four elements of rhetoric. rhetoric pathos logos ethos four elements of rhetoric

Four Elements of Rhetoric

Rhetoric Pathos Logos Ethos


Rhetoric Is the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing Is sounding sincere Has the function not to persuade but to see the

available means of persuasion in each case -- Aristotle Is the amalgam of techniques that situates writing in a

specific time and place Is the understanding of the basic division between

what is communication and how it is communicated

Rhetoric

In academia, rhetoric is NOT sounding pretentious insincere

In academia, rhetoric means that you understand the means and modes of

persuasion within your own discipline.

Pathos

Appeals to the emotions and feelings of

the audience Arouses feelings of pity, compassionate

sympathy, tenderness, or sorrow Is the ability to evoke compassion in an

audience

Logos Appeals to logic, reasoning, and evidence Is the structure or organization of a writing

sample or style Implies numbers, polls, and other mathematical

or scientific data Makes the assumption that the audience and the

writer hold a foundation of shared beliefs

Ethos Appeals based on the trustworthiness of the

speaker or writer Establishes credibility through the character or

values peculiar to a specific person, culture, or

movement Is a component of argument that establishes a

person’s expertise or knowledge by what that

person says and not by what people know about

that person – Aristotle


Rhetoric It’s communication.

Pathos It’s the audience.

Logos It’s the writing.

Ethos It’s the writer.

Persuasion Through Rhetoric

Words, Phrases, and Simple Assertions

A psychological point about rhetoric and suggestion...

It’s a fact that even fleeting impressions may have measurable influence on behavior.



The operation of such influences may occur below the threshold of consciousness.




The positive and negative impressions made by use of rhetorical devices, while they may sometimes seem trivial, can have powerful and long-lasting effects.




The positive and negative impressions made by use of rhetorical devices, while they may sometimes seem trivial, can have powerful and long-lasting effects.

Critical thinking addresses influence of rhetoric in two ways:

(1) helps identify attempts at non-argumentative persuasion

(2) helps check “spontaneous” beliefs and impulses

Euphemisms and Dysphemisms Words or phrases that are substituted for

other words or phrases to put what is being discussed in a more positive or negative light



Euphemism: “Used cars” become “pre-owned vehicles”.

Dysphemism: “Music” becomes “noise”.



Euphemism: “Used cars” become “pre-owned vehicles”.

Dysphemism: “Music” becomes “noise”.

Note: Reports and descriptions may convey pleasant or unpleasant information without being euphemistic or dysphemistic. It’s the quality of the language that matters.

Rhetorical Comparisons, Definitions, and Explanations

Ways of speaking that depart positively or negatively from a fair or neutral position

Problems of content, not of form




Comparison: The American revolutionaries used tactics similar to those employed by the Viet Cong.





Definition: religion - the opiate of the people





Definition: religion - the opiate of the people

Explanation: Franklin stayed in France throughout the revolution because he was a celebrity there.

Stereotype May function as an unexamined assumption

behind a premise (easily results in fallacy of begging the question) or explanatory claim (especially, as circular reasoning)



When directly expressed, takes the form of a generalization



When directly expressed, takes the form of a generalization

As expectation, may cause an observer to ignore conflicting phenomena or supply consistent details that never occurred

Innuendo A suggestion that is made indirectly Creates a negative impression (using indirect

language to create a positive impression is usually better classed as understatement)

May be constructed by association with something negative or by faint praise

Example: Prof. X? Is he the one who admitted that his emotions influence his grading? (When speaker knows Prof. X didn’t.)

Example: Student Y? Yes, I remember her. She satisfied the minimum requirements of the course.

Loaded Question Often a yes-no question or a false dilemma,

but could occur with any question form Answering directly requires accepting or

presuming a questionable, hostile, or unjustified assumption

May function similarly to innuendo

Loaded Question Often a yes-no question or a false dilemma,

but could occur with any question form Answering directly requires accepting or

presuming a questionable, hostile, or unjustified assumption

May function similarly to innuendoExample: Are you still abusing illegal drugs?

Example: Should we vote for the Democrat or the Republican in this election?

Example: What were you thinking when you attempted to steal that CD?

Weaseler

A word or phrase that deceptively weakens a claim

Weaseler


Not to be confused with careful qualification

Weaseler


Not to be confused with careful qualification

Example: Save up to 40% (when typical savings will be less)

Example: It’s easy to go all the way...on the phone. (real ad!)

Downplayer

A word, phrase, or punctuation that subtly diminishes a concept or weakens a claim

May overlap with weaseler

Downplayer



Example: Today’s “patriots” are just looking for a way to make a quick buck in Iraq.

Downplayer




Example: I understand your wages are low, but it’s normal for some full-time workers in any modern society to be below the poverty line. (Notice how the individual’s particular situation is effectively submerged.)

Downplayer




Example: I understand your wages are low, but it’s normal for some full-time workers in any modern society to be below the poverty line. (Notice how the individual’s particular situation is effectively submerged.)

Example: Interest rates are at their the lowest point in years, though only customers with excellent credit will qualify.

Horse Laugh/Ridicule/Sarcasm An attempt to weaken a claim or undermine

credibility by making an idea or person appear ridiculous



May make use of other devices, e.g., hyperbole, slippery slope




Example: One thing I can say for Schwarzenegger, I bet he’s not a complainer. So now we won’t have to listen to a lot of complaining from the governor’s office while Bush’s friends are looting California.




Example: One thing I can say for Schwarzenegger, I bet he’s not a complainer. So now we won’t have to listen to a lot of complaining from the governor’s office while Bush’s friends are looting California.

Example: You don’t like how the PATRIOT Act expands police powers? How about the next time you need help, try calling a hippie.

Hyperbole

Use of exaggeration to make an impression of greater importance or deviation from expectations

Hyperbole


May show up in other devices, e.g., ridicule, slippery slope, straw man, poisoning the well

Hyperbole



Example: What I need is a vehicle that can go anywhere.

Hyperbole



Example: What I need is a vehicle that can go anywhere.

Example: “While this framework does a good job of catering to environmental extremists, it falls alarmingly short of addressing the rising threat of wildfires facing our forests.” (Rep. Wally Herger, on the Sierra Nevada Framework, 11/03)

Proof Surrogate

An assertion or strong suggestion that good evidence exists somewhere out of reach to support a claim

Proof Surrogate


May make use of listed, but unchecked or unverifiable references

Proof Surrogate


May make use of listed, but unchecked or unverifiable references

Example: Unnamed sources report that...

Example: Experts agree that...

Example: I read on the Internet that... (if used as evidence)

four elements of rhetoric. rhetoric pathos logos ethos four elements of rhetoric

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