rabbit calendar sequence
in AD 1505-6. The Codex en Cruz is unmistakable in its
reference to Totonacing, depicting a Texcocan heading
off to the Gulf Coast (marked as such by the distinctive
“bird person” motif) with a carrying frame and strap,
ready for manual service and hauling. Other illustrations
are even more explicit, such as those of the Codex
Telleriano-Remensis, where a tearful noble laments as a
trader carries a slave toward the bird people of the lowlands.4
3 Judging by its appearance in sources as varied as the Codex Aubin, the Codex Chimalpahin, the Florentine Codex,
and the Anales de Tula, the term necetochhuiloc seems to have been in wide popular usage in the sixteenth century.
Matthew D. Therrell, David W. Stahle, and Rodolfo Acuña Soto suggest (“Aztec Drought and the ‘Curse of One
Rabbit’” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 85: 9, pp.1263-1272) that there was a deeper memory for
1 Rabbit droughts, reaching back to perhaps even the ninth century. This seems unlikely, however; only a horrible
drought would have entered the lexicon as “1 Rabbiting.” and this term seems to have appeared after 1454.
Nevertheless, following this date, the stigma of 1 Rabbit became so troublesome that, at the subsequent recurrence
of this year sign in 1505-6, the younger Moteuczoma (Xocoyotzin) postponed the epoch-marking New Fire
ceremony by a year in order to avoid the curse.
Figure 2. “Totonacing.” Codex
Telleriano-Remensis, f. 41v. Used by
permission of the Bibliothèque nationale
de France.
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The Dominican friar Diego Durán, an early Spanish arrival who grew up in Texcoco a
few decades after the events in question, remarked in the 1570s that “those who left for the land
of the Totonacs never came back to the cities they left, so that even today you find
neighborhoods of [the central Mexican ethnicities] Mexica, Chalca, Texcoca, Xochimilca, and
Tepaneca in that land.” He continues, stating that since the time of the famines of 1453-5 the
central Mexican groups listed above, “went away to live there, and there they remain down to
today. They didn’t want to return to their places of birth, fearing another similar disaster and
knowing that the central Mexican provinces lacked land for planting.”5
PEOPLE IN MOTION
Totonacing was not a new phenomenon. For centuries if not millennia, migration has
been one of the principal forces behind many major changes in Mesoamerican history. People
moved around, escaping one situation or seeking another, and this had a profound impact on the
structures of politics and society. For instance, baseline archaeological excavations from
4 A few notes on the image in Figure 2: The Codex Telleriano-Remensis makes a direct connection between
diminishing food and foreign trade—the bottom two elements of the image refer to the grain reserves of
Tenochtitlan; which, like those in Texcoco, fell to dangerously low levels over the years in question. Regarding the
“bird-person” pun, one of the words for bird in Nahuatl is tototl, which shares beginning syllables with the word
Totonac, totonacatl. The pierced septum references the Huastec people, who lived just north of the Totonacs.
Finally, Eloise Quinones Keber, in her commentary on the Codex—Codex Telleriano-Remensis: ritual, divination,
and history in a pictorial Aztec manuscript, Eloise Quiñones Keber, ed. (Austin: Texas UP, 1995), p. 228—suggests
that the bound individual in Figure 2 is a mummy bundle. This seems unlikely, however, given several important
divergences from the canonical form: the eyes are open instead of closed, and the head and the feet are uncovered.
Particularly given the context, this individual was being sold as a slave on the Gulf Coast.
5 "los que salieron para la provincia de Totonacapan . . . nunca mas voluieron á las ciudades de donde auian salido, y
así se hallan oy en dia en aquella tierra barrios de mexicanos, chalcas, tezcucanos, xuchimilca, tepanecas, que desde
aquel tiempo se fueron á vivir allí y permanecen hasta el dia de oy. No quisieron voluer más a su natural, temiendo
otro semejante suceso y sauiendo que la provincia mexicana carecia de tierras para poder sembrar.” DURAN old
249
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Acolhuacan, which we might expect to show some type of consistent trend over time, instead
suggest alternating patterns of consolidation and dispersal, rising remarkably at least four times
over some 2500 years, only to fall again. Population sizes careened between large peaks and
desolate valleys according to the politics of the day.
Figure 3. Population Estimates for Acolhuacan, 800 BCE- 1960 CE
Time Frame Number of Sites Hectares Min. population Max. population Change from
previous
800-600 BCE 19 74 790 2150 --
500-300 BCE 29 251 3860 9000 Rise
200 BCE-100
CE
52 747 10,070 20,200 Rise
200-400 CE 37 197 1335 4000 Fall
500-700 CE 23 144 855 2675 Fall
800-900 CE 24 1059 15,820 31,900 Rise
1000 CE 59 442 2670 6515 Fall
1300-1500 CE 110 4609 57,585 116,395 Rise
1960 CE 70 3219 73,476 -- Fall, then rise
Source: Jeffrey R. Parsons, with Richard E. Blanton and Mary H. Parsons. Prehistoric settlement patterns in the
Texcoco Region, Mexico (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, 1971).
For much of its history, Acolhuacan’s population moved inversely with empire. When
Classical Teotihuacan (ca. 200-700 CE) and then Tula (ca. 1000 CE) dominated the region, local
farmers moved away—either to be closer to the center of power or to vacate the disputed
territory between the local empire and its nearest neighboring rivals. During periods of
decentralization, Acolhuacan filled in once again with agricultural colonists. But, after the fall of
Tula, something changed. Nomadic warrior bands began to settle and intermarry with local
farmers, giving the region a military profile previously unseen. A similar process occurred across
the lake in Tenochtitlan and, by the mid-fourteenth century, these two powers had aligned to
form a local powerhouse know as the Triple Alliance (popularly known as the Aztec Empire),
together with Tlacopan as a junior partner. This story is well told in a number of Acolhua and
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other sources, such as the Codex Xolotl, the Mapa Tlotzin, and the Mapa Quinatzin, in addition
to the related narratives of don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl.6
The wider point is that human habitation in the region was governed as much by politics
as by ecology. We know that dense urban centers like Classical Teotihuacan and Tula were
summarily abandoned by nearly all of their inhabitants, and similarly that even marginal
settlements regularly came and went across the region. (On this second point, see the striking
surveys of human settlement in central Mexico produced by Jeffrey Parsons, Keith W. Kintigh,
and Susan A. Gregg.) During periods of decentralization, people spread more evenly across the
landscape, while in times of imperial consolidation special efforts were made to intensify
production through hill terracing, advanced waterworks, and chinampa-style lake farming.7
Almost all of this fluctuation came from the poor farmers, servants, and artisans who are
the main protagonists of the story I tell here. These ignored majorities influenced society in
multiple and varied ways, as we will see across this text, but among their most powerful actions
was simply moving through space over time. It was commoners like these who filled the
tributary roles of Nezahualcoyotl and flocked to Acolhua markets, and it was also people like
these who were among the first to leave when famine hit or when local could no longer support
their populations. To be sure, migrations were not free nor taken lightly by migrants and their
6
Regarding the structure of the Triple Alliance, see Frances F. Berdan, et al., Aztec Imperial Strategies
(Washington, D.C, 1996); Michael E. Smith, “The Aztec Empire and the Mesoamerican World System” in Empires:
Perspectives from Archaeology and History, ed. Susan Alcock, et al. (New York, 2001), pp. 128-154, summarized
in Michael E. Smith, The Aztecs, 2nd
ed. (Malden, MA, 2003); and Pedro Carrasco, Estructura político-territorial del
Imperio tenochca: la triple alianza de Tenochtitlan, Tetzcoco y Tlacopan (Mexico City: FCE, 1996).
7 Jeffrey Parsons, Keith W. Kintigh, and Susan A. Gregg, Archaeological settlement pattern data from the Chalco,
Xochimilco, Ixtapalapa, Texcoco, and Zumpango regions, Mexico (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology, 1983).
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families—strangers were easily ostracized across the periods in question—but people
nonetheless moved, and often. Commoners almost never stood still.
A TIGHTENING ORGANIZATION
The instability of populations over time could prove vexing for political elites, who
worried that commoners would, “as it were, flee along the roads,” but it also provided a
straightforward mechanism for building an empire. Acolhuacan’s most famous and successful
ruler, Nezahualcoyotl (in power ca. 1429-1472), organized a series of political reforms and
public works that solidified populations in his realm. He improved the infrastructure of
transportation and marketing, recruited or co-opted mid-level noble operatives across his
territory of influence, and opened up new farmland thorough terracing and irrigation. In a
ceremony of land possession recorded in the Títulos de Tetzcotzingo, Nezahualcoyotl repeatedly
“plants” noble administrators across the landscape to care for “my possessions as ruler.” The
nobility’s right to govern depended on their services rendered, and Nezahualcoyotl repeatedly
cedes rights in recognition of effort: “it is theirs, for through their efforts they brought it in.”
Conversely, “unruly” nobles would be cut off.8
Narratives like the one I’m telling here would have once simply emphasized
Nezahualcoyotl’s skill in stitching the realm of Acolhuacan together, through internal reform and
8 “yn ma yuhqui hotli camo ye in qui[to]tocti in macehual” Codex Chimalpahin, vol 2. Ed. and trans., Arthur J.O.
Anderson, Susan Schroeder and Wayne Ruwet. (Norman: Oklahoma UP, 1997), p. 192. “notopiltzine ca ye nican yn
toctoc . . . . ca notlahtocatlatqui ca nel oncan anmechtequitpanozque ynixquixtin noplihuantzitzin yn ompa cate yn
tlahtoca altepetl Tetzcoco. . . . Can in tlatqui, ca in iciyahuilliztica in oquihual yacanque. . . . Auh intla
cuecuezotizque quiniquac yez anquiquixtilizque” Brian McAffee and R. H. Barlow, “The Titles of Tetzcotzinco
(Santa María Nativitas)” Tlalocan 2:2 (1946), pp. 110-117. Throughout this text, my translations will differ slightly
on occasion from those provided by the editors and translators of published documents. On Nezahualcoyotl’s
reforms more broadly, see Jerome A. Offner, Law and Politics in Aztec Texcoco (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1983).
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external alliances with Tenochtitlan and Tlacopan, but this would be only half the story. Already
in the 1980s, Jerome Offner began to portray Nezahualcoyotl’s actions as a response to rising
pressure across Acolhua territory from various disaffected groups; and more recently, Lane
Fargher, Verenice Heredia Espinoza, and Robert Blanton have argued that Acolhua commoners
held enough land apart from the nobility to force a more bureaucratic and responsive form of
government than, say, in Puebla or the Mixteca Alta—although less so than in the neighboring
and enemy Tlaxcala. Or, to put it another way, commoners were independent enough in
Acolhuacan that a successive line of rulers were forced to work for collective as much as for
individual gain. This can clearly be seen in the public projects of Nezahualcoyotl and his
successors, and in the generally rising economic fortunes of the Acolhua realm over the period of
imperial consolidation.9
So Acolhuacan became ever more efficient, but also increasingly ordered and hierarchical.
Perhaps paradoxically, the political and economic clout of commoners in Acolhuacan made them
more dependent on the ruling hierarchy than before, as a more symbiotic form of politics
emerged to support such things as infrastructure projects, civic festivals, and wars of imperial
expansion. As long as the Acolhua hierarchy was able to retain local legitimacy, the tlatoani
(ruler) could effectively exercise power over lands and people only tenuously in his institutional
grasp. For instance, in the same Tetzcotzingo titles cited above, Nezahualcoyotl is unequivocal
about the relationship between commoners, the administrative hierarchy, and himself as ruler.
9 Offner, Law and Politics; Lane F. Fargher, Verenice Y. Heredia Espinoza, and Richard E. Blanton, “Alternative
pathways to power in late Postclassic Highland Mesoamerica” J. Anthropological Archaeology 30:3, pp. 306–326.
Of course, Texcoco’s western neighbor Tenochtitlán saw even more growth over this period—to the point of
repeatedly infringing into the functioning of Acolhuacan.
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Nezahualcoyotl describes his realm as a series of nested hierarchies, where commoners pay
allegiance to local nobles, who submit to the ruler in exchange for certain standardized privileges.
Describing a series of commoner settlements, he specifically asserts that,
The people of Quauhpechco work for my children, the nobles of Texcoco. The people of
Tequanolco are the subjects of Nezahuacoyotl. One [noble administrator] is named
Xochitonal; another is Quacoz. The people from Amanalco are my tributaries, they are
cotton weavers. . . .10
During this period of imperial expansion, terraces spread up the mountains and across the
lakes as consolidating markets and officious managers squeezed ever more production from
commoners on the land, and populations boomed. Estimates by Jeffery Parsons suggest an
absolute explosion in population during the Triple Alliance, as planters pushed the agricultural
frontier ever farther up the hills of Acolhuacan and rulers invested in terracing and irrigation. As
Acolhua populations both rose and spread during this imperial period, so too did the number of
administrative centers in the areas surveyed. And everywhere, when the rains came, the
commoners would eat their celebratory tamale as the rulers congratulated themselves once again
for a harvest well managed.11
LOCAL DIFFERENCE
But we should be careful not to paint a uniform or totalizing picture of political hierarchy
at this time, particularly in the realm of ideology. Returning briefly to the Greater Feast of Lords
10
“Auh yn Quauhpechco tlaca quinmotequipanilhuizque yn nopilhuantzitzin Tetzcoco. Auh yn Tequanolco tlaca
ymacehualhuan yn Neçahualcoyotzin. Auh yn Amanalcotlaca notetequipanocahuan ichcac chiuhque.” “Titles of
Tetzcotzinco,” p. 118.
11
Jeffrey R. Parsons, with Richard E. Blanton and Mary H. Parsons. Prehistoric settlement patterns in the Texcoco
Region, Mexico (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, 1971).
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described above, for instance, it is important to note that these celebrations were not uniform.
Across the lake in the imperial capital of Tenochtitlan, the demarcation of social distance was
even greater, as nobles passed around canoe-fulls of food their huddled dependents, who in turn
would be beaten with canes for taking two portions of mush instead of one. Nobles would further
complain of additional hangers-on, those who “wouldn’t quiet down or leave even if they were
really beaten.” After this, warriors and finely-attired dancing girls would parade through the
streets, the warriors dragging “the other nobles who didn’t go to war” along behind them, tied at
the wrists. The social hierarchy was clear: first nobles who fought, then nobles who fed, then
commoners who were beaten.12
Moving away now from the big capitals and into the hinterland of Acolhuacan, the
celebration changes once again. In the marginal village of Tepeapulco, halfway between
Texcoco and Tlaxcala but tributary to the former, reigning nobles received little pride of place
during their feast days. Rather, it was women—and the dark earthly forces they were understood
to represent—who took center stage. During both Feasts of Lords, the lesser and the greater,
flower-adorned commoner women sang day-in and day-out for two months straight. The first
month was dedicated through female human sacrifice to Huixtochihuatl—the older sister of the
Tlaloque rain deities, patroness of saltmakers, and perhaps as well a symbol of pre-Toltec
rulership in the region—while the second was pledged to both Xilonen and Cihuacoatl, two of
the most powerful fertility deities of the Nahua pantheon. Xilonen was a youthful aspect of the
12
“iuhquen amo peuilmatque, in ma nel quein oaltoca quein valhuitequi”/ “no se querian apartar de alli, aunque les
dauan de verdes cacos” Florentine Codex, book 2, f. 51r. Available through the World Digital Library
http://www.wdl.org/en/item/10096/zoom/#group=1&page=231 “yn otomi yoan inpipilti: amo teoan motecpana,
canillo tlama, incãpa onmoquitez tetlan” “lleuauan asidas de las manos, la otra gente noble que no eran exercitados
en la guerra” book 2, f. 51v. On this warrior ideal, see Inga Clendinnen’s classic “The Cost of Courage in Aztec
Society” Past & Present, 107 (1985), pp. 44-89.
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primary maize goddess, while Cihuacoatl (evoked as herself or under such aliases as Plant
Generator, Our Mother, Eagle Woman, and Warrior Woman) was a formidable deity of warfare
and childbirth, the one who ground the bones of an earlier creation to make the current crop of
people on earth. Like Huixtochihuatl, she represented ideas of pre-Imperial rulership, lending her
station to high priests in Texcoco and to the second-in-command of Tenochtitlan.13
In Tepeapulco, the Greater Feast of Lords was also called the month of Eating Fresh
Maize Tortillas; and this second name is particularly telling. Unlike the commemorations in
Tenochtitlan or Texcoco, where the primary celebration performed and coldly reinforced social
hierarchy, the feasts in Tepeapulco centered around the core components of the staple tortilla:
water, salts, corn, and the female labor that would grind all the ingredients together. To be sure,
dark forces were evoked in Tepeapulco as women died on sacrificial altars; but the story from
the backlands was one of bloody, fierce renewal, different than the stern social distancing or
pious self-congratulation seen in the capitals.
This might say something about administration as well: it could stand to reason that these
differential celebrations, enacted during the time of greatest hunger during the year, also
correlated to the experience of social reproduction in the different localities. In the capitals,
13
The descriptions from Tepeapulco come from fray Bernardino de Sahagún and his local collaborators, Primeros
memoriales, ed. and trans, Thelma D. Sullivan, with H. B. Nicholson (Norman: Oklahoma UP, 1997); see
particularly notes 61, 67, and 70. A full comparison of all the actions and iconography for greater and lesser Feasts
of the Lords across the three separate locations of Tepeapulco, Texcoco, and Tenochtitlán is beyond the scope of
this work, but even a superficial examination illustrates many important differences. Commoner women are central
in Tepeapulco, but are little more than signifiers in Tenochtitlan, wearing the right clothes, but marching to the
orders of their warrior and priestly chaperones. We can be relatively sure that the women are commoners in
Tepeapulco, because in ceremonies for other months the participation of nobles was specifically mentioned, as it
was as well in Tenochtitlan. For a fuller comparison of the sources for Tepeapulco and Tenochtitlan/Tlatelolco, see
Arthur J. O. Anderson, “Los ‘Primeros memoriales’ y el Códice florentino” Estudios de cultural náhuatl, vol. 24
(1994), pp. 49-91.
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brutal and efficient hierarchies were the defining sign of mass agricultural production; while in
Tepeapulco, the desperate struggle of each farmer took center stage, as everyone kept vigil while
Cihuacoatl was slain and reborn once again.
MAKING THE SOURCES
We know about the festivals in Tepeapulco and Tenochtitlan through the work of the
history workshops patronized by the early Spanish ethnographer and evangelist fray Bernardino
de Sahagún in both of these cities. In each case, Sahagún sought out local scribes and stimulated
them to translate their documentary and oral histories into Nahuatl texts written in the recently-
introduced Roman script. He began collecting histories in this way in Tepeapulco, then in the
once-independent city of Tlatelolco (now annexted to Tenochtitlan), and finally in the core of the
capital itself. To each new site, Sahagún brought the stories and manuscripts he was working on
previously and, as he saw it, corrected them against ever-more centralizing and prestigious
perspectives—as the friar himself describes it, “the first sieve through which my work was
decanted was the people in Tepeapulco, the second those in Tlatelolco, and the third those in
Mexico [Tenochtitlan].” The final result of this was the mighty and wide-ranging Florentine
Codex, widely acknowledged as a pre-eminent compendium of life during the Triple Alliance.14
The Florentine Codex is powerful work of collective historical memory, but it is also
fundamentally a top-down version of empire. For over a century now, scholars have been
comparing Sahagún’s early annotations in Tepeapulco—which are treated as a separate
14
“El primero cedazo por donde mis obras se cernieron fueron los de Tepeapulco; el segundo los de Tlatelolco; el
tercero los de México” Quote from beginningof Book 11. Check the Dibble translation.
