framework for effectiveness and resilience of irrigation · 4/2/2017 · irrigation master plan...

Framework for Effectiveness and Resilience of Irrigation

RSAS:0017 Supporting Documents

20 February 2017

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Framework for Effectiveness and Resilience of Irrigation

RSAS:0017 Supporting Documents

20 February 2017

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348293IDD/IDC/2/A 29 Feb 2016 CDKN Nepal\Interim Report

Framework for Effectiveness and Resilience of Irrigation RSAS:0017 : Interim Report

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Chapter Title Page

Appendices 9Appendix A. Bibliography _______________________________________________________________________ 10Appendix B. Donor-supported Climate Change Activities in Nepal egion __________________________________ 38B.1 Climate change activities supported by USAID in Nepal ____________________________________ 39B.2 Climate change activities supported by World Bank Nepal ___________________________________ 40B.3 Climate Change activities supported by IFC ______________________________________________ 45B.4 Climate change activities supported by UNDP- Nepal ______________________________________ 47B.5 Climate Change Related activities supported by JICA ______________________________________ 48B.6 Climate Change activities in Nepal supported by the Government of Finland ____________________ 49B.6.1 Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project in Western Nepal ________________________________ 49B.6.2 Strengthening Environmental Administration and management (SEAM-Nepal) Project ____________ 50B.6.3 Climate Change activities supported by HKH HYCOS ______________________________________ 54B.6.4 Rural Village Water Resource Management Project Far west and Mid west Nepal ________________ 55B.7 Climate Change activities supported by MSFP (Provided by SDC) ____________________________ 56B.8 Climate Change Adaptation and Environmentally Sustainable Growth Projects, Asian DevBank _____ 58B.9 Climate Change Related activities supported by DANIDA ___________________________________ 62B.10 Climate Change activities supported by Department for International Development (DFID) _________ 63B.11 NGOs ____________________________________________________________________________ 64B.11.1 Institute for Social and Environmental Transition (ISET)-Nepal _______________________________ 64B.11.2 Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) ________________________ 64B.11.3 Nepal Development Research Institute (NDRI) ____________________________________________ 65Appendix C. Climate Change: Summary of Literature _________________________________________________ 67Appendix D. Irrigation Design, Implementation and Management Procedures ______________________________ 85D.1 Design Process ____________________________________________________________________ 85D.1.1 Detail design ______________________________________________________________________ 86D.2 Design responsibilities _______________________________________________________________ 86D.2.1 Allowances for climate change in the design process _______________________________________ 87D.2.2 Allowances for other changes in water demands __________________________________________ 87D.2.3 Irrigation design manuals ____________________________________________________________ 88D.2.4 Shortcomings of the present design procedures and design manuals of DOI ____________________ 90Appendix E. Hydrology ________________________________________________________________________ 91E.1 Hydrological design parameters _______________________________________________________ 91E.1.1 Return periods _____________________________________________________________________ 91E.1.2 Flood Flows _______________________________________________________________________ 92E.1.3 Available Flows ____________________________________________________________________ 93E.1.4 Crop water requirement ______________________________________________________________ 93E.1.5 Calculation of ET0 __________________________________________________________________ 94E.1.6 Effective rainfall ____________________________________________________________________ 94E.2 Differences between methods for large and small irrigation __________________________________ 95E.3 Weaknesses perceived in this approach; gaps in knowledge/methods _________________________ 95Appendix F. Sediment _________________________________________________________________________ 96F.1 Status of Water Resources Development in Nepal: ________________________________________ 96F.1.1 Impact of Land Use Change on the Hydrological Regime ___________________________________ 96

Contents



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F.1.2 Impact of Land Use Change on Soil Erosion and Sedimentation ______________________________ 96F.1.3 Climate Change and Suspended Sediment Load in Himalayan Basins _________________________ 97F.1.4 Climate Change and Effect on Slope Stability and Landslides ________________________________ 97F.1.5 Observation on the Effect of Climate Changes ____________________________________________ 98F.2 Watershed and Soil Conservation in Reducing Sediment Yield _______________________________ 98F.2.1 Water Resources Management ________________________________________________________ 99F.2.2 Forest and Land Conservation ________________________________________________________ 99F.2.3 Agriculture and Livestock Development _________________________________________________ 99F.2.4 Conclusion ________________________________________________________________________ 99F.3 Sediment Transportation of Major Rivers of Nepal ________________________________________ 101F.3.1 Sediment Management at Project Design _______________________________________________ 101F.3.2 Recommendation: _________________________________________________________________ 102F.3.3 References: ______________________________________________________________________ 102Appendix G. Agriculture development and Climate Change ___________________________________________ 104G.1 Introduction ______________________________________________________________________ 104G.2 Factors and Changes influencing Irrigated Agriculture in Nepalese Context ____________________ 104G.3 Role of Climate Change in Irrigated Agriculture __________________________________________ 106G.3.1 Impact of Temperature in Irrigated Agriculture ___________________________________________ 106G.3.2 Impact of Precipitation in Irrigated Agriculture ____________________________________________ 107G.3.3 Changes Noticed in Recent Years ____________________________________________________ 108G.4 Changes in Crop types and Crop varieties ______________________________________________ 108G.5 Changes in Cropping Pattern and Calendar over the years _________________________________ 109G.6 Government Policy on Climate Change Adaptation in Agriculture ____________________________ 110G.7 Institutions and Institutional Arrangements to Manage Climate Change Issues. _________________ 111G.8 Lessons Learnt from Field Observations (Case Studies) ___________________________________ 112G.8.1 Kauchhe, Kamalamai Municipality, Sindhuli District. _______________________________________ 112G.8.2 Girwari Irrigation system in Nawalparasi District __________________________________________ 112G.8.3 Sringheghat Irrigation System (SIS) ___________________________________________________ 113G.9 Adaptation strategy and Coping Mechanism _____________________________________________ 115G.10 Recommendation and Conclusion ____________________________________________________ 118G.11 References: ______________________________________________________________________ 119Appendix H. Agricultural Management Information System ___________________________________________ 121Appendix I. Terms of Reference ________________________________________________________________ 125



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Appendices

Appendix A. Bibliography _______________________________________________________________________ 10Appendix B. Donor-supported Climate Change Activities in Nepal egion __________________________________ 38Appendix C. Climate Change: Summary of Literature _________________________________________________ 67Appendix D. Irrigation Design, Implementation and Management Procedures ______________________________ 85Appendix E. Hydrology _________________________________________________________________________ 91Appendix F. Sediment _________________________________________________________________________ 96Appendix G. Agriculture development and Climate Change ___________________________________________ 104Appendix H. Agricultural Management Information System ____________________________________________ 121Appendix I. Terms of Reference ________________________________________________________________ 125



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The initial reviews undertaken in the inception stage have helped structure the study and the detailed work plan for the following implementation stage. However, the nature of this study will require more reviews in detail on relevant studies, programmes and literature. The focuses of the review will include: Studies of adaptation measures in the agriculture and irrigation sectors to climate change in Nepal and

elsewhere, to draw on the experiences of mainstreaming adaptation into the development plans and implications to the governance;

Studies and trends in climate modelling and applications in river basin in Nepal, to provide projected data to share with local communities and assess the vulnerability of visited sites;

Adaptations in the design standards internationally; Successful cases to develop or update climate resilient irrigation systems or community;

The team identified a list of projects (see table below) relevant to this study and have reviewed some of them during the inception phase. This list will be updated after the inception workshop in May upon feedback from stakeholders, and taking account of the two new CDKN studies on hydropower and climate smart agriculture.

Table A.1: Projects

Nr Name of Project Year and Donor

1 Economic impact assessment of climate change in key sectors in Nepal 2012-2014, CDKN

2 Mainstreaming climate change risk management in development project

(Under Strategic Program for Climate Resilience (SPCR) of Nepal and Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR))

2014-present, ADB

3 Enhancing capacities for climate change adaptation and disaster risk management for sustainable livelihoods in the agriculture sector

2009-2011, UNDP, FAO

4 Regional economics of climate change in South Asia – adaptation and impact assessment

2011-2013, ADB, DFID

5 Building climate resilience of watersheds in mountain eco-regions project

(Project area: Lower West Seti and Budhi Ganga watersheds of Karnali river basin - Accham, Bahjung, Baitadi, Bajura, Dadeldhura, and Doti districts.)

2014-2020, ADB, NDF (Nordic Development Fund)

(Under SPCR and PPCR)

6 Building resilience to climate-related hazards

(4 components: Institutional strengthening, capacity building and implementation support of DHM; Modernization of the observation infrastructure and forecasting; Enhancement of the Service Delivery System of DHM; Creation of an agriculture management information system.)

2013-2018, WB


7 Building climate resilient communities through private sector participation (Objectives: promoting climate resilient agriculture; strengthening vulnerable infrastructure; feasibility study for low cost climate resilient housing.)

2013-2029, IFC


The initial review during inception phase also covered literature and project reports. The team has selected the most relevant ones and put them in Dropbox for sharing within the team. The table below listed all documents available on the Dropbox.

Appendix A. Bibliography

11 348293IDD/IDC/2/A 29 Feb 2016 CDKN Nepal\Interim Report


Table A.2: Selected Relevant Literature

Name of report / literature Nr. on

Dropbox

Nepal Policies and Government Documents

Climate Change Policy (2011) 02

Irrigation Policy (2013) 03c

Irrigation Master Plan (1990) 05b

Water Resources Strategy Nepal (2002) 06b

National Water Plan (2005) 07b

Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS), Government of Nepal. 2011. Water Resources of Nepal in the Context of Climate Change 2011.

16

Ministry of Environment. 2010. National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate Change. Kathmandu, Nepal. (NAPA, 2010)

01

National Framework on Local Adaptation Plans for Action. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Environment, Singhdurbar. (LAPA, 2011)

03

MoSTE. 2014. Institutional Analysis: Department of Irrigation. Prepared by the International Centre for Environmental Management (ICEM) for the Nepal Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MoSTE) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB), as part of the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience - PPCR3, Mainstreaming Climate Change in Development. Kathmandu, Nepal.

04c

Ministry of Environment. 2011. Status of Climate Change in Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal.

05

Ministry of Environment, Government of Nepal. Adaptation to Climate Change: NAPA to LAPA.

08

MoSTE, Government of Nepal. 2012. Mainstreaming Climate Change Risk Management in Development: 1 Main Consultancy Package (44768-012): Proceedings of Core Group Working Session 1.

26

MoSTE, Government of Nepal. 2014. Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning Methodology for Infrastructure Development in Nepal. A MoSTE Guide (working draft for discussion).

03b

National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal. 2011. Climate-resilient Planning: A tool for Long-term Climate Adaptation.

07

Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission Secretariat, Government of Nepal. 2011. Environment Statistics of Nepal 2011. (& 2013)

36 (& 37-1)

National Agriculture Policy (2014) 04b



Name of report / literature Nr. on

Dropbox

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MoAC), Government of Nepal. 2011. Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Management in Agriculture: Priority Framework for Action 2011-2020.

14b

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Government of Nepal. 2010. National Agriculture Sector Development Priority (NASDP) for the Medium-Term (2010/11-2014/15). Kathmandu, Nepal. July 2010.

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Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development, Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR). 2013. Approach Manual for District Small Irrigation Master Plan.

<25ha hills, <200ha tarai. District Masterplanning guidelines, Khotang as example, no reference to climate change

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Agricultural Development Strategy 2014 62

STUDIES, REPORTS AND PAPERS RELATED TO NEPAL

Climate change model studies

Malla, G. 2008. Climate Change and its Impact on Nepalese Agriculture. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment Vol: 9, Jun. 2008.

Brief description of impact of climate change on agriculture in Nepal 19

Duncan, John M.A and Biggs Eloise M. 2012. Assessing the Accuracy and Applied use of Satellite-derived Precipitation Estimates over Nepal. Applied Geography 34 (2012): 626-638.

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Shrestha, Arun B. et al. Maximum Temperature Trends in the Himalaya and its Vicinity: An Analysis Based on Temperature Records from Nepal for the Period 1971-94. Journal of Climate. Vol. 12. September 1999.

22b

Regmi, Megha Raj 2009. Climate Change of Nepal: Challenges and Perspectives for future Generations. Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 6 (2009) 412040. doi: 10.1088/1755-1307/6/1/412040.

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Babel, Mukand S. et al. 2014. Climate Change and Water Resources in the Bagmati River Basin, Nepal. Theor Appl Climatol (2014) 115: 639-654. Doi: 10.1007/s00704-013-0910-4.

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Acharya, Shankar Prasad and Bhatta, Guna Raj. 2013. Impact of Climate Change on Agricultural Growth in Nepal. NRB Working Paper series, NRB-WP-15, 2013.

National assessment 38

Karmacharya, Jagadishwor, Archana Shrestha, Rupak Rajbhandari, Madan L. Shrestha (2007) Climate Change Scenarios for Nepal based on Regional Climate Model RegCM3. Department of Hydrology and Meteorology Kathmandu - Nepal

Climate modelling for Nepal based on single mode – regional maps of impacts 63



C. McSweeney, M. New, and G. Lizcano (nd) UNDP Climate Change Country Profiles. Nepal

Climate model outputs for Nepal 73

GFDRR (2011) Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile 81

PACN (2012). Nepal: Strengthening Capacity for Managing Climate Change and Environment TA7173-NEP – Climate Data Digitization and Downscaling of Climate Change

86

Climatic trends Unreferenced graphs 91

Irrigation system/district case studies

SAGUN Climate Change Impacts on Livelihoods of Poor and Vulnerable Communities and Biodiversity Conservation: A Case Study in Banke, Bardia, Dhading and Rasuwa Districts of Nepal. Conducted by Program in Collaboration with LIBIRD. Strengthened Actions for Governance in Utilization of Natural Resources (SAGUN) Program.

Participatory study of perceptions of change and impacts, focusing on forestry – Rasuwa and Bank/Bardiya districts [64 pgs]. All changes and impacts attributed to climate change

“Data analysis indicated that temperature was increasing at all sites. Rainfall patterns were also recorded altered, delayed monsoon, erratic rainfall and shorter rainfall duration. Winter rainfall decreased in most of the areas, while both rainfall and snowfall were unpredictable. Temperature increase was higher inthe high mountains (Rasuwa) than at other study sites with very hot summers and cool winters.

Major risks in the high mountains include drought, " re and landslides. In the mid-hills, drought, soil erosion and landslides were observed. In the Terai, major problems were; ! oods; riverbank erosion; and drought.

Frequent flooding washed away thousands of hectares of productive agricultural land, destroyed crop yields, damaged houses and infrastructure, took human and livestock lives, and contributed to outbreak of diseases. Similarly, drought resulted in decline in crop productivity, loss of local crop species, drying of water sources (wells, ponds, and springs), and outbreak of pests and diseases.

Extreme climate events forced thousands of people to leave their homes, destroyed wildlife habitat and increased human pressure on forest resources due to reallocation and resettlement.

Moreover, most adaptation strategies were limited to agriculture. Ethnic groups, such as the Tharu, have traditionally developed climate resilient systems like developing safety measures and finding alternatives to current livelihood practices. However, such initiatives do not fully address climate change issues and threats.”

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Duncan, John and Budathoki, Drona Ecological Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Livelihoods in the Girubarikhola Catchment, Nawalparasi, Nepal.

Participatory study of perceptions of change and impacts in one catchment in Nawalparasi – Girubari. Changes perceivied but emonstrated to be caused by local human activities and population growth. Current indigenous adaptation caused by general development not climate-driven, and further water conservation activities could be undertaken

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Cifdaloz, O., A. Regmi, J. M. Anderies and A. A. Rodriguez. 2010. Robustness, vulnerability, and adaptive capacity in small-scale social-ecological systems: the Pumpa Irrigation system in Nepal. Ecology and

Model of 70ha system in Chitwan for rice/maize. “The general points that emerge from this work is that small-scale irrigation systems like the Pumpa should not be expected to cope well with globalization nor should they be expected to cope with directed environmental change once certain thresholds are crossed.

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Society 15(3): 39. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss3/art39/

Given the rigidities such as those occurring in existing small-scale irrigation systems, investment directed at discovering new ways to use the resources, water and soil, which are consistent with existing institutions or which require institutional adjustments that are possible within the existing institutional context would likely be more effective. Likewise, investment carefully targeted at those institutional competencies identified as lacking as a result of the processes summarized in Figure 13 may enhance the capacity of these systems to cope with global economic and environmental change more than continued efforts to enhance the efficiency of existing systems”.

Our analysis of the performance characteristics of several different irrigation policies under three different classes of shocks, namely reduced river flow, late arrival of the monsoon, and damage to physical infrastructure, enable us to get at the questions posed at the beginning of the Analysis section. First, yield is quite insensitive to variation in rain and river flow regimes, to a point. Once a threshold is crossed (50% mean discharge, 25-day delay in monsoon induced river flows), potential yield drops precipitously (Figures 8B and 9B). The model clearly shows that shifting institutional regimes can significantly improve the robustness of the system. Shifting from open flow to sequential rotation during the field preparation and transplantation stage can prevent loss of the entire crop due to either reduced or late river flow.

However, the capacity of institutional arrangements is limited by the rigidity of the infrastructure–agroecology–climate complex that defines rice paddy cultivation. When climate variables move beyond a certain threshold, yield drops precipitously, and institutional arrangements can only do so much, e.g. reducing a 95% yield loss to a 50% loss.

Dhakal, K. Silwal, S. & Khanal, G. 2010. Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources and Vulnerability in Hills of Nepal: A Case Study on Dhare Khola Watershed of Dhading District. Summited to National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) to Climate Change. 2010.

Participatory study in one water shed of perceptions of changes and adaptation. Some analysis of rainfall and temperature data, but not water resources. No analysis of concurrent changes. Note recent rainfall trends (last 5 yrs) very different from past long term, and also from projections)

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Dahal S and Sharma M,. 2010. Assessment of Impact of Climate Change and Local Adaptation Measures in Agriculture Sector and Livelihood of Indigenous Community in High Hills of Sankhuwasabha District. Submitted to National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) Project.

Case study for Sankhuwa Sabha – not irrigation related. Looks at productivity of main crops and relates to climate

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Lamichhane, Babu Ram and Awasthi Keshav Datt . 2009. Changing Climate in a Mountain Sub-watershed in Nepal. Journal of Forest and Livelihood 8(1) February 2009.

Small study of climate changes in Gorkha (temperature and rainfall), but no analysis of impact on water resources 25

Shrestha, Mahesh et al. 2014. Adapting Small-Farm Systems to Climate Change: Preliminary Results from Participatory Community Assessments in Bajura District, Nepal. Research Brief: Feed the Future Innovative Lab for Collaborative Research on Adapting Livestock Systems to Climate Change. June 2014.

Very brief participatory study in Bajura, few details provided

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Gehendra Bahadur Gurung, and Dinanath Bhandari. 2009. Integrated Approach to Climate Change Adaptation. Journal of Forest and Livelihood 8(1), February 2009.

Brief project report on adaptation in Chitwan. Fairly general and descriptive. “Nepal's temperature is rising faster than the global average, with a higher rate in the Himalayas. Precipitation is becoming unpredictable, resulting in extremities. Poor people, who are dependent on the nature for their livelihoods, suffer from the impact of climate change and have to struggle hard to cope with it more than others. This paper summarizes the key insights drawn from a project carried out by Practical Action Nepal. The project appraised the community perception of climate change, its impact, the coping strategies adopted by the communities and the need for adaptation through participatory approach. Community‐based adaptation activities were implemented to respond to the climate change and its impact. The lessons from the project indicated that climate change adaptation requires an integrated approach, including socio‐economic development, environmental conservation and disaster risk reduction”.

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Regmi, Bimal R. et al. 2009. Agro-biodiversity Management: An Opportunity for Mainstreaming Community-based Adaptation to Climate Change. Journal of Forest and Livelihood 8(1) February 2009.

Case study for agricultural adaptation 22

Gentle, Popular et al. 2014. Differential Impacts of Climate Change on Communities in the Middle Hills Region of Nepal. Nat Hazards (2014) 74:815-836. Doi: 10.1007/s11069-014-1218-0.

“research conducted in the middle hills region of Nepal that explored climate change vulnerability in terms of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity across different well-being groups, genders of the head of household and household location. In the study region, dry land farming has increasingly experienced climate-induced changes to farm productivity and natural resources. The experience of vulnerability to decreased livelihood options and natural resource hazards due to a changing climate varied according to household wealth and well-being status, with very poor and poor households more vulnerable than medium and well-off households. The research indicates that the climate change adaptation would benefit by considering: (i) differential impacts of vulnerability mainly based on well-being status of households; (ii) understanding of the local socio-political context and underlying causes of vulnerability and its application; and (iii) identifying vulnerable populations for the units of vulnerability analysis and adaptation planning”

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Fort, Monique. 2015. Natural Hazards Versus Climate Change and Their Potential Impacts in the dry, Northern Himalayas: Focus on the Upper Kali Gandaki (Mustang District, Nepal). Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:801-814. Doi: 10.1007/s12665-014-3087-y.

https://www.academia.edu/17308357/Natural_hazards_versus_climate_change_and_their_potential_impacts_in_the_dry_northern_Himalayas_focus_on_the_upper_Kali_Gandaki_Mustang_District_Nepal_

Study of Mustang District – sparse reference to agriculture/irrigation. Good reference for this specific environment

“Recent economic trends rely mostly on fruit-tree crops on farms (mostly apple farms, with apricot, walnut, pear, peach and plum plantations increasing gradually), animal husbandry and tourism (mostly trekking), although the local economy may evolve fairly soon with the completion of the road from China across the Kare La pass (border with the Tibetan Autonomous Region, or TAR). Water is a resource for agriculture and is now increasingly in demand from new settlements, in connection with the expanding fruit agriculture and tourism (lodges). Yet it can also be a threat to human activities depending on the landform subsystems considered: high glaciated mountains, graben scarps, terraces, cliffs and channel systems (Fig. 3). Terraces are productive due to an expert irrigation system based on gravity, with uptakes from either streams fed by snowmelt waters or springs

The predicted general decrease in water resources for irrigation and rangelands, upon which the survival of rural populations living in these remote places depends, would

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certainly conflict with new activities (tourism, road-induced trade and the small market economy) due to a higher water demand. Nevertheless, at this stage an exact ground water budget is not available, and the predicted economic development might be a more important factor than climate warming in generating water scarcity. All require appropriate adaptation measures, such as those already developed (water tanks), and an increasing awareness of the environmental fragility of Mustang in order to maintain its living potential and cultural heritage.

Anticipating future climate changes are difficult without good quality, long-term climate records. This is why it is interesting to compare observed and perceived impacts of climate change by the local population (Haffner et al. 2001;Su et al. 2013), which may provide a qualitative and indirect assessment of the water budget wherever quantitative data are lacking. For instance, in Marpha (10 km south of Jomosom) where the Experimental Farm was established nearly 40 years ago by Pasang Sherpa, farmers experienced and perceived a rise in both summer and winter temperatures, together with changes in the intensity and timing of rainfall and the amount of snowfall (Su et al.2013). These perceptions were validated by meteorological data established for the last 40 years, which show an increase of 0.52C/decade of the annual average maxi-mum temperature (Kattel and Yao 2013). More specifically, it appears that there is a good correlation between hailstorms and increasing minimum temperatures in the area. In addition to hailstorms, farmers reported the occurrence of other climatic shocks (erratic rainfall, decreasing snowfall, frost, fog) as responsible for the decline in their crop yields, tree crop yields and livestock production, eventually resulting in a loss of income (Suet al. 2013). It seems that, whereas decreasing snow is certainly a good evidence of progressive warming (less water available for the developing crops in spring), the increasing amount and duration of rainfall has become a direct threat to traditional crops, as observed in summer2007 (report by the District Agricultural Development Office Mustang, 2008, as cited in Su et al. 2013).

The road linking the monsoon side to the upper arid zone of Mustang district is potentially a good option to help farmers and herders to find new sources of income. This road has led to changes in land use due to the new prospects it offers; fruit trees (mostly apple) have developed on any arable land available (mostly Quaternary terraces), and farmers have built water tanks accordingly (Fig. 9) to ensure a sufficient irrigation and hence sufficient yields and profit (in 2013, the price of 1 kg of apples - 120 NR- is 20 times more than before the opening of the road, 6 years ago). Other income sources could be the development of ecotourism and sales of local livestock products, as advocated by Lama (2011) and Devote (2011). For example, the road would offer visitors new destinations to observe the modes of life and culture of Loba herders living in their unique rangeland landscapes. It would also be a direct way to introduce manufactured products from China”

Ghimire, Yuga Nath, Shivakoti, Ganesh Prasad, and Perret, Roger Sylvain. 2010. Household-level vulnerability to drought in hill agriculture of Nepal: implications for adaptation planning. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 17: 3, 225-230. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249060679_Household-

Good statistical analysis of vulnerability in hills (unspecified locations). Extracts below:

“Climate change-related drought in recent years has emerged as a source of household-level vulnerability in rainfed hillagriculture of Nepal. The farmers cannot grow crops when there is no rainfall during the cropping season. They have weakadaptive capacity against drought due to the poor asset base and low access to services and facilities. The

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level_vulnerability_to_drought_in_hill_agriculture_of_Nepal_Implications_for_adaptation_planning [accessed Nov 19, 2015].

government also haslimited resources to support these farmers, which calls for prioritising both the adaptation indicators and beneficiary farmers.However, current literature on vulnerability is inadequate, and there is still uncertainty in measurement at household level.Amidst this uncertainty, this research uses an objective method of vulnerability analysis, applying multivariate independence techniques. Information collected by participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and household survey of 158 farms from August 2008to January 2009 was used. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to prioritise the indicators, and cluster analysis (CA) was used to classify farmers into different vulnerability groups. The indicators, arranged from highest to lowest priority, were access to land, access to irrigation, employment diversification, access to markets, crop–livestock integration, access to socialnetworks and access to agricultural training. Similarly, 63%, 18% and 19% of all farms were classified as highly vulnerable, moderately vulnerable and less vulnerable, respectively. The article then discusses constraints and relevant areas of adaptationinterventions for each vulnerability group of farmers

The Nepalese hill economy dependsmainly on rainfed subsistent agriculture, which have repeatedly faced drought in recent years. In rainfed faming, cropplanting schedules must coincide with the time of rainfall, sothat crops can get water for establishment and at criticalphysical and reproductive growth stages. The problem isthat rainfall pattern has been changing due to climate changein recent decades. Three out of the last 5 years, namely 2005, 2006 and 2008, were drought years for hilly areas of Nepal (Government of Nepal 2009). Moreover, irrigation is limitedin Nepal due to resource constraints of the government, andcovers only 33% of the total agricultural area of the country (Government of Nepal 2008).

Drought has a devastating impact on rural livelihoodsthat mainly depend upon rainfed subsistence agriculture. It isthe major source of uncertainty in food production in Nepaland disturbs social harmony by creating water-use conflicts (Thomas 2008). Among recent droughts, the winter droughtof 2008/2009 affected 40 out of 75 districts and had seriousimpacts on human health and farmers’ assets (Governmentof Nepal 2009). The impacts had adverse effects on half ofthe children, with 39% being underweight and 13% withsevere malnutrition, and rural people were forced to sell theirassets, migrate for outside work and even skip meals asadaptation strategies (Government of Nepal 2009

Based on the analysis, important components ofsustain-ability in the hill farming system should include(1) early warning systems for drought events, (2) rainwaterharvesting, (3) promoting low water requiring crops toprevent crop failure due to drought, (4) encouragingcrops and livestock integration, and finally, (5) improvingaccess of hill farmers of different social status to social organisation and knowledge networks”

Krishna Bahadur Thapa Chhetri. 2011. Research Report on Climate Change: Impacts and Urgent Adaptation Actions in Dang District of Nepal.

Brief participatory study in Dang District – no reference to irrigation 33

S. Shrestha, B. Gyawali and U. Bhattarai. 2013. Impacts of Climate Change on Irrigation Water Requirements for Rice-wheat Cultivation in Bagmati River Basin, Nepal. Journal of Water and Climate Change.

Not seen. Abstract. This study highlights the spatial and temporal impacts of climate change on rice–wheat cropping systems, focusing on irrigation water requirement (IWR) in the Bagmati River Basin of Nepal. The outputs from a general circulation model (HadCM3) for two selected scenarios (A2 and B2) of IPCC and for three time periods (2020s, 2050s, and 2080s) have been downscaled and compared to a baseline

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climatology. CROPWAT 8.0 model is used to estimate the water requirements. IWRs show different trends in different physiographic regions and different growth stages of rice and wheat. A decreasing trend of IWRs in the Mid Hills and the High Hills indicates that farmer-based small irrigation schemes are sufficient to meet the requirements. However, in the Terai region, where there is an increasing trend in IWRs, the deficit volume of water needs to be supplied from potential large-scale irrigation schemes.

Khanal, Uttam. 2014. Perception and Adaptation of the Producers to the Impacts of Climate Change in Apple Production: An Assessment of Mustang District of Nepal. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment, Vol: 15, Jun 2014.

Impacts on and adaptation for apples 41-2

Rai, Ashish, and. Rijal, Deepak K. 2014. Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture and Livelihoods in Sirdibas, Manaslu Conservation Area, Gorkha. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment, Vol: 15, Jun 2014.

Case study in Gorkha. Rainfed agriculture. “Climate directly impacts agriculture and livelihoods …. Increased diversified options have lead farmers to abandon agriculture”.

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Khadka, Mandar S and Pande, Tara N.. 2013. A Report on Focused Group Meetings on Local Institutions, Markets and Policies for Climate Resilience Farming Systems Intensification in Nepal. This report is a part of joint study entitled "Institutional and Policy Related Research Gaps for Climate Resilient Farming Systems Intensification in Nepal" between IIDS & IFPRI.

Brief study in Morang district 47

LIBIRD (nd) More than rain Climate Change Risk, Vulnerability and Adaptation Strategies at Community Level in Nepal

Overview of project for agricultural adaptation (Kaski, Tanahun) 51

Maharjan, S. K. et al. 2011. Tharu Community’s Perception on Climate Changes and Their Adaptive Initiations to Withstand its Impacts in Western Terai of Nepal. International NGO Journal Vol. 6(2). 035-042. February 2011.

Perceptions in Kailali 59

GWP, 2014 Traditional Climate Change Adaptation Practices by farmers in Nepal

Brief case studies 66

Pradhan 2015 Farmer Responses to Climate Change Impact on Water availability

Review of perceptions and responses in Indrawati basin [P] 69

GWP (2011) Integrated Management of Water and Other Natural Resources in Himalayan Watersheds: Case of Begnas Lake, Nepal

Series of short reports on a single watershed, including irrigation but no specific reference to climate change

70

Devkota, R.P. (2014) Climate Change: Trends and People’s Perception in Nepal. Journal of Environmental Protection, 5, 255-265

Perceptions in West Rapti basin [P] 71

Sujata Manandhar, Dietrich Schmidt Vogt, Sylvain R. Perret, Futaba Kazama, (2011) Adapting cropping systems to climate change in Nepal: a cross-regional study of farmers’ perception and practices Reg Environ Change (2011) 11:335–348

Perceptions in Rupandehi and Mustang 72



Climate Vulnerability and Gap Assessment Report on Flood and Drought (Lower Rapti River BASIN Case Study) Final Report GWP Nepal/Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha (JVS). November, 2014

Climate trends and risk assessment for West Rapti 75

General guidelines

PACN (2012). Nepal: Strengthening Capacity for Managing Climate Change and Environment TA7173-NEP – Climate Change Adaptation Planning

84

PACN (2012). Nepal: Strengthening Capacity for Managing Climate Change and Environment TA7173-NEP – Climate Change Risk Assessment and Mapping

Participatory risk mapping methodology and case studies in Dhanusa, Dhankuta, Rasuwa and Nawalparasi

85

Synnott, Patricia. 2012. Climate Change, Agriculture, & Food Security in Nepal: Developing Adaptation Strategies and Cultivating Resilience.

General recommendations for adaptation 14

Regmi, Bimal Raj and Subedi Ramu. 2010. Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation Through Community Based Planning: Concept, Process and Tools. Livelihoods and Forestry Programme.

Guidelines for community-based planning 21

Oxfam adaptation manual for farmers, including irrigation 24

Shivakoti, B. R., Lopez-Casero, F., Kataoka, Y., Shrestha, S. 2015. Climate change, changing rainfall and increasing water scarcity: An integrated approach for planning adaptation and building resilience of smallholder subsistence livelihoods in Nepal, IGES Research Report 2014-07, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Hayama, Japan.

11b

Dixit, A., Shukla, K. A., Shrestha, R., K.C., J. and Bishwakarma, D. R. 2013. Proceedings of National Seminar on Small Scale Irrigation: Experiences, Challenges, Opportunities and Pathways. Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-Nepal (ISET-Nepal). Kathmandu.

Workshop and policy document on small-scale irrigation 15

ICEM/METCON/APTEC (2012) Mainstreaming Climate Change Risk Management in Development Main Consultancy Package (44768-012) Proceedings of Core Group Working Session 1 Prepared for Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Nepal Environment Natural Resources and Agriculture Department, South Asia Department, Asian Development Bank

Workshop report from PPCR consultancy 27

Adhikari, Jagannath. 2014. Agriculture Adaptation Practices in South Asia: Case of Nepal. South Asia Watch on Trade, Economics and Environment (SAWTEE). Working Paper No. 01(iii)/14.

Perceptions and adaptation in three areas (brief) 37

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, Danish International Development Assistance (Danida). 2008. Climate Change Screening of Danish Development Cooperation with Nepal.

Screening methodology and background data – little on water 40



Dixit, Ajaya. Climate Change in Nepal: Impacts and Adaptive Strategies. World Resources Report.

Brief summary 42

IFAD. 2013. Nepal: Environmental and Climate Change Assessment. Prepared for IFAD’s Country Strategic Opportunities Programme 2013-1028.

Overview assessment 43

LI-BIRD. 2009. NGO Group Bulletin on Climate Change: Scaling up Community Based Adaptation in Nepal. Issue 3. December 2009.

Glossy brochure 53

Bartlett, 2011 Freshwater Ecosystem Vulnerability Assessment Detailed and well-referenced workshop report 67

ADB (2012) Nepal: Water Resources Project Preparatory Facility, EARF Project 45206 DISASTER AND CLIMATE CHANGE RISKS SCREENING

90

Detailed guidelines

Sijapati, Suman. 2013. Small Scale Irrigation in NepaL: Compilation of Three papers. International Network on Participatory Irrigation Management – Nepal (INPIM-Nepal). 8th Talk Program of the INPIM Nepal Talk Series entitled “Community Engagement in the Development of Small Scale Irrigation System”.

Review of approaches for small-scale irrigation 17

Regmi, Sunil Kumar and Rijal, Deepak. 2014. Hariyo Ban Program: Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Planning: Training of Trainers Manual.

Training manual for participatory assessment and planning 55

PACN (2012). Nepal: Strengthening Capacity for Managing Climate Change and Environment TA7173-NEP – Community Based Vulnerability Assessment, Risk Mapping and Adaptation Planning – The Process Report

87

Project Reports

Integrated Development Society (IDS), Practical Action Consulting Limited (PAC), Nepal and Global Climate Adaptation Partnership (GCAP). 2014. Economic Impact Assessment of Climate Change in Key Sectors in Nepal – Technical Report.

Background paper for present study. Quantifies impact of climate change on irrigation 01c

Integrated Development Society (IDS), Practical Action Consulting Limited (PAC), Nepal and Global Climate Adaptation Partnership (GCAP). 2012. Economic Impact Assessment of Climate Change in Key Sectors in Nepal – Study Implementation Plan.

Planning document – see final report – ref 57 31

Integrated Development Society (IDS), Practical Action Consulting Limited (PAC), Nepal and Global Climate Adaptation Partnership (GCAP). 2012. Economic Impact Assessment of Climate Change in Key Sectors in Nepal – Study Inception Report.

See final report – ref 57 56



Integrated Development Society (IDS), Practical Action Consulting Limited (PAC), Nepal and Global Climate Adaptation Partnership (GCAP). 2014. Economic Impact Assessment of Climate Change in Key Sectors in Nepal – Summary Report.

57

Lahmeyer Lengthy project focusing on irrigation, not specifically climate change, Bagmati basin 61

Nepal: Strategic Program for Climate Resilience Project design report 77

ADB (2012) Nepal: Water Resources Project Preparatory Facility, EARF Project 45206

89

Other Papers

Pradhan, Prachanda. 2010. Eroding Social Capital Through Incompatible Legal and Institutional Regime: Experiences from Irrigation Systems in Nepal. Farmer Managed Irrigation System Promotion Trust.

10b

Aryal, Achyut et al. 2014. Impact of Climate Change on Human-wildlife-ecosystem Interactions in the Trans-Himalaya Region of Nepal. Theor Appl Climatol (2014) 115: 517-529. Doi: 10.1007/s00704-013-0902-4.

25b

Karn, Prakash K 2014. The Impact of Climate Change on Rice Production in Nepal. South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE), Working Paper No. 85-14.

Impact of temperature (and rainfall) at different stages of crop on rice yield 32

Pradhan, Prachanda. 2012. Sustainability and Revitalization of Irrigation Systems: Searching for Innovative Approach. International Journal of Agricultural Sciences, vol. 2(10): 273-280. October 2012.

Analysis of irrigation interventions in Indrawati basin 39

Khadka, Ram B. et al. 2014. Performance of Landrace and Improved Rice Varieties Under the System of Rice Intensification Management in Bajhang District of Nepal. 2014. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment, Vol: 15, Jun 2014.

Evaluation of SRI 41-1

Pant, Krishna P and Aryal, Maniratna. 2014. Varietal Effects on Price-spread and Milling Recovery of Rice in Nepa. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment, Vol: 15, Jun 2014.

Rice milling performance 41-3

Giri, Gopal et al. 2014. Assessment of Unterraced and Terraced Farming System on Livestock Development in Mid-Hills of Nepal. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment, Vol: 15, Jun 2014.

Essentially related to rainfed cropping 41-5

Chaulagai. Tilak R. 2014. Review of Sustainability of Average Nepalese Subsistence Farm in Mid-hills of Nepal. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment, Vol: 15, Jun 2014

Analysis of typical farm income 41-6



Chhetri, N., et al., 2011. Institutional and technological innovation: Understanding agricultural adaptation to climate change in Nepal, Applied Geography (2011), doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.10.006

Process of adaptation 44

Dixit, Ajaya (2014) Ecosystems, climate change and resilience in Nepal’s rural-urban continuum, ISET ESPA Meeting 26 and 27 November 2014 New Delhi

Brief general ppt for workshop in Delhi 45

Colom, Anna and Pradhan, Sabina. Nepal: How the People of Nepal live with Climate Change and what Communication can do.

BBC Media report - brief 46

Shardul Agrawala, Vivian Raksakulthai, Maarten van Aalst,Peter Larsen, Joel Smith and John Reynolds (2003) Development and Climate Change in Nepal: Focus on Water Resources and Hydropower. For Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

Review of risks and plans for hydropower 48

Madhav Karki (nd), Climate Change in the Himalayas: Challenges and Opportunities, ICIMOD, Kathmandu

Introductory ppt. low cereal productivity of S Asia (Nepal 2282 kg/ha) cf China (5,106), Ganges 9% glacierfied. 20% reduction in cereal production anticipated

49

Clement (2014) Who should adapt to climate change? Unheard narratives from men and women farmers in Nepal, IWMI

Reverse bias towards technology in favour of people 50

Bartlett, R.; Bharati, L.; Pant, D.; Hosterman, H.; McCornick, P. 2010. Climate change impacts and adaptation in Nepal. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute. 35p. (IWMI Working Paper 139). doi:10.5337/2010.227

Focus on institutions and their deficiencies for adaptation. Address structural causes of vulnerability

52

Sharma, Bharat R and Sharma, Devesh (2008). Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources and Glacier Melt and Potential Adaptations for Indian Agriculture. International Water Management Institute, New Delhi office, India Keynote Address at 33rd Indian Agricultural Universities Association Vice Chancellors’ Annual Convention on “Climate Change and its Effect on Agriculture”, December 4-5, 2008; Anand Agricultural University, Anand (Gujarat), India ( Convention Proceedings Page 86-101, IAUA, NASC Complex, Pusa, New Delhi, India)

Little reference to irrigation 54

Dixit, A., Subedi, Y., McMahon, T. and Moench, M. (eds). 2013. Mainstreaming Climate Sensitive Indicators into an Existing Food Monitoring System: Climate Change and Food Security in Nepal. Institute for Social and Environmental Transition-Nepal (ISET-Nepal), Kathmandu.

Food security and climate change [64 pages] 58

NAPA Climate vulnerability maps by district 64

Maharjan, 2014 Summary of climate adaptation and mitigation projects 65

IGES 2015 Nicely produced summary report of problems from research study, but general 68

Consolidated Management Services Nepal (CMS) (2005) Indrawati River Basin Study Draft Report June 2005

Outline of an IWRM partnership 74



Upendra Gautam (2011) NEPAL: FOOD SECURITY, A LOCALIZED INSTITUTIONAL IRRIGATION PERSPECTIVE ON PUBLIC IRRIGATION SYSTEMS. National Conference on Water, Food Security and Climate Change in Nepal organized by International Water Management Institute ((CGIAR Research Program) in Kathmandu on 23-24 November 2011.

Brief high level overview 78

Cameron J (2009) The Agricultural Perspective Plan: The Need for Debate Himalaya, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies Volume 18 Number 2 Himalayan Research Bulletin; Special Topic; Development in Nepal: Issues and Approaches Article 8

Critique of the APP 79

UNFCCC Water resources 80

Rijal, KP Climate Change and its Impact on Rice Yield, HYDRO NEPAL ISSUE NO. 16 JANUARY 2015

82

Prachanda Pradhan Revitalizing Irrigation Systems for Food Security: Vision and Approaches in Nepal Irrigation Systems

83

Nepal’s Agriculture, Climate Change and Food Security: Country Analysis and Programming

EoD 92

Palazzoli,I Maskey, S. Uhlenbrook, S Nana, E and Bocchiola, D. 2015. Impact of Prospective Climate Change on Water Resources and crop Yields in the Indrawati Basin, Nepal. Agricultural Systems 133 (2015): 143-157.

19b

Chhetri. Netra B.. Shrestha, Sundar S. 2004. The Prospects of Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change: Climate-Technology Interaction in Rice-Wheat Cropping Systems in Nepal. Paper prepared for presentation at the American Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, Denver, Colorado, August 1-4, 2004.

Econometric analysis of wheat and rice yields with technological innovations and climate change

29

Koirala, Niraji P and Koirala, Dhiroj P. 2014. Political Economy of Food Security in Least Developed Nations: A Review. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment, Vol: 15, Jun 2014.

International review 41-7

Keshav Prasad Sharma (2009). Climate Change. Trends and Impacts on Livelihood of People. Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha/Nepal Water Partnership Kathmandu

Climate trends and overview of adaptation

Selvaraju, Ramasamy (2014) Managing climate risks and adapting to climate change in the agriculture sector in Nepal. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Rome, Italy

Comprehensive review of climate and agriculture in Nepal 76

Projections in Nepal

LIBIRD Planning and costing of agricultural adaptation in the integrated hill farming systems of Nepal Bikash Paudel, B.B. Tamang, Krishna Lamsal and Pratima Paudel September, 2011

93



Fraser Sugden, Lata Shrestha, Luna Bharati, Pabitra Gurung, Laxmi Maharjan, John Janmaat, James I. Price, Tashi Yang Chung Sherpa, Utsav Bhattarai, Shishir Koirala and Basu Timilsina. IWMI Research Report159. Climate Change, Out-migration and Agrarian Stress: The Potential for Upscaling Small-scale Water Storage in Nepal

94

John Janmaat, Suzan Lapp, Ted Wannop, Luna Bharati and Fraser Sugden Demonstrating Complexity with a Role-playing Simulation: Investing in Water in the Indrawati Subbasin, Nepal. IWMI Research Report 163

95

Author Year Title Source Pages

Nepal: Strategic Program for Climate Resilience Prepared under the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience pp. 1-105

Climate Change Impacts on Livelihoods of Poor and Vulnerable Communities and Biodiversity Conservation: A Case Study in Bank, Bardia, Dhading and Rasuwa Districts of Nepal

Conducted by Strengthened Actions for Governance in Utilization of Natural Resources (SAGUN) Program in Collaboration with LIBIRD

pp. 1-55

More Than Rain: Climate Change Risk, Vulnerability and Adaptation Strategies at Community Level in Nepal

2013 Climate Change and Farmer’s Adaptation in Nepal https://visitskc.wordpress.com/2013/08/19/climate-

change-and-farmers-adaptation-in-nepal/

2014 Rural Livelihood Trends and Vulnerability to Climate Change: Evidence from Nepal

ADB Country Environment Note: Nepal Asian Development Bank

Agrawala, S., Raksakulthai, V., Aalst, M.V., Larsen, P., Smith, J., and Reynolds, J.

2003 Development and Climate Change in Nepal: Focus on Water Resources and Hydropower

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

pp. 1-64

Alam, M. and Regmi, B. R. 2004 Adverse Impacts of Climate Change on Development of Nepal: Integrating Adaptation into Policies and Activities

Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies pp. 1-38

Baidya, S. K., Regmi, R. K. and Shrestha, M. L.

2007 Climate Profile and Observed Climate Change and Climate Variability in Nepal (Final Draft)

Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Kathmandu.

pp. 1-14

Bhandari, G. 2013 Assessment of Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Measures in the Kapilbastu District of Nepal

Applied Ecology and Environmental Science, Vol. 1(5)

pp. 75-83

Bharati, L., Gurung, P. and Jayakody, P. 2012 Hydrologic characterization of the Koshi Basin and the impact of climate change.

Hydro Nepal: Journal of Water, Energy and Environment 11(1)

pp. 18-22

Bharati, L., Gurung, P., Jayakody, P., Smakhtin, V., and Bhattarai, U.

2014 The Projected Impact of Climate Change on Water Availability and Development in the Koshi Basin, Nepal

Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 34 (2) pp. 118-130



Bharati, L., Lacombe, G., Gurung, P., Jayakody, P., Hoanh, C.T., and Smakhtin, V.

2011 The Impacts of Water Infrastructure and Climate Change on the Hydrology of the Upper Ganges River Basin

IWMI Research Report 142. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute.

Bhatt, D., Maskey, S., Babel, M. S., Uhlenbrook, S. and Prasad, K. C.

2014 Climate Trends and Impacts on Crop Production in the Koshi River Basin of Nepal

Regional Environmental Change, Vol. 14 (4) pp. 1291-1301

Bhatta, R. P. 2011 Climate Change Impacts on and its Adaptation Strategies of Rural Community of Krishnapur VDC in Mohana Sub-watershed Kanchanpur District

Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal

Busal, Y. R. 2009 Local Peoples’ Perception on Climate Change, Its Impacts and Adaptation Measures in Mid-mountain Region of Nepal: A Case Study from Kaski District

BSc. Forestry Research Thesis Submitted to Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara, Nepal

CBS 2013 Environment Statistics of Nepal 2011 Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal pp. 1-188

CBS 2014 Environment Statistics of Nepal 2013 Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal pp. 1-193

Climate Investment Fund Developing Nepal’s Strategic Program for Climate Resilience: Prioritisation Planning Process

Consultative Draft (20/11/10)

Dahal, D. S. 2011 Impact of Climate Change on Livelihood and Biodiversity in Rural Communities (A Case Study of SiddhiGanesh and Nepane Community Forestry User Groups of Sindhupalchwok District of Nepal)

A Thesis Submitted to Central Department of Rural Development in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Rural Development

Deepshikha 2012 Believable Climate Futures Explored by Nepalese Farmers

Devkota, R., Marasini, T., Cockfield, G. and Devkota, L. P.

2013 Indigenous Knowledge for Climate Change Induced Flood Adaptation in Nepal

The International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses, Vol. 5

pp. 35-46

Dixit, A. 2010 Scoping Assessment on Climate Change Knowledge Platform in Nepal- Summary

AIT-UNEP Regional Resource Centre for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand

Ghimire, P. 2013 Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security: Constraints and Opportunities

New Spotlight News Magazine, Vol. 6(1)

Ghimire, S. Climate Change in Nepal/Himalaya: A Bibliography Martin Chautari

Gillies, R., Coppock, D. L., Shrestha, M., Pandey, N., Basnet, A., Duwal, D. and Davis, D.

2014 Research Brief: Adapting Small-Farm System to Climate Change: Preliminary Results from Participatory Community Assessments in Bajura District, Nepal

RB-17-2014, Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Collaborative Research on Adapting Livestock Systems to Climate Change, Colorado State University

pp. 1-4

GoN 2011 Climate Change Policy, 2011 Ministry of Environment, Singhdurbar Pp1-43

GoN 2011 National Framework on Local Adaptation Plans for Action Ministry of Environment, Singhdurbar

GoN/IUCN/UNEP/UNDP Ecosystem Based Adaptation

GoN/MoAC 2010 National Agriculture Sector Development Priority (NASDP) for the Medium-Term (2010/11-2014/15)

Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Kathmandu

pp. 1-44

GoN/MoAD 2014 The Journal of Agriculture and Environment Vol. 15, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agricultural Development

pp. 1-160



GoN/MoE Adaptation to Climate Change NAPA to LAPA CDKN and IDS-Nepal pp. 1-2

GoN/MoFALD/DoLIDAR 2013 Approach Manual for District Small Irrigation Master Plan Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development, Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR)

pp. 1-13

GoN/MoSTE Nepal Climate Change Support Programme (NCCSP) at a Glance

UKaid, EU, UNDP pp. 1

GoN/MoSTE Economic Impact Assessment of Climate Change in Key Sectors in Nepal

Leaflet pp.1-2

GoN/MoSTE Jan. 2013

Economic Impact Assessment of Climate Change in Key Sectors in Nepal: Study Inception Report (Abridged Version)

IDS-Nepal, Practical Action Consulting Limited-Nepal and Global Climate Adaptation Partnership-UK

pp. 1-35

Gurung, G. B. and Bhandari, D. 2009 Integrated Approach to Climate Change Adaptation Journal of Forest and Livelihood, Vol. 8 (1) pp. 91-99

Gurung, M. B., Basnet, G., Wahid, S. and Rasul, G.

2015 Improving Water Use Practices for Livelihood Improvements AgriCultures Network

ISET-Nepal and IDS-Nepal Mainstreaming Climate Change Riske Management in Development: Indigenous and Local Climate Change Adaptation Practices in Nepal

Government of Nepal, Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment and Asian Development Bank (ADB)

Jansen, M. A. 2010 Nepal: Environmental and Climate Change Assessment The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)

pp. 1-44

Karki, M. Climate Change in the Himalayas: Challenges and Opportunities

ICIMOD, Presentation

Karki, S., Shrestha, A., Bhattarai, M., Thapa, S., Koirala, M. and Pradhan, M. S. A.

2011 GIS Based Flood Hazard Mapping and Vulnerability Assessment of People Due to Climate Change: A Case Study from Kankai Watershed, East Nepal (Final Report)

NAPA, Ministry of Environment

Khaliq, F. 2015 Villages in Nepal offer Pakistan Lessons on Coping with Climate Change

http://www.dawn.com/news/1211504/print/print

Lamsal, K., Kutlu, L., Thapa, K. and Udas, R.

2011 NGO Group Bulletin on Climate Change: Mainstreaming for Sustainable Livelihoods

Issue 4, LI-BIRD and The Development Fund pp. 1-54

Maden, U. Nepali Farmers Get Climate-smart SciDev Net

Menon, N. 2009 Rainfall Uncertainty and Occupational Choice in Agricultural Households of Rural Nepal

The Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 45 (6) pp. 864-888

Mercy Corps Nepal 2012 Climate Change, Agriculture, & Food Security in Nepal: Developing Adaptation Strategies and Cultivating Resilience

pp. 1-52

Ministry of Environment 2010 Government of Nepal: National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to Climate Change

Kathmandu, Nepal pp 1-77

Ministry of Environment 2010 Climate Change Vulnerability Mapping for Nepal Kathmandu, Nepal pp. 1-84

Ministry of Environment 2011 Status of Climate Change in Nepal Kathmandu, Nepal pp. 56

Newar, N. 2012 Droughts Bring Climate Change Home to Nepali Farmers http://www.ipsnews.net/2012/08/droughts-bring-climate-change-home-to-nepali-farmers/



NPC 2011 Climate-Resilient Planning (Working Document) Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission, Kathmandu, Nepal

pp.1-48

Nupane, S., Udas, R. and Lamsal, K. 2011 Climate Change and Agriculture: Farmer’s Helping Book (in Nepali)

Oxfam and LI-BIRD pp. 1-34

Pandey, C. L. 2012 The Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Adaptation in Nepal

Agribusiness and Information Management, Vol. 4(1) pp. 13-23

Paudel, B., Acharya, B. S., Ghimire, R., Dahal, K. R. and Bista, P.

2014 Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change and Variability in Chitwan: Long-Term Trands and Farmers’ Perceptions

Agriculture Research

Paudel, B., Tamang, B.B., Lamsal, K., and Paudel, P.

2011 Planning and Costing of Agricultural Adaptation in the Integrated Hill Farming Systems of Nepal

Li-BIRD, IIED, SEI, GCAP

Paudyal, A., Kafle, G. Thapa, K., Sharma, G. B., and Joshi, G. R. (eds)

2009 NGO Group Bulletin on Climate Change: Scaling Up Community Based Adaptation in Nepal

Issue 3, LI-BIRD and The Development Fund pp. 1-40

Poudel, and Gautam, 2011 Nepal: Farmer Managed Irrigation System in the Twenty First Century: Coping with the Climate Change

http://chimalaya.org/2011/04/27/nepal-farmer-managed-irrigation-system-in-the-twenty-first-century-coping-with-the-climate-change/

Poudel, J. M. 2012 Testing Farmer's Perception of Climate Variability: A Case Study from Kirtipur of Kathmandu Valley

Hydro Nepal, Special Issue pp. 30-34

Poudel, M and Rijal, S. A Review Paper on Climate Change Impacts on Agricultural Production and Livelihood in Mid Hills of Nepal

Practical Action Policy Briefing: Promoting Adaptation to Climate Change in Nepal

Prasai, B. K. 2010 National Issue Paper on the Agriculture Sector (Adaptation) UNDP pp. 1-24

Puri, R. R., Khadka, K., and Paudyal, A. 2010 Separating Climate Resilient Crops Through Screening of Drought Tolerant Rice Land Races in Nepal

Agronomy Journal of Nepal, Vol. 1 pp. 80-84

Regmi, B. and Paudyel, A. 2009 Bordoni, P. (ed.) Climate Change and Agro-biodiversity in Nepal: Opportunities to include agro-biodiversity maintenance to support Nepal’s National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA)

Available on line at www.agrobiodiversityplatform.org/blog?getfile=3537

pp. 1-16

Sharma Aryal, R. and Rajkarnikar, G. (eds.)

2011 Water Resources of Nepal in the Context of Climate Change Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS), Kathmandu, Nepal

pp. 1-67

Sharma, A. R. 2015 Climate Change and Community Perceptions in the Khudi Watershed, Lamjung, Nepal

Hydro Nepal, Issue No. 17 pp. 49-54

Sharma, M. and Dahal, S. 2010 Assessment of Impacts of Climate Change and Local Adaptation Measures in Agriculture Sector and Livelihoods of Indigenous Community in High Hills of Sankhuwasabha District

NAPA Project, Ministry of Environment pp. 1-26

Shrestha, M. M. 2012 Revitalizing Irrigation Systems for Reducing Effects of Climate Change on Irrigated Agriculture in Nepal

Hydro Nepal, Special Issue pp. 106-111

Shrestha, P., Tamrakar, N. K. and Climate Change Impact on River Dynamics of the Bagmati pp. 1-16



Gorkhaly, G. P. Basin, Kathmandu, Nepal

Sikka, K. 2015 Keeping Agriculture Productive Amid a Changing Climate in Nepal

http://southasia.ifpri.info/2015/04/01/keeping-agriculture-productive-amid-a-changing-climate-in-nepal/

SNV Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) in Nepal

Thapa Chhetri, K. B. 2011 Research Report on Climate Change: Impacts and Urgent Adaptation Actions in Dang District of Nepal

Renaissance Society Nepal

Thapa K., G.B. Sharma, R.B. Rana, K. Lamsal, and S. Subedi

2011 Exploring Climate Adaptive Mechanisms on Watershed Management.

Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD), Pokhara, Kaski, Nepal.

pp. 1-29

Thapa, M. S. 2010 Analysis of Perception and Local Adaptation in Agriculture to Climate Change by Chepang Communities in Chitwan District

Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Tribhuvan University, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal

pp. 1-14

Thyer, N. 1985 Looking at Western Nepal’s Climate Bulleting American Meteorological Society, Vol. 66 (6) pp. 645-650

Tiwari, K.R., Rayamajhi, S., Pokharel, R. K. and Balla, M. K.

2014 Determinants of the Climate Change Adaptation in Rural Farming in Nepal Himalaya

International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Current Research, Vol. 2 (March/April issue)

pp. 234-240

UN-Habitat 2015 Cities and Climate Change Initiative Abridged Report: Kathmandu Valley Nepal-Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment

United Nations Human Settlements Programs pp. 1-21



International Literature

IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp.

08b

Braneon, Christian and Georgakakos, Aris. 2011. Climate Change Impacts on Georgia Agriculture and Irrigation Demand. Proceedings of the 2011 Georgia Water Resources Conference, April 11-13, 2011, University of Georgia.

Detailed study of water demand for peanuts in Georgia USA 01a

Ulsrud, Kristen et al. 2008. More than rain: Identifying Sustainable Pathways for Climate Adaptation and Poverty Reduction.

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Turral, Hugh et al. 2011. Climate Change, Water and Food Security. FAO Water Reports 36. 02b

Frankhauser, Samuel and Schmidt-Traub, Guido. 2010. From Adaptation to Climate-resilient Development – The Costs of Climate-proofing the Millennium Development Goals in Africa – Policy Paper

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Ngigi, Stephen N.. 2009. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies: Water Resources Management Options for Smallholder Farming Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa

Detailed review of agricultural water management in context of climate change, in Sub-Saharan Africa. Good general reference 200 pg

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Quiggin, John. 2008. The Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture. Paper Presented to Australian Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology Workshop, Brisbane, 3 September 2008.

Brief review of economic impact in Murray Darling Basin (10 page) 04a

Olusegun, Ajetomobi Joshua, Abiodun Ajiboye, and Hassan Rashid. 2010. Economic Impact of Climate Change on Irrigated Rice Agriculture in Nigeria. Contributed Paper Presented at the Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and 48th Agricultural Economists Association of South Africa (AEASA) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, September 19-23, 2010.

Economic review of rice cultivation in Nigeria, highlighting the importance of irrigation (21 pages)

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Vesselin, Alexandrov, NIMH-Sofia. 2008. Adaptation of Irrigation under Climate Change in Bulgaria.

35 page powerpoint on importance of irrigation and measure to improve performance in Bulgaria

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Nagano, T. et al. Assessing Impact of Climate Change on the Large Irrigation District in Turkey with Irrigation Management Performance Assessment Model. International Congress on River Basin Management: 652-664

Model of impact of an CC on irrigation district in Turkey 07a

Balbi, Stefano et al. 2013. Multi-agent Agro-economic Simulation of Irrigation Water Demand with Climate Services for Climate Change Adaptation. Italian Journal of Agronomy 2013; Volume8: e23: 175-185.

Detailed simulation for farmers in Italy (11pg) 08a

Kurukulasuriya, Pradeep and Mendelsohn, Robert. 2007. Endogenous Irrigation: The Impact of Climate Change of Farmers in Africa. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4278, July 2007.

Econometric calculation of impact of CC in Africa (25 pg) 09a

World Bank. 2011. Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile: Vulnerability, Risk Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change.

09b



Sarker, D.C., et al. 2011. Climate Impact Assessment: A Case Study of Teesta Barrage Irrigation Project in Bangladesh. International Journal of Civil & Engineering IJCEE-IJENS. Vol:11, No:01, 75-81

Change in water requirements for TBIP (large scale irrigation) 13a

Policy and Cabinet Division, Chief Minister and Cabinet Directorate, Australian Capital Territory. 2012. Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment Framework for Infrastructure.

13b

IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report: Summary for Policymakers. 15b

Montle, B. P., Teweldemedhin, M. Y. 2014. Assessment of Farmers’ Perceptions and the Economic Impact of Climate Change in Namibia: Case Study on Small-scale Irrigation Farmers (SSIFs) of Ndonga Linena Irrigation Project. Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics. Vol. 6(11): 443-454, November, 2014

Economic impact study, little on adaptation 16a

Ahmed, Mahfuz and Suphachol Suphachalasai. 2014. Assessing the Costs of Climate Change and Adaptation in South Asia. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2014.

16b

Moiwo, Juana Paul et al. 2011. Water Storage Change in the Himalayas from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and an Empirical Climate Model. Water Resources Research, Vol. 47, W07521, dio:10.1029/2010WR010157, 2011.

17b

Sorg, Annina et al. 2012. Climate Change Impacts on Glaciers and Runoff in Tien Shan (Central Asia). Nature Climate Change. Published online: 29 July 2012. doi: 10.1038/NCLIMATE1592.

18b

Hewitt, Kenneth & Liu, Jingshi. 2010. Ice-Dammed Lakes and Outburst Floods, Karakoram Himalaya: Historical Perspectives on Emerging Threats, Physical Geography, 31:6, 528-551

21b

Nour El-Din, Mohamed M.. 2013. Proposed Climate Change Adaptation strategy for the Ministry of Water Resources & Irrigation in Egypt. Joint Programme for Climate Change Risk Management in Egypt.

National climate change strategy – good reference 22a

Bocchiola, Daniele and Diolaiuti, Guglielmina. 2013. Recent (1980-2009) Evidence of Climate Change in the upper Karakoram, Pakistan. Theor Appl Climatol (2013) 113: 611-641, doi: 10.1007/s00704-012-0803-y.

24b

World Bank . Adapting to Climate Change: Assessing World Bank Group Experience: Phase III of the World Bank Group and Climate Change.

Useful evaluation of WB experience in CC Adaptation, including rainfed and irrigated agriculture and also DRM. [15 pgs out of 193]

25a

Mendelsohn, Robert. 2007. Changing Farm Types and Irrigation as an Adaptation to Climate Change in Latin American Agriculture. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4161, March 2007.

Economic model of farmer choices for adaptation in Latin America [41 pg] 26a

Manandhar, Sujata, Pandey, Vishnu Prasad and Kazama, Futaba. 2013. Climate Change and Adaptation: an Integrated Framework Linking Social and Physical Aspects in Poorly-gauged Regions. Theor Appl Climatol (2013) 120: 727-739. Doi: 10.1007/s10584-013-0842-0.

27b

Collins, David N, Davenport Joshua L, and Stoffel, Markus 2013. Climatic Variation and Runoff from Partially-glacierised Himalayan Tributary Basins of the Ganges. Science of the Total Environment 468-469 (2013) S48-S59.

30b



Mbilinyi, Apronius, Saibul, Georgina Ole and Vivian Kazi. 2013. Impact of Climate Change to Small Scale Farmers: Voices of Farmers in Village Communities in Tanzania. The Economic and Social Research Foundation (ESRF) Discussion Paper No.47.

Perception of climate impacts and responses in Tanzania with brief reference to irrigation [44 pages]

32a

Bhatt, B. C., S. Sobolowski, and M. P. King. 2014. Assessment of downscaled current and future projections of diurnal rainfall patterns for the Himalaya. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 119, 12,533–12,545, doi:10.1002/2014JD022134.

32b

Moors, Eddy J. et al. 2011. Adaptation to Changing Water Resources in the Ganges Basin, Northern India. Environmental Science & Policy 14 (2001):758-769.

34b

T. Bolch, A. Kulkarni, et al. 2012. The State and Fate of Himalayan Glaciers. Science 336: 310-314 (2012). 20 April 2012; doi: 10.1126/science.1215828.

35b

Shaneyfelt, Calvin R., 2014. Irrigation Demand in a Changing Climate: Using Disaggregate data to Predict Future Groundwater Use. Dissertations and Theses in Agricultural Economics. Paper 20.

Detailed analysis of GW demand/use for irrigation in Nebraska (PhD) 41a

Shahid, S. 2011. Impacts of Climate Change on Irrigation Water Demand in Northwestern Bangladesh. Climate Change 105(3-4): 433-453.

Short paper on the impact on crop water requirements for rice 50a

Sterrett, Charlotte 2011. Review of Climate Change Adaptation Practices in South Asia. Oxfam Research Report.

100 page overview of climate change – standard refs to irrigation 51a

Ali Hasanain, et al. 2012. Supporting Policy Research to Inform Agricultural Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia: Irrigation and Water Use Efficiency in South Asia.

Interesting overview of irrigation and measures (esp technical to improve performance). Section on political economy of irrigation [63 pg]

53a

Wilk, J. and Wittgren, H. B. 2009. Adapting Water Management to Climate Change. Swedish Water House Policy Brief Nr. 7. SIWI, 2009.

Brief glossy overview of water management and climate change. Case study from India [24 pg]

56a

Urama, Kevin Chika and Ozor, Nicholas. 2010. Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources in Africa: the Role of Adaptation.

Overview of impacts on water resources across Africa [29 pg] 61a

Yoshihide Wada, et al. 2013. Future Irrigation Water Demand Under Climate Change: Regional Variability and Uncertainties Arising from GHMs and CMIP5 Climate Projections. GWSP: Water in the Anthropocene. May 21-24, 2013 in Bonn, Germany.

Ppt of modelled changes in irrigation demand (globally) – underlying data may be more interesting but not included

64a

Amede, Tilahun et al. 2011. Agricultural Water Management in the Context of Climate Change in Africa. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. African Climate Policy Centre. Working Paper 9.

Good general review paper on AWM in Africa [39 pgs] 69a

Slovenia 70a

Bruggeman Cyprus 71a

Deryng 72a

73a

Cambodia 74a

FAO36 75a

GWP 76a

IFPRI 77a



78a

82

Scott 80a

Water supplement 81a

Stern review 82a

ADB RETA SA water and climate change impact 83a

WB Beyond downscaling 84a

World |Water Development report 85a

Climate-Smart Agriculture: A Synthesis of Empirical Evidence of Food Security and Mitigation Benefits from Improved Cropland Management

86a

Climate-Smart Agriculture: Smallholder Adoption and Implications for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation

87a

Maria Waldinger and Sam Fankhauser October 2015. Climate change and migration in developing countries: evidence and implications for PRISE countries. Policy paper. ESRC Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy. Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment

88a

PROGRAMMATIC APPROACH TO IMPACTS OF CLIMATE RISKS ON WATER, HYDROPOWER AND DAMS April 27, 2015

89a

Conca, K. 2015. Which risks get managed? Addressing climate effects in the context of evolving water-governance institutions. Water Alternatives 8(3): 301-316

90a

Author Year Title Source Page

2011 The Impact of Climate Change on Irrigation Systems and Adaptation Measures (Phase I and Phase II)

(Case Study: Plaichumphol/Phitsanulok Irrigation Project and Wang Bua Irrigation Project, Thailand)

Chulalongkorn University and Royal Irrigation Department

pp. 99

2011 Agricultural Water Management in the Context of Climate Change in Africa

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, African Climate Policy Centre, Working Paper 9

pp. 32

ADB 2013 Shanxi Farmers Embrace Modern Irrigation Methods to Adapt to Climate Change

Knowledge Showcases, Issue 45, People’s Republic of China, Agriculture and water

pp. 2

Alexandrov, V. 2008 Adaptation of Irrigation under Climate Change in Bulgaria Presentation Slide pp. 35

Alexandrov, V. and Genev, M. 2003 Climate Variability and Change Impact on Water Resources in European Water, Vol. 1(2) pp. 25-30



Bulgaria

Asif, M. 2013 Climate Change, Irrigation, Water Crisis and Food Security in Pakistan

Mater’s Thesis, Examensarbete i Hallbar Utveskling 170, Uppsala University

pp. 39

Aspe, C., Jacque, M. and Gilles, A. Irrigation Canals as Tools for Climate Change Adaptation and Ichthyological Biodiversity Management: A Case Study of Integrated Development in Southern France

University of Aix-Marseille pp. 10

Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S. and Palutikof, J. P. (eds.)

2008 Climate Change and Water. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Secretariat, Geneva.

pp. 200

Bharati, L., Lacombe, G., Gurung, P.,

Jayakody, P., Hoanh, C. T. and Smakhtin, V.

2011 The Impacts of Water Infrastructure and Climate Change on the Hydrology of the Upper Ganges River Basin

International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka

pp. 28

Bruggeman, A., Zoumides, C., Pashiardis, S., Hadjinicolaou, P., Lange, M. A. and Zachariadis, T.

2011 Effect of Climate Variability and Climate Change on Crop Production and Water Resources in Cyprus

pp. 36

Calzadilla, A., Rehdanz, K., Betts, R., Falloon, P., Wiltshire, A. and Tol, R. S. J.

2010 Climate Change Impacts on Global Agriculture Kiel Working Papers No. 1617, Kiel Institute for the World Economy, Hindenburgufer, Kiel, Germany

pp. 49

Chartres, C. and Sood, A. How will Climate Change Impact on Irrigation Water needs and Global Food Production?

International Water Management Institute (IWMI) (Presentation)

pp. 19

Copa Cogeca Water and Agriculture Under a Changing Climate Copa-Cogeca Climate Change Series pp. 4

Corcaran, B. Irrigation is the Key to Adapting to Climate Change in Malawi’s Shire Valley

FAIRTRADE AFRICA pp. 3

Covich, A. P. 2009 Emerging Climate Change Impacts on Freshwater Resources: A Perspective on Transformed Watersheds

Resources for the Future pp. 42

Daze, A., Ravesloot, B. and International, T. 2010 Cambodia: Environmental and Climate Change Assessment International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)

pp. 22

Dentener, F. 2014 Climate Change and Agriculture: Adaptation and Mitigation European Commission, Presentation pp. 18

Eastham, J., Mpelasoka, F., Mainuddin, M., Ticehurst, C., Dyce, P. Hodgson, G., Ali, R. and Kirby, M.

2008 Mekong River Basin Water Resources Assessment Impacts of Climate Change

CSIRO: Water for a Healthy Country National Research Flagships

pp. 131

Elgaali, E. and Garcia, L. A. Sensitivity of Irrigation Water Supply to Climate Change in the Great Plains Region of Colorado

Hydrology Days 2005 pp. 258-272

Elgaali, E., Garcia, L. A. and Ojima, D. S. 2006 Sensitivity of Irrigation Water Balance to Climate Change in the Great Plains of Colorado

American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, Vol. 49(5)

pp. 1315-1322

Fehrenbach, H. and Roth, E. 2009 The Impacts of Climate Change on Water for Renewable Energy Production: the Bioenergy case

IEA-Workshop on Renewable Energy & Water, 23 March 2009, Paris

pp. 20

Fischer, G., Tubiello, F. N., Velthuizen, H. V. and Wiberg, D. A.

2007 Climate Change Impacts on Irrigation Water Requirements: Effects of Mitigation, 1990-2080

Technology Forecasting & Social Change, Vol. 74 pp. 1083-1107



Fleischer, A., Lichtman, I. and Mendelsohn, R.

2008 Climate Change, Irrigation, and Israeli Agriculture: Will Warming Be Harmful?

Ecological Economics, Vol. 65 pp. 508-515

Gerten, D., Hagemann, S., Biemans, H., Saeed, F. and Konzmann, M.

2011 Climate Change and Irrigation: Global Impacts and Regional Feedbacks

Technical Report No. 47, Water and Global Change (WATCH)

pp. 14

Greven, M., Green, S. Neal, S. and Clothier, B.

Potential Impact of Climate Change on Water Use and Management in Grapes

pp. 6

Hasanain, A. Ahmad, S., Mehmood, M. Z., Majeed, S. and Zinabou, G.

2012 Irrigation and Water Use Efficiency in South Asia Policy Research Paper 9, Global Development Network

pp. 52

Hassan, R. 2006 Adapting to Climate Change: Using Irrigation in Africa Climate Change and African Agriculture, Policy Note No. 18, Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa, University of Pretoria

pp. 7

Heerden, P. S. van and Stevens, J. B. Impact of Climate Change on Irrigation Water Management

Hopmans, J. W. and Maurer, E. Impact of Climate Change on Irrigation Water Availability, Crop Water Requirements and Soil Salinity in the San Joaquin Valley

University of California, Center for Water Resources

pp. 2

Howell, T. A. 2009 Global Climate Change Effects on Irrigation Requirement for the Central Great Plains

Proceedings of the 21st Annual Central Plains Irrigation Conference, Colby Kansas, Feb. 24-25, 2009

pp. 39

ICID 2012 Climate Change Adaptation for Irrigation and Drainage in Asia International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage

pp. 66

Islam, M. S. and Harun-ur-Rashid, M. Climate Change and Sustainable Irrigation Management for High Value Crops in Bangladesh

Presentation pp. 55

Jayatillake, H. M. 2009 Adaptation to Climate Change Irrigation Sector in Sri Lanka Presented in Mainstreaming Climate Change for Sustainable Development of Sri Lanka, 19-21 Aug. 2009

pp. 37

Joshua, A., Abiodun, A. and Hassan, R. 2010 Economic Impact of Climate Change on Irrigated Rice Agriculture in Nigeria

Contributed Paper presented at the Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economists and 48th Agricultural Economists Association of South Africa Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, September 19-23, 2010

pp. 22

Koch, J., Wimmer, F., Schaldach, R., Onigkeit, J. and Folberth, C.

2012 Modelling the Impact of Climate Change on Irrigation Area Demand in the Jordan River Region

International Environmental Modelling and Software Society

Kueppers, L. M., Snyder, M. A. and Sloan, L. C.

2007 Irrigation Cooling Effect: Regional Climate Forcing by Land-use Change

Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 34 pp. 5

Kulkarni, A., Patwardhan, S., Kumar, K. K., Ashok, K. and Krishnan, R.

2013 Projected Climate Change in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region By Using the High-resolution Regional Climate Model PRECIS

Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 33(22) pp. 142-151

Kuma, R. and Gautam, H. R. 2014 Climate Change and its Impact on Agricultural Productivity in India

Journal Climatology and Weather Forecasting, Vol. 2(1)

pp. 3

Lopes, S. O., Fontes, F. A. C. C., Pereira, R. Irrigation Planning in the Context of Climate Change Mathematical Models and Methods in Modern pp. 239-244



S., and Machado, G. J. Science

Maharjan, K. L. and Joshi, N. P. 2013 Climate Change Agriculture and Rural Livelihoods in Developing Countries

Springer (Table of Contents) pp. 2

McComick, P., Smakhtin, V., Bharati, L., Johnston, R., McCartney, M., Sugden, F., Clement, F. and Mclntyre, B.

2013 Tackling Change: Future-proofing water, agriculture, and food security in an era of climate uncertainty

International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka

pp. 30

Mimi, Z. A. and Jamous, S. A. 2010 Climate Change and Agricultural Water Demand: Impacts and Adaptations

African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 4(4)

pp. 183-191

Ndamani, F. and Watanable, T. 2015 Farmers’ Perceptions about Adaptation Practices to Climate Change and Barriers to Adaptation: A Micro-Level Study in Ghana

Water, Vol. 7 pp. 4593-4604

Novotna, B. and Jurik, L. 2005 Climate Change Impact on Irrigation and Water Resources Demand in Zitava River Basin

Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 7 pp. 2

P. Thelma Climate Change, Livelihoods, Gender and Adaptation in Rice-based Production Systems

Presentation pp. 28

Patz. J. A., Githeko, A. K., McCarty, J. P., Hussein, S., Confalonieri, U. and Wet, N. de

Climate Change and Infectious Diseases Climate Change and Human Health (Chapter 6) pp. 103-132

Pramanik, S. D. C., Zerin, A. I. and Ara, I. 2011 Climatic Impact Assessment: A Case Study of Teesta Barrage Irrigation Project in Bangladesh

International Journal of Civil Environmental Engineering IJCEE-IJENS Vol. 11(1)

pp. 75-81

Sharam, B. R. and Sharma, D. 2008 Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources and Glacier Melt and Potential Adaptations for Indian Agriculture

Keynote Address at 33rd Indian Agricultural Universities Association Vice Chancellors’

Annual Convention on “Climate Change and its Effect on Agriculture”, December 4-5, 2008; Anand Agricultural University, Anand (Gujarat), India (Convention Proceedings Page 86-101, IAUA, NASC Complex, Pusa, New Delhi, India)

pp. 20

Shashidahra, K. K. and Reddy, B. S. 2012 Farmers Perceptions and Adaptation about Changing Climate and Its Variability in UKP Area of Karnataka

Indian Research Journal of Extension Education Special Issue, Vol. 1

pp. 196-201

Shrestha, R. M. and Ahmed, M., Suphachalasai, S. and Lasco, R.

2013 Economics of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions in South Asia: Options and Costs

Asian Development Bank, Philippines pp. 143

Smith, D. J., Christen, E. W., Cutting, M. and Hornbuckle, J. W.

2010 An Analysis of Climate Change Impacts on Irrigated Crop Water Requirement in the SA MDB Region

CRC for Irrigation Futures, Technical Report No. 15/10

pp. 22

Sun, G., McNulty, S. G., Myers, J. A. M. and Cohen, E. C.

2008 Impacts of Climate Change, Population Growth, Land Use Change, and Groundwater Availability on Water Supply and Demand across the Conterminous U.S.

Watershed Update (May-August 2008) Vol. 6(2) pp. 30

Suthidhummajit, C. and Koontanakulvong, S. Climate Change Impact on Groundwater and Farmers’ Response (The Wang Bua Irrigation Project, Kampheng Phet Province, Thailand: Case Study)

Sutto, W. R. 2009 Climate Change and Agriculture in Moldova Presented at Awareness Raising and Consultation pp. 28



Workshop, Oct. 28, 2009, Chisinau

Takac, J., Siska, B. and Novakova, M. 2011 Climate Change Impact on Irrigation Need of Field Crops on Danubian Lowland

Siska, B., Hauptvogl, M. and Eliasova, M. (eds). Bioclimate: Source and Limit of Social Development International Scientific Conference, 6-9 September 2011, Topolcianky, Slovakia

Thomos, A. 2007 Agricultural Irrigation Demand Under Present and Future Climate Scenarios in China

Global and Planetary Change Vol. 60 pp. 306-326

Vano, J. A., Scott, M., Voisin, N., Stockle, C. O., Hamlet, A. F., Mickelson, K. E. B., Elsner, M. M. and Lettenmaier, D. P.

Climate Change Impacts on Water Management and Irrigated Agriculture in the Yakima River Basin, Washington, USA

Chapter 3: Hydrology and Water Resources: Yakima

pp. 132-163

Venkateswarlu, B. 2011 Agriculture and Climate Change Presented at the South Asian Media Briefing Workshop on Climate Change, Delhi, 16-11, 2011

pp. 45

Von, V. 2011 Water, Agriculture and Climate Change: A Global Computable General Equilibrium Analysis

Dissertation, Doctoral Degree, University of Hamburg

pp. 203

WBG and IEG Adapting to Climate Change: Assessing the World Bank Group Experience, Phase III

The World Bank Group and Climate Change, IEG Independent Evaluation Group

pp. 149

Westphal, M. I., Mehtiyev, M., Shvangiradze, M. and Tonoyan, V.

2011 Regional Climate Change Impacts Study for the South Caucasus Region

United Nations Development Programme pp. 62

Wright, H., Vermeulen, S., Laganda, G., Olupot, M., Ampaire, E., and Jat, M. L.

2014 Farmers, Food and Climate Change: Ensuring Community-based Adaptation is Mainstreamed into Agricultural Programmes

Climate and Development, Vol. 6(4) pp. 318-328

Yamauchi, K. 2014 Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture and Irrigation in the Lower Mekong Basin

Paddy Water Environmental, Vol. 2 pp. 227-240

Yano, T., Aydin, M. and Haraguchi, T. 2007 Impact of Climate Change on Irrigation Demand and Crop Growth in a Mediterranean Environment of Turkey

Sensors pp. 2297-2315

Zupanc, V., Pintar, M., Kajfez-Bogataj, L., and Bergant, K.

2007 Impact Estimation of Climate Change on the Irrigation Demand for Fruit Growing in Western Slovenia

Die Bodenkultur Vol. 58(1-4) pp. 83- 93

Zwarts, L. 2010 Will the Inner Niger Delta Shrivel Up Due to Climate Change and Water Use Upstream?

WETLANDS International, A&W Report 1537 pp. 33



Appendix B. Donor-supported Climate Change Activities in Nepal



B.1 Climate change activities supported by USAID in Nepal

Project Description Time Line $ Relevance to

Climate change

Hariyo Ban NepalkoDhan To reduce threats to biodiversity and climate change impact in Nepal

Aug 2011/ Aug 2016 $30,000,000 USAID/Nepal

Initiative for Climate Change Adaptation Program (ICCAP)

To Increase capacity to adapt the adverse impacts of climate change in Nepal

Feb 2012/ Jan 2016 $2,000,000 USAID/Nepal

Memorial Center of Excellence at the Institute of Forestry in Pokhara

To strengthen national and regional capacity in forestry and natural resources conservation, promote excellence in forestry research and education of future professionals in natural resource conservation

Sep 2007/ Sep 2013 $400,000 USAID/W

Sustainable Conservation Approaches in Priority Ecosystems (SCAPES)

To alleviate imminent threats to biodiversity habitat loss and degradation, loss of endangered species, climate change threats within the Sacred Himalayan Landscape by Building climate resilience, assisting government efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, building capacities of vulnerable communities on adaptation to climate changes

Sep 2009/ Sep 2014 $1,700,000 USAID/W

SERVIR - Himalaya SERVIR integrates satellite data, ground-based observations, and forecasts to provide information about environmental changes and to improve response to natural disasters. SERVIR- Himalaya will build capacity in the region to use earth observations and geospatial information for decision-making related to climate change adaptation, land-based sequestration, climate resilient agriculture, natural resources management, and health

Oct 2010 $18,000,000 USAID/W and NASA

Livestock and Climate Change - CRSP: Seed Grant "Capacity building, strengthening of livestock production systems while adapting to climate change in Nepal"

To (1) identify factors that are responsible for the downward spiral of livestock production systems, (2) identify impacts of climate change on livestock production and adaptation measures, (3) assess opportunities and challenges for capacity-building, and (4) disseminate project findings.

Jun 2011/ Jun 2012 $80,000 USAID/W

Livestock and Climate Change - CRSP: Small Grant for " Past and Future climate assessments of Livestock vulnerability in Nepal"

To complete a country-wide climate analyses focused on the Far West Nepal on livestock production, and provide training related in livestock management and feeding practices that may be adapted to respond to climate change

Jun 2011/ Jun 2012 $80,000 USAID/W



Livestock and Climate Change - CRSP: Small Grants for "Livestock, Livelihoods and Climate Change Interaction: Collaborative Research in the Mountains of Nepal"

To identify key vulnerabilities of livestock-based livelihoods to climate change in the Solukhumbu and Humla districts of the Mountain region of Nepal

Jun 2011/ Jun 2012 $80,000 USAID/W

Asia Climate Change Adaptation Project Preparation Facility (ADAPT)

To increase adaptation capacity and resilience of Asia-Pacific countries to the negative impacts of climate change

Sep 2011/ Sep 2014 $140,000 USAID/RDMA

Low-Emissions Asian Development (LEAD) Program

To strengthen capacity building in national and corporate-level greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting, GHG market readiness, and low emissions development strategies

Sep 2011/ Sep 2016 $332,000 USAID/RDMA

Some Centrally and regionally funded activites are in pipeline TBD TBD

B.2 Climate change activities supported by World Bank Nepal

Project Description Time Line $ Relevance to Climate

Change

Building Resilience to Climate Related Hazards (PPCR)

Nepal was one of 9 countries chosen to participate in the PPCR. The PPCR, administered in partnership with the ADB and IFC, will seek to integrate climate resilience into mainstream development planning. Nepal had proposed 5 investment projects under the PPCR of which the WB administers 2 projects: 1) building resilience to climate related hazards, and 2) enhancing climate resilience of endangered species. This project aims to enhance government capacity to mitigate climate related hazards by improving the accuracy and timeliness of weather and flood forecasts and warnings for vulnerable communities, as well as developing agricultural management information system services to help farmers mitigate climate-related production risks.

Pipeline – implementation period 2013– 2018

US $31 Million See description

Enhancing Climate Resilience of Endangered Species (PPCR)

Nepal was one of 9 countries chosen to participate in the PPCR. The PPCR, administered in partnership with the ADB and IFC, will seek to integrate climate resilience into mainstream development planning. Nepal had proposed 5 investment projects under the PPCR of which the WB administers 2 projects: 1) building resilience to climate related hazards, and 2) enhancing climate resilience of endangered species. This project aims to assist the GoN to enhance capacity, knowledge, and incentives to improve climate resilience of critically endangered species by safeguarding their natural habitats against climate threats, in a manner that is also beneficial to the

Pipeline – implementation period 2013 – 2018 (tbd)

US $ 5 Million See description




Change livelihoods of natural resource dependent communities at a landscape level.

Strengthening regional cooperation for wildlife protection in Asia

This project aims to assist the participating governments to build or enhance shared capacity, institutions, knowledge and incentives to collaborate in tackling illegal wildlife trade and other selected regional conservation threats to habitats in border areas. This project is currently being implemented in Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal. For Nepal a total amount of US $ 3 million is allocated.

2011 - 2016 US $ 3 Million One of the competitive funding windows (under component 2 of this project) would support innovative research projects in wildlife conservation. One of the agreed focus areas is “conservation of biodiversity affected by climate change”.

Poverty Alleviation Fund II

The PAF project aims to improve access to income-generation projects and community infrastructure for the groups that have tended to be excluded by reasons of gender, ethnicity and caste, as well as for the poorest groups in rural communities.

2007-2014 US$164.5 million The impacts and opportunities of climate change on income-generation projects are being explored

Social Safety Nets Project

The social safety net project aims to address the short and medium term implications of the global food crisis for the country by strengthening agricultural production and safety net mechanisms on a broad scale. The development objective is to enable Government to improve access to nutritious food for highly food insecure households in the short term and to create opportunities for improved agriculture production in food insecure districts. The project will provide financing food for work programs and support for transporting critical agricultural inputs (seeds, fertilizer) to vulnerable populations and districts of the country.

2008-2013 US$64.5million Small investments for climate resilient agriculture technologies including seeds

Project for Agriculture Commercialization and Trade

The objective of the project is to increase aggregate value added in selected commodity value chains in districts supported by the project. This will be achieved by: (i) assisting farmers to engage in profitable market-oriented production so as to improve incomes from agriculture (crop and livestock); (ii) creating and strengthening industry-wide partnerships along the value chain, thus forging linkages between producers, traders, processors, and other stakeholders; and (iii) strengthening the national system of sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) and food quality management in order to reduce existing obstacles to agriculture and food trade.

2009-2015 US$ 20 million The project seeks to build medium term climate change resilience along the agricultural supply chain from production to distribution.




Change

Power Development Project

The PDP includes the construction of a high voltage transmission line and distribution networking being implemented by NEA. The PDP is also funding the scaling-up of the successful Micro-hydro Village Electrification Program through AEPC

2003-2012 US$130.9 million IDA Credit and US$44.1 million IDA Grant

Project will help in planning more resilient power development in Nepal where the power sector is overwhelmingly hydropower-based.

Kabeli Corridor Transmission Project

Construction of 132 kV transmission line and substations in the Kabeli River Corridor that will eventually evacuate up to 100 MW of low-carbon hydropower including Kabeli A hydropower project.

2011-2015

USD 38 million (IDA) This transmission line would facilitate the evacuation of clean electricity in the Kabeli corridor.

Nepal India Electricity Trade and Transmission Project

The project will support the construction of 285 kms of 400 kV transmission line within Nepal and three major substations. This high voltage transmission line and substation will enable import and export of electricity from India. The project also includes technical assistance to synchronize the power system of the two countries.

2011-2016 US$99 million (regional IDA)

This project would facilitate the import of electricity from India to augment the growing power shortages in the country. In the long run this link would be used to export clean hydro-electricity to India

Kabeli A Hydropower Project

IDA funds will provide financing for the 37.5 MW Kabeli “A” project Board Date: July 2012

US$42 million (IDA) Hydropower generation displaces expensive, polluting fossil fuels that would otherwise to be used to generate electricity in Nepal

Irrigation and Water Resources Management Project

The project aims to improve irrigated agriculture productivity and management of selected irrigation schemes and to enhance institutional capacity for integrated water resources management

2007-2013 US $64.3 Irrigation strengthens farmers’ with resilience to changing rainfall patterns.

Rani JamaraKulariya Irrigation Project

This project aims to rehabilitate and modernize the largest farmer managed irrigation system off Karnali River in Nepal, serving over 13,000 ha and 100,000 people.

2011-2016 US$43 million Climate change’s impact on agriculture and the need for controlled water for irrigation purposes has been incorporated in project design.




Change

Forestry (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation/REDD)

Nepal was selected by the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF), and received a grant of $200,000, to prepare a Readiness Plan to Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD), which would prepare the country to receive possible carbon credits in a post Kyoto environment. The REDD cell has been established, the Readiness Plan has been formulated, and a supplementary grant of $3.4 delivered for the implementation of activities specified in the Readiness Plan. Nepal is currently refining detailed TORs and seeking consultants to complete these activities.

2009-2013 US$3.6 million

TF Grant

The program assists Nepal with the data collection and analysis, capacity building and consultation process necessary for the country to participate in any future market for carbon credits from reduced greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and land degradation.

Biogas The World Bank’s engagement in biogas in Nepal consists of two separate, complementary initiatives totaling US$12 million:

The Global Partnership on Output-based Aid (GPOBA) has provided a total of US$5 million in output-based disbursement for the construction of new plants in 48 eligible districts since 2008. The GPOBA grant closed on April 30, 2012, an Implementation Completion Report has been prepared and is being finalized for dissemination.

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project: The purchase of a total of one million tCO2e Emission Reductions (ER) from previously constructed biogas plants (2004-2009) at US$7 per tCO2e by the World Bank-managed Community Development Carbon Facility (CDCF) until 2015.

2006-2015 US$5.0 million

TF Grant

+

US$7.0 million TF Grant

Displacement of fossil fuel (LPG) and fuelwood consumption with the use of biogas reduces global emissions of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.

SREP Nepal was selected by the Sub Committee on Scaling up the Renewable Energy Program (SREP) to prepare an investment project to be implemented with the support of three MDBs, including the World Bank, IFC and ADB. Under the SREP umbrella, which consists of an overall grant of $40m, The World Bank has been requested by Nepal to support it with development and delivery of an Extended Biogas Program which will take the above-mentioned Household Biogas program a step further and implement “waste to energy programs” at the municipal, commercial and institutional levels. This will be done through public private partnerships with AEPC acting as the public sector partner, using the SREP grant to leverage private resources.

2013-2018 US$8.0 million TF grant (out of total $40 million SREP grant for Nepal)

Generation of clean energy from municipal solid waste materials, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from landfills, and reduction of emissions from the displacement of fossil fuel and fuelwood consumption with biogas and from decomposing animal waste at commercial dairy and poultry farms.




Change

Disaster Risk Reduction

WB/GFDRR along with the ADB, UN, IFRC, USAID, DFID, EU and AusAID partnered in creating the Nepal Risk Reduction Consortium (NRRC) Flagship program. The WB is designated as the coordinator for Flagship 3: Flood management in the Kosi River Basin. The short term goals are focused on enhancing institutional capabilities towards better flood management, the longer term goals are focused on implementing effective flood mitigation measures, reducing economic impacts due to floods, better weather and flood forecasting capabilities and effective flood warning dissemination to communities.

2011-2013 Tbd. Anticipated climate change impacts, particularly in the form of flood risk management in the Kosi Basin, will be part of this exercise. The project will conduct a comprehensive probabilistic risk assessment of flooding risk in the Kosi Basin.

Hazard Risk Management Program: Nepal

To mainstream disaster reduction in poverty reduction strategies and supporting national capacity to deal with natural disaster risk.

2007-2013 US$ 1.8 million GFDRR Grant

The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) mainstreams disaster reduction in poverty reduction strategies and supporting national capacity to deal with climate-change natural disaster risk.

Regional Program on Glacial Lake Outburst Flooding in the Hindu-Kush Himalayas

Covers Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan and India. 2012-2014 USD 250000

Grant

Supports government, researchers and partnersorganisations to share knowledge and best practice. Working in partnership with GFDRR, UNISDR and UNDP.

Nepal Agriculture and Food Security Project

This proposed project is being financed by the Global Agriculture and Food Security Program (GAFSP). The objective of the project is to enhance food and nutritional security in food insecure communities of Nepal

Pipeline US $ 46.5 million Climate change is a cross cutting theme in the design of the different components under this project. Also, the project focuses on mid- and far-West regions where agriculture is largely rain-dependent, and very vulnerable to climate change factors.




Change

Zoonoses Control Project

The project aims to enhance the country capacity for the prevention and control of infectious diseases that transmit between animals and humans (zoonoses) under a One Health approach. This is a necessary first-step in reduction in the incidence of infectious diseases from animals to humans which will also lead to increased livestock productivity and strengthen the livelihoods base for food insecure communities. This objective would be achieved through two types of interventions: planning and preparedness; and prevention. If successful, the proposed project would contribute to reduce the burden of disease in animals, the consequent economic losses, the risk of human infection, and the loss of productivity attributable to animal and human infections in Nepal.

2012-2014 US $ 10 million This project will leverage with and contribute to enhancing the climate resilience agriculture management information system that is being developed under the PPCR (building resilience to climate related hazards).

B.3 Climate Change activities supported by IFC


Change

Resilient Agribusiness, Pilot Program in Climate Resilience (PPCR)

The project works with agribusiness lead firms to promote improved agricultural and water management practices and introduce new technologies among smallholder farmers producing rice, maize and sugarcane to adapt to climate change. This should result in sustainable and replicable models to expand to the agriculture sector in Nepal to improve farmer resilience.

The specific components of the project are:

A. Building Capacity of farmers to better cope with climate change: Deliver services in four areas: improved seed varieties, fertilizer and plant protection, and agriculture and water practices and technologies via in-house extension programs for Lead Firms (processors) to improve farmers' climate change resilience and productivity.

B. Access to Agri-finance for climate adaptive technologies: Work with one financial institution to increase lending to farmers and other value chain members to promote the financing of practices that increase farmer resilience.

March 2013 –Feb 2017

2.15 m TA Climate Change Adaptation: The project will contribute to addressing major climate induced risks by enhancing the ability of Nepal’s agriculture sector to adapt to changes in climate by improving agricultural productivity.




Change

Agri Risk Sharing Facility (PPCR+IFC)

IFC will work through intermediary banks to facilitate access to finance across the agricultural supply chain to meet investment requirements for adaptive capacity.

Alongside its own funds, IFC will provide PPCR financing to private commercial banks, and the terms of financing will be designed in a way to adequately address some of the market barriers to scale-up investments in climate smart agribusiness with a minimum level of concessionality.

IFC will partner with financially solvent local banks that have some experience in agricultural lending or an appetite to build a new business line for agriculture lending.

October 2013 –Feb 2017

3.6 m Investment Climate Change Adaptation: The Program will seek to contribute to market transformation by building the capacity of FIs, allowing them to provide appropriate financial products and foster mobilization of private financial investment in climate smart technologies in agribusiness projects.

Climate Proofing Hydropower Stations (PPCR+IFC)

Investments in climate resilient technologies to climate proof Hydro power plants.

July 2013 –June 2017

3.4 m, Investment (not confirmed)

Climate Change Adaptation: Sustain the hydropower generation by reducing risks from glacial melt and reduced flows in the high mountain territories of Nepal.

Climate Resilient Low Cost Housing (PPCR)

Feasibility study to assess various construction designs for the climate resilient low cost housing for vulnerable communities and to review the existing supply of finance to meet the housing finance demand of these segments.

July 2012 – June 2013

100,000 TA Climate Change Adaptation: Assess various construction designs for the climate resilient low cost housing for vulnerable communities

Scaling up Renewable Energy Program (SREP)

Support small hydropower plants development through combination of investment and advisory