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manuscript entitled Primeros memoriales—against the final, triple-brewed histories of the
Florentine codex, and discovered a series of striking divergences. For instance, the latter text
from Tenochtitlán would describe the elaborate preparations of the human victims offered in
exquisitely-tuned sacrifice to the war god Tezcatlipoca, while in Tepeapulco “no people were
sacrificed; only offerings were made, only birds were decapitated, and at sundown women
planted sacrificial papers.” Arthur J. O. Anderson goes so far as to argue that, for the Sahagún’s
later collaborators in Tlatelolco and Tenochtitlan, the information gathered in Tepeapulco was
inapplicable and irrelevant to other, more central, locations in the Empire. And, sure enough,
almost everything from Tepeapulco was edited out of the final manuscript.15
Not generalizable, and therefore trivial: despite some important works to the contrary,
this has been the overall assessment for most of the marginal hinterlands of the Triple Alliance—
despite the fact that such places accounted for the overwhelming majority of people living in
(and, according to Michael Smith, fighting for) the Empire. Indeed, there are many ways to
generalize: one good method is that of Sahagún and his noble interlocutors, whereby
correspondence is tracked across some field of space and time. Another approach is to follow the
connections between diverse parts of a system, to see how changes in one unique sector affect
the whole. In this study, I choose the latter method, showing how transformations among poor
people in the hinterland forced fundamental changes to the wider politics and society in central
15
Anderson, “Los ‘Primeros memoriales’”, p. 58
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New Spain. Despite manifold social and political divisions within both the Triple Alliance and
its successor regimes, changes in one place still produced major consequences for the whole.16
HINTERLANDS AND CENTERS
Take the case of Xicotepec as an example. This torrid region, coming down off the Sierra
Norte in the modern state of Puebla, was a Totonac area that fell under Acolhua control during
the reign of Nezahualcoyotl. Across the centuries of this region’s history, particularly as
recorded in the early colonial Códice de Xicotepec, a robust narrative appears countering the
story of Acolhua imperial ascendancy. There are telling localisms, such as the attribution of a
rural thatched roof—indicative of non-Acolhua identity in Texcoco, if not necessarily in
Xicotepec—to Nezahualcoyotl’s palace; or the triple place glyph for the region, giving its name
in Nahuatl, Totonac, and even Otomí. More than this, the Códice de Xicotepec shows a series of
Totonac rebellions against Acolhua authority in the region—led in at least two instances by
women, and with the possible collusion of imperial Acolhua administrators. Words are
exchanged, weapons presented, and some Acolhua notables end up captured and corralled,
guarded by man-eating jaguars. Conquest was never as certain in the hinterlands as it appeared in
the center.17
16
Michael E. Smith, “The Role of Social Stratification in the Aztec Empire: A View From the Provinces,” American
Anthropologist, vol. 88, pp. 70-91; see also his contributions to Aztec Imperial Strategies.
17
This section on Xicotepec draws heavily on Guy Stresser-Péan’s study accompanying a facsimile of the Códice de
Xicotepec (Mexico City: FCE, 1995). See also Jerome A. Offner, “Un segundo vistazo al Códice de Xicotepec”
Itinerarios 11 (2010), 55-83. For an even broader treatment of the relationship between Totonac areas in the Sierra
Norte and Acolhua power, see Guy Stresser-Péan, Lienzos de Acaxochitlan (Hidalgo) y su importancia en la
historia del poblamiento de la Sierra Norte de Puebla y zones vecinas (Pachuca: Gobierno del Estado de Hidalgo,
1998) and, mostly for a later period, Bernardo García Martínez, Los pueblos de la sierra: el poder y el espacio entre
los indios del norte de Puebla hasta 1700 (Mexico City: Colegio de México, 1987).
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Further, after these rebellions were put down, new
figures appear on the scene: chief among them a series of
Mexica warriors from Tenochtitlan with their distinctive
upswept haircuts. Styles changed with power and everyone,
from the new local governor to Nezahualcoyotl’s son and
successor Nezahualpilli, now sported the new hairstyle. The
internal coup against Acolhua power in the region also shifts
the narrative center of the document, displacing Texcoco for
Tenochtitlan, the new center of power in northern
Mesoamerica. The governor of Xicotepec now distributes
treasure and honors to Mexica warriors and marries into a
noble line from Tenochtitlan, although he also shows up to see
Nezahualpilli execute one of his own sons in Texcoco.
The codex ends on a purely local note: after the Triple
Alliance falls to Spanish and Tlaxcalan invaders, people in
Xicotepec debate what to do about their local pyramid in light
of Christian claims. The scene tapers out with God the Father, cross in hand, reigning over a
scene of early colonial administration. Everyone’s hair is now short, cut in the Spanish style—
but let’s not get ahead of ourselves. The wider story, from Xicotepec and from Acolhuacan more
broadly, is as much about reinterpretation as it is about change—about how people rebuilt a
society, eventually convincing themselves and their interlocutors that things had been that way
Figure 4. Imperial hairstyles. Códice
de Xicotepec. Above, Nezahualcoyotl,
with his thatched palace, spiky hair,
and headband. Below, his son
Nezahualpilli wearing a Tenocha style.
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all along, or at least as long as anyone cared to remember. Perhaps the best way to bridge a
historical gap is to forget that it even existed.18
In some ways this forgetting was easy. As suggested in the Códice de Xicotepec and in
other Acolhua documents like the Códice Xolotl, one of the primary functions of politics at this
time was to convince people that what they were doing was new, even when it really wasn’t. The
Triple Alliance ballooned to dominance with this ruse over only a few generations, successfully
rebranding many core Mesoamerican activities as consequences, instead of causes, of its rule.
Partially standardizing endemic conflict through seasonal “flowery wars” is one example from
the political realm; reinterpreting the quantity, purpose, and location of blood sacrifice is a
second; a third concerns the erasure and reconstruction of historical memory through the burning
of earlier annals, particularly in Tenochtitlán.19
Similar patterns of redirection occurred in the economic life of the empire, where capitals
like Texcoco canalized already active patterns of production and exchange into distinct spheres
of influence. Basic goods produced in Acolhuacan rarely if ever crossed Lake Texcoco to
regions controlled by Tenochtitlan, and vice versa; although, once again, Mexica prestige items
began to filter in to central Acolhucan at the end. Overall, the Triple Alliance seems to have done
18
A similar story is told in the Tira de Tepechpan, where a tributary Acolhua altepetl—much nearer the center—
falls increasinly under Mexica influence. Cf., Xavier Noguez, ed. Tira de Tepechpan: códice colonial procedente
del Valle de México (Mexico City: Biblioteca Enciclopédica del Estado de México, 1978); and Lori Boornazian
Diel, The Tira de Tepechpan : negotiating place under Aztec and Spanish rule (Austin: Texas UP, 2008).
19
On warfare and ideology, see Inga Clendinnen’s Aztecs: An Inperpretation (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1991);
Alfredo López Austin, Cuerpo humano e ideología: las concepciones de los antiguos nahuas (Mexico City: UNAM,
1980); and Aztec Imperial Strategies. On the burning of written documents, see Navarrete Linares, “Los libros
quemados.”
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little to integrate the various parts of its empire, except in the realms of warfare, high art and
spectacle, monumental architecture, and inter-elite political coordination.20
Acolhuacan was, therefore, part of a three-legged imperial stool. Tlacopan, Tenochtitlan,
and Texcoco each grew out of well-rooted local hierarchies that reached from the many locales
led by minor bosses through to the large realm of the empire. The final step of the imperial
arrangement occurred in the confabulation of regional rulers—a shifting set of interactions
marked by negotiation, rivalry, and spectacle; and solidified primarily through ties of marriage
and descent. Since the time of Nezahualcoyotl’s father, for instance, Acolhua rulers always took
at least one Mexica wife, who would bear a ruling heir for the following generation. Other
children—there were often dozens—would marry into the local hierarchies supporting Acolhua
rule, secondary centers like Teotihuacan, Otumba, Huexotla, and even Xicotepec.21
Despite clear theory and repeated practice, alliances often proved troublesome:
Nezahualcoyotl had to kill a rival tlatoani to secure his chosen Mexica wife, and then executed a
son for improper marriage positioning. Nezahualpilli gained rule at the age of seven and, after
his majority, also had major difficulties with his Mexica wife, Chalchiuhnenetzin. After
Nezahualpilli’s death, his heirs broke into warring camps to dispute control of Acolhuacan, and
20
For markets and tribute arrangements from a Mexica perspective, see Carrasco, El imperio tenocha; for
Acolhuacan and divided markets, Leah D. Minc, “Style and Substance: Evidence for regionalism within the Aztec
market system” Latin American Antiquity, vol. 20, no. 2 (June 2009), pp. 343-374; Deborah L. Nichols, Christina
Elson, Leslie G. Cecil, Nina Neivens de Estrada, Michael D. Glascock and Paula Mikkelsen, “Chiconautla, Mexico:
A crossroads of Aztec trade and politics” Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 20, No. 3 (September 2009), pp. 443-472;
Gary M. Feinman and Christopher P. Garraty, “Preindustrial Markets and Marketing: Archaeological Perspectives”
Annual Review of Anthropology vol. 39 (2010), pp. 167-191.
21
See Offner, Law and Politics, pp. 229-30; Pedro Carrasco, “Royal Marriages in Ancient Mexico” in H.R. Harvey
and Hanns J. Prem, Explorations in Ethnohistory: Indians of Central Mexico in the Sixteenth Century (Albuquerque:
New Mexico UP, 1984), pp. 41-81; and, once again, Aztec Imperial Strategies.
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so on. But Chalchiuhnenetzin was particularly noteworthy: Reliable evidence suggests that she
took a series of noble lovers from the Acolhua hinterland, sacrificed them, and then reformulated
parts of their bodies into small sculptures she called gods. To be sure, this was all very prohibited,
and after Nezahualpilli found her in bed with three such lovers, he stoned her to death in a public
ceremony. Notably, however, her crime was infidelity and not murder. An eyewitness recalls her
execution with considerable detail, even decades later:
I saw it myself and it happened before my eyes, when the daughter of the lord Axayacatl,
ruler of Mexico Tenochtitlan, committed adultery with Maxtla of the house of
Tezonyohcan (Tezayuca) and with Huitzilihuitl, that it was done on a grand scale and
countless people were punished, who were strangled and crushed with stones along with
the lady: some stewards, some artisans, some merchants, and also the ladies-in-waiting
and dependents of the land. All the world assembled, people came from the towns all
around to behold; the ladies brought along their daughters, even though they were still in
the cradle, to have them see. Even the Tlaxcalans, and the people of Huexotiznco and
Atlixco, though they were our enemies, all came to see; the whole roof of the house of
the Cholulans was brimful. And as to how the lord ruler Nezahualpilli fed people, there
were all the containers with hollow bases, the reed baskets, and the sauce bowls, by
which the Mexica were very much put to shame.22
22
“ca huel oc niquittac ca nīxpan mochīuh, in ìquāc tētlaxxīn, in tlācatl Āxāyăcătzin Mēxìco Tĕnŏchtitlan tlàtoāni
ichpōchtzin, īhuān in căli tĕçŏnyòcān Māxtla, īhuān Huītzĭlìhuitl, ca cencà huel huēy in mochīuh, ca àmo çan
tlăpōhualtin in quitzăuctiàquè, in īhuān cihuāpilli, mĕcānĭlōquè tētĕpăchōlōquè, cĕquīn călpīxquè, cĕquin tōltēcà,
cĕquīn pōchtēcà: niman yè in īpìhuān, īhuān in ītlănnĕncāhuān izcihuāpilli, centlālli mŏmăn, nŏhuĭān āhuàcān,
tĕpēhuàcān huālhuīlōac in tlămăhuĭçōcò, quinhuālhuīcăquè izcihuāpīpīltin in īmichpōchhuān; inmānel yè cōçŏlco
ŏnŏquè inīc quintlachialtìquè: inmānel yè Tlăxcăltēcà Huĕxōtzīncà Ātlīxà in toyāōhuān catcà, huel oc moch
tlăchĭăcò, huel tètēn in īxquich chŏlōltēcăcălli in tlăpăntli. Auh inīc tētlăquăltì in tlācătl tlàtoāni Nĕçăhuălpĭltzīntli
moch tlatzīncŏyōnīlli in ācăchĭquĭhuitl in mōlcăxĭtl: huel in mopīnāuhtìquè in Mēxìcà.” Frances Karttunen and
James Lockhart, eds., The Art of Nahuatl Speech: The Bancroft Dialogues (Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American
Center, 1987), p. 154. Although this text mentions two lovers for Chalchiuhnenetzin, the Codex en Cruz shows
three.
Also, and perhaps unavoidably, Chalchiuhnenetzin has become one of the most written-about women of the
Triple Alliance, although she remains at the narrative margins. See Robert Barlow, “Chalchiuhnenetzin” Tlalocan,
vol. 1 (1947), pp. 73-75; and Susan Toby Evans, “Sexual Politics in the Aztec Palace: Public, Private, and Profane”
RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics, vol. 33 (Spring 1998), pp. 166-183. She even has a part in Salvador Novo’s
satirical La guerra de las gordas (Mexico City: FCE, 1963), translated to English in 1994 as The war of the fatties
and other stories from Aztec history Michael Alderson, trans. (Austin: Texas UP, 1994).
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There is a lot to say about this description, beginning with the hospitality. Nezahualpilli
staged the execution of his wife as a public and festive performance, where no delicacy was
spared to the participating multitudes. In this execution, as in any other important public ritual,
the primary function of the ruler was as host and patron, sponsoring and mediating the key
events of communal life. This performance of power, in punishment as well as in sacrifice,
addressed many audiences at the same time. To foreigners and enemies and the curious,
Nezahualpilli displayed the extent of his economic and political power in the numbers of people
he was able to feed and in the multitudes who flocked to his rite of justice. The memorable
breadth of Nezahualpilli’s networks of power was, according to this eyewitness, what shamed
Chalchiuhnenetzin’s home town of Tenochtitlan, more so than the crimes of the ruler’s daughter.
Additionally, through these same acts of calibrated generosity, Nezahualpilli reaffirmed his
personal status as the supreme authority and patron of the community—a standing that
Chalchiuhnenetzin undermined with her famous adultery. Local nobles, as well as large numbers
of associated commoners, clearly saw this episode as instructive, and even brought along
children to make tangible the proper lessons of patronage and loyalty.
Beyond Nezahualpilli, we can see other political networks in action as well. The noble
pretenders Maxtla and Huitzilihuitl likely sought Chalchiuhnenetzin’s company not only for
reasons of sexual attraction, but for politics as well. Chalchiuhnenetzin’s own lines of power
were manifest, not only in the connections to her father the Mexica tlatoani, but also in the
“countless people” who followed her to her death as retainers, economic and political
representatives, and dependents. As for Chalchiuhnenetzin herself, it seems plausible that she
believed her privileged position at the intersection of Mexica and Acolhua rulership entitled her
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not only to the tribute and labor of her dependents and pretenders, but to their collusion—if not
their lives—as well. And, indeed, tlatoque regularly pledged the bodies of dependents in battle or
sacrifice, or in damaging labor projects such as heavy drainage. Nobles often used commoner
lives as extensions of their own, as in the famous couplet “in cuitlapilli, in atlapalli”—literally,
the tail and the wings. Commoners were the steering mechanism of a ruler’s flight.23
The eyewitness to Chalchiuhnenetzin’s stoning mentions offhandedly at the end of her
relation a series of other noble misdeeds: a son of Nezahualpilli flirted with his stepmother and
was then strangled to death, another moved out of the family compound and was punished, a
foreign noble was castigated for drunkenness, and various other lords and ladies and dependent
rulers suffered as well. “If I mentioned all [of the punishments],” she continues, “it would be a
very long time before I finished talking.”24
IMPERIAL SOCIABILITY
To guard against these multiple and ongoing infractions, rulers of the Triple Alliance
emphasized a strict and severe program of education, training, and public display targeting both
nobles and commoners—including, at least for Texcoco, public instruction by the tlatoani every
eighty days. Newborns were told their place in society in the first hours of life, receiving
exhortations and miniature symbols of their future functions: girls of the nobility received
spindles and thread for their future role as money-weavers, while boys were given shields and
23
Florentine Codex, vol. 2, bk. 6, ch. 43, f. 202v. Available at the World Digital Library,
<http://www.wdl.org/en/item/10096/zoom/#group=2&page=418> (Accessed April 23, 2013.) This section is replete
with other references to commoners and the mediation of social inequality.
24
“Intlā moch iz ōniquitēnēhuani, ca huel huècāuh in ōnitlamizquia ic nitlănōnōtzaz” Bancroft dialogues, p. 156.
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battle-cries in anticipation of their warrior status. Perhaps tellingly, commoner boys also received
miniature cargo straps, readying them for their coming years of transport. Commoner girls were
told to be quiet, not to follow their hearts, and to “be careful to make tortillas well.”25
Among both elites and commoners, children were regularly separated
from their parents and attached to new patterns of loyalty and sociability. Soon
after the birth of new heir, Acolhua noblewomen were exhorted to “not neglect
his breastfeeding”; that is, to “see to it that your attendants care for him.” These
wet nurses were understood to exert important power in the rearing of children,
particularly in a negative sense. Indeed, one of the fixed expressions handed
down through Sahagún describes a wet nurse who “smashed” or “broke” a child,
occurring “when she suckled the child of a noblewoman and the child died.”
More systematically, schools and apprenticeships socialized youth into the
practice of living in the Empire, while regular festivals modeled and explained
social behaviors, often including the added drama of public sacrifice.26
Ongoing educational efforts were supplemented with regular encouragement and
oversight on the part of neighborhood officials, who monitored production, stimulated local pride
and coordination, and enforced local standards over their assigned wards. The urban built
environment, particularly the core quarter of lordly palaces, temples, ball courts, and markets
25
On the quarterly lecture, called NAME, see MOTOLINIA>>>// Clendinnen. On the straps, see Mendieta, book 2,
ch. 20-24. “ten cuidado de hacer bien el pan”
26
“mā ticmoxiccāhuilì in īca in īchīchīhuăltzin, īpan timotlàtōltīz inīc conmochuitlahuīzquè in māhuītzĭzīnhuān in
mocìhuān.” Bancroft dialogues, p. 128; “in chichioa, anozo ticitl, in iquac tla aca pilli ipiltzin quichichitia ce tlacatl
cioatl: auh zan no ommic in piltontli: ic mitoaya: ontlaxamani, ontlapuztec” Florentine Codex, vol. 2, bk. 6, ch. 43,
f. 206r-v. For a wider meditation on the rigors of education in the Triple Alliance, see Inga Clendinnen, “The Cost
of Courage in Aztec Society” Past & Present, vol. 107 (May 1985), pp. 44-89.
Fig. 5
Tlaloc
temple
fire, Códice
en Cruz
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also contributed to the organization of collective life around the actions and ministrations of local
elites. The organizational power of the built environment was such that early Spanish evangelists
highlighted the need to raze the pyramids of the Triple Alliance in order to disperse the crowds
that continued to gather around them. Mendieta, for instance, argued that it was only after
breaking “the wings of [the Acolhuas’] hearts” that they would come to attend church in
significant numbers.27
But Mendieta might be giving too much credence to the power of collective culture—
temples burned in Central Mexico long before the arrival of the Spanish. The Códice en Cruz, for
instance, records the destruction of the pyramid to the rain god Tlaloc in Texcoco on March 2,
1505, at the height of the dry season. The temple burned on the last day of Atlacahualo, the
month dedicated to calling down the rains, and 1505 had been a very bad year. Drought and the
calendar had coincided again to produce the dreaded 13 House-1 Rabbit sequence, and although
this document does not specify who set Tlaloc ablaze, internal unrest seems the likeliest cause.
Culture is, of course, full of shared meanings. But culture also bursts with contradictory and
conflicting interpretations: Tlaloc was indeed the main rain deity in Acolhucan, and enjoyed not
only the full apparatus of official devotion, but a wide popular following as well. The immediacy
of his attributed power, however, made absences or failures all the more noteworthy.28
27
”quebradas las alas (como dicen) del corazon, viendo sus templos y dioses por el suelo.” Gerónmico de Mendieta,
Historia eclesiástica indiana, book 3, ch. XX. Available at Cervantes Virtual,
http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/historia-eclesiastica-indiana--0/html/ (Accessed April 23, 2013).
28
The date for the burning is 12 Motion, 13 Motion of the tonalpohualli, or day calendar. Because this is the day
calendar and not the year calendar (xiuhpohualli), two dates are possible: March 5, 1505 of the Julian calendar, or
November 17. Internal clues—such as the burning occurring at the beginning of the year’s narration, and then
followed by a number of other events, including Totonacing—suggests the March date.
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NESTED HIERARCHIES
The symbols and institutions of imperial Acolhuacan—from Tlaloc and his celebrations
to the everyday patterns of coercion supporting nearly all aspects of collective life—proved to be
remarkably durable, however, and lasted well beyond the empire itself. For generations after the
fall of the Triple Alliance, Spanish officials and a host of others continued to mobilize the forms
and patterns of rule to their own, different ends. Patterns of coercion and belief were particularly
durable, largely because they operated on the level of regular personal interaction. For
generations now, scholars have privileged the wider institutions of regional politics, particularly
the altepetl and its early colonial Spanish cognates (cabecera, doctrina, pueblo, etc.), as the
primary forms of social and political life in central Mexico in the sixteenth century and beyond.
This is where the majority of local documents were produced or archived, and this is how central
administrators, whether of the Triple Alliance or the Spanish crown, conceived of their subject
domains. More than this, commoners also used such affiliations, particularly when dealing with
strangers or enemies, but also in more mundane occasions such as marketing.29
Further complicating matters, Frederic Hicks has argued that political institutions in the
late postclassic and early colonial periods did not necessarily adhere to a fixed set of terminology,
particularly in the confusion following the fall of the Triple Alliance in 1521. Altepetl, for
instance, could refer to both the local constituent parts of a regional political hierarchy or the
hierarchy itself. The tlatoani was the sovereign ruler of an altepetl, except when he or she was
subsumed to the ambition of another more powerful ruler from farther away. Calpolli was a
neighborhood; or perhaps a migratory group, or a temple, or a craft guild, or a labor gang.
29
Cite// on marketing: Chimalpahin?? Who else? Anales de Tlatelolco
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Tlaxilacalli, often used in similar contexts as calpolli, is a bit more consistent; but still a hazy
term to nail down. Nevertheless, on a more relational level, the terms made perfect sense: the
altepetl was the sovereign bureaucracy, the tlatoani was at its head, and the tlaxilacalli and
calpoltin (both deriving from the Nahuatl word for “house”) were the self-referential constituent
parts feeding into the wider regional hierarchy. Things only changed depending on the wider
web of relations describing the term in question.30
Of course, documents in general varied widely over the periods in question and the
inconsistency of terms might not pose a problem in itself. Things become more interesting,
however, when similar variations appear in other important social institutions—most particularly,
the family. It has been widely remarked that a word for “family” seems not to have appeared in
Nahuatl sources from the period, whereas terms of familial relation (mother, father, child, older
brother, retainer, etc.) abound. Relationships shaped institutions, down to the level of language;
and how things looked and functioned depended in a very real way on where you stood and who
you were. This also means that histories of this period are perhaps more susceptible than most to
widely diverging interpretations based on the perspective taken. The altepetl, which might
dominate the world of a tlatoani, could appear to an outlying commoner as an incidental or
changeable affiliation—and to a mid-level rural administrator as a troublesome if unavoidable
commitment.31
30
Hicks doc. Specific case of Calpolli. First two solved by HUEI, rarely attested in docs (Barely any appearance in
corpus like UOREGON)// Pizzigoni, p. 9
31
Lockhart/ Pizzigoni/ Carrasco/Julia MadaJczak
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Further, the rigorous standardization of terms can also obscure important and real
differences between polities. Fargher, Heredia Espinoza, Blanton, and others, in a series of recent
articles, have argued for the profound difference between even closely neighboring polities in the
Postclassic. For example, both Acolhuacan and Tlaxcala referred to themselves—and,
incidentally, their constituent regional parts—as altepeme, despite the fact that the former was
governed by a sovereign ruler and his bureaucracy and the latter by a republican-style council
open to commoners. These differences played out in such important aspects as the built
environment, the level of centralized administration, and the patterns of revenue open to the state.
The reason Texcoco or Tlaxcala or Tenochtitlan centralized and other places (like the Valley of
Puebla) didn’t owed as much to internal politics as anything else.32
In all of these situations, the argument goes, commoner production can be taken as the
primary input, with differences arising as this activity is organized hierarchically. But the
argument can go farther: documents from Acolhuacan suggest that functional patterns of
inequality operated even on the level of commoner-to-commoner relations. Coercion, and
therefore by extension empire, didn’t necessarily need elites to function. Scholars have long
asserted the preeminence of the altepetl in the social and political organization of the region,
emphasizing the modular nature of both this political entity and its constituent parts. The altepetl
sustained the power of the tlatoani, and supported important bureaucratic structures such as the
tecpan (palace and attending administrators), the primary temples, and the main war apparatus.
In terms of the structure of local inequality, however, the tlaxilacalli, or neighborhood—one step
32
Lane F. Fargher, Richard E. Blanton, Verenice Y. Heredia Espinoza, John Millhauser, Nezahualcoyotl Xiuhtecutli
and Lisa Overholtzer" Etc.
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down from the altepetl—seems to have been the primary engine of political coercion and
economic differentiation. At least in Acolhuacan, this was the political unit where subjects paid
their tribute and labor, where farmers divided up their land, and where worshippers congregated.
Despite the “difficult” prospect of analyzing tlaxilacaltin in many central Mexican regions, few
such problems present themselves for Acolhuacan—indeed, certain key documents seem to have
been produced and kept at the level of the tlaxilacalli, not the altepetl.33
Key among these surviving Acolhua registers are a set of purpose-made but broadly
suggestive tax and land documents for the neighboring tlaxilacalli of Chimalpa and
Cuauhtepoztla in the marginal altepetl of Tepelaoztoc. These separate but twinned registers, now
known as the Códice de Santa María Asunción (Cuauhtepoztla) and the Códice Vergara
(Chimalpa), were created in the early 1540s—some twenty years after the first Spanish invasions
of the region—and originally destined as evidence for a court case protesting the abuses of an
early colonial grantee. Despite their initial provenance, however, these two documents
powerfully express many key aspects of earlier Acolhua administration. For instance, Alfonso
Lacadena and others have mobilized the Vergara to argue for the existence of a broad and mostly
syllabic pattern of writing in Acolhuacan—countering the belief that the Triple Alliance had no
written script—while Barbara Williams and colleagues have used these documents to illustrate
Acolhua skill in such fields as mathematics, geography, and agronomy. Taken together, these
codices represent Acolhua administration as exacting and technically advanced, keeping close
tabs on even such peripheral areas as the outlying tlaxilacalli of Tepetlaoztoc. Indeed, judging by
such things as their triple-entry cadastral system and their careful calculation of both land
33
Pizzigoni, 9; on altepetl Lockhart, etc.
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boundaries and surface area, Acolhua administrators seem to have been the most exacting of any
in the Triple Alliance.34
But more than even this, Williams and her collaborators have shown the precise ways in
which patterns of inequality reached down through the tlaxilacalli into the very foundations of
Acolhua settlement, to the household level. Each tlaxilacalli was itself divided into separate
named wards (called by Williams and Hicks “localidades,” in absence of a viable term in
Nahuatl) of between XX and XX households, which were themselves further subdivided into
detachments (“blocos censales”) of around XX households. Each of these detachments
converged around the household of a slightly more prominent individual, identified as such by
their comparatively larger landholdings. This was a political, and not a spatial, organization:
dependent households did not necessarily abut those of their superiors, but rather were politically
attached to the wider coercive apparatus through these intermediary individuals. Importantly,
few if any of these local leaders belonged to either the Acolhua nobility or high administration—
although many of the poorer tlaxilacalli members also work designated parcels of elite land as
assigned dependent laborers.35
34
WILLIAMS et al HAVE PUT OUT EXCELLENT SCHOLARLY EDITIONS OF THESE DOCS. Quote
Williamsn and Lacadena and Whittaker and all the rest. // One of the tlaxilacalli is in the center of Tepetloztoc., all
the rest outlying.They were written before the Spaniards’ enthusiastic if irregular efforts toward forced grouping
(reducción); before disease, agricultural disruption, and out-migration had completely changed the patterns of
people on the land; and even before churches began to dot the countryside in the mid-sixteenth century.
OZTOTIPAC/ Asuncion/ VERGARA
35
El códice Vergara, ed. Barbara J. Williams and Frederic Hicks (Mexico City: UNAM, 2011), p. 53. Cf., Carrasco,
Estructura político-territorial; Berdan, et al., Aztec Imperial Strategies. FOR ELITE LANDS, SEE GARRATY’S
EXCAVTIONS OF TEOTI// CERAMIC INDICES OF AZTEC ELITENESS/ Christopher P. Garraty/ Ancient
Mesoamerica / Volume 11 / Issue 02 / July 2000, pp 323 340 DOI: null, Published online: 07 February 2001// p.
335
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The most powerful coercive relationship at work in imperial Acolhuacan was local,
commoner on commoner. Following the suggestions of the Vergara and the Asunción, we can
imagine commoner bosses mustering tribute payments or work gangs among their designated
parcel of families, and this feeding up through the parcialidades, to the tlaxilacalli, and then to
the altepetl. Or, as that early chronicler of colonial Texcoco, fray Diego Durán, put it:
There was no child who at birth was not assessed by the neighborhood officials and
captains. For this, there were people responsible for 100 or 500 or 400 [households]; and
some were responsible for 20 houses, and others for 40, and others for 50, and others for
100. Those who managed 100 houses would choose and constitute another five or six of
their subjects [as secondary officials]. In this way they divided up the entire city and all
the neighborhoods—so that those with 100 households would guide and direct those with
15 or 20, in order to appear with their tribute and laborers for public functions.
The tlatoque therefore stood at least four steps removed from the extractive labor of their
dependent realms, suggesting perhaps some of the ease with which Nezahualcoyotl and others
could depose them. A tlatoani could be relatively easily replaced; the underlying coercive
mechanism was much more difficult to change.36
A QUICK INTRODUCTION: TEPETLAOZTOC MAPPING PROJECT
[This is one of the most exciting pieces of my research for me, and also one of the slowest. I
believe I can (almost) fully map landholding in Tepetlaoztoc using the Vergara and Santa María
Asunción codices. The measurements of each register are generally solid, and by following the
36
“así no les falta niño que en naciendo no esté empadronado por los oficiales de los barrios y capitanes para lo qual
auia centuriones y quinquajenarios y quadrajenarios, y era que uno tenia cargo de veinte casas, otro de quarenta, otro
de cinquenta, otros de ciento y así tenian cien casas á cargo escoia y constituia otros cinco ó seis de los que tenia por
suditos y repartida toda la ciudad y todos los barrios, porque el que tenia cien casas, para que aquellos, á las veinte
casas ó quince que le cauian, les guiase y mandase y acudiese con sus tributos y hombres de seruicio á las cosas
públicas.” Fray Diego Durán, Historia de las Indias de Nueva España e islas de tierra firme, 2 vols., ed. Rosa
Camelo y José Rubén Romero (Mexico City, CONACULTA, 1995), p. 372; Gibson, Aztecs, pp. 136-7; Hicks,
“Calpolli,” p. 243.
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techniques in the more transparent Oztotipac Lands Map (right nearby); as well terrain maps and
such, I can simply puzzle the neighborhoods together. This is tedious work, but it’s progressing.
I haven’t written it up yet because I want to be sure I can actually finish the task. Here is the
biggest sub-neighborhood I’ve done so far. Each “piece” is a plot of land; each color or pattern
marks a separate family. Black dots are Otomí houses, black triangles are Nahuas, red outlines
are elite holdings (sometimes with dependent laborers living on them).
Some tenative conclusions: Although it’s less visibile in this subsection of the map, I think that
Nahua and Otomí commoners were not completely segregated; or rather, that Otomís didn’t have
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a separate exclusionary barrio. However, elite lands were in fact set apart. I have yet to breach
the family yet, but I imagine this being particularly fertile to see how this tlaxilacalli worked
internally. Now, back to the academic narration…
STARVATION
These underlying inequalities were matters of life and death. Data from the Asunción,
also analyzed by Williams, suggests that in the early 1540s, this tightly-administered tlaxilacalli
produced 141% of the necessary calories for normal social reproduction. In normal years, this
meant that around 84% of the population was consistently well-fed (60% with a surplus) and
16% chronically hungry. In a moderately poor harvest year, however, 61% of the tlaxilacalli
population would be undernourished, with 52% at risk for famine. In contrast, during times of
modest agricultural failure 39% of the population would remain well-fed, 20% with a surplus.
This meant that at this district level significant minorities were both consistently well-fed (20%)
and chronically hungry (16%) regardless of climatic conditions—a clear indicator of the political
nature of agricultural production. The prime reason for feast or famine was access to productive
fields; in bad years, the well-off had access to roughly twice the land as the poorest of the poor.37
The gap between well-fed commoners and starving ones was perhaps the most important
relationship sustaining political hierarchies in imperial Acolhuacan—it certainly was in
37
Thomas M. Whitmore and Barbara J. Williams, “Famine Vulnerability in the Contact-Era Basin of Mexico: A
simulation” Ancient Mesoamerica, 9 (1998), pp. 83-98. Almost by definition, only commoners participated in
tlaxilacalli land regimes.
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Tepetlaoztoc. Under this arrangement, favored commoners received extra land in exchange for
fine-grained oversight and control of even marginal areas like the foothills of Cuauhtepozta and
Chimalpa. As might be expected, quotidian relationships between commoners are difficult to
recover for this period, but something of the feeling of these unequal interactions is suggested by
the opening sequence of the Bancroft Dialogues, that early colonial compendium of right speech
from Texcoco. The scene begins with a woman passing by the house of a female relative on her
way to the market. The woman is of a lower social rank than her relative: she lives farther away
from the market, she is the one making the visit, and she addresses her relative as “my lady,”
even though neither one of them can claim noble title. She begins to speak:
Do stay seated, my lady. I won’t disturb you, for I’m just passing by your place to ask
about you, whether you are enjoying a bit of the Lord’s health, for it’s been a while since
I’ve seen your faces. I came by to look for some things in the market, for so it is with we
the sick, we the sufferers.38
As befits her higher stature, the relative stays seated throughout the entire dialogue,
invites the woman into her house, and addresses her as “my child” and “my daughter,” a classic
sign of comparative power and prestige. The relative replies, with a certain sense of performed
humility, that she herself is only “scraping by” and then asks after the health of the woman and
her family. The woman replies that all are healthy, and then asks for forgiveness for only visiting
sporadically: “Even though we live here (in the area), it’s quite a distance between our houses.
That’s why we neglect you and don’t come to ask about you; forgive us before our Lord.”39
38
“Tlā ximēhuiltìtiecan nocihuāpiltzin, namēchonnomòcihuiliz (aqui es mas usado, namēchonnàmanilīz) ca çan
nican amopantzinco niquīztēhua amocatzinco nitlàtlantiquiça, àço tepitzin anquimomàcēhuìzinoà in
ītīchicāhualiztzin in tlācatl in totēcuiyo, ca ye īxquich cāhuitl in in aoquīc amīxtzinco amocpactzinco nitlachia”
Bancroft Dialogues, p. 100???
39
“mācihui izçan nican, ca ăchi onānticatqui, ca yè inic tamēchontoxiccāhuilia in àmo amocatzingo tihuāllàlănì: mā
xitēchmotlapòpolhuilīcān in īxpantzīnco in tlācatl in totēcuiyo.” Bancroft Dialogues, p. 100???
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So this is what social inequality looked like at the bottom of the social pyramid: One
woman, sick and suffering, runs this way and that to make her living; another, her relative, sits
by piously waiting for a visit. There is familiarity and even affection, but also separate spheres of
work and action, and lines not to be crossed—it seems that the relative would never visit the
woman in her home. And the language of family is crucial: what other institution could mediate
inequality with such close and effective precision? At very base, coercion in imperial Acolhucan
was a family affair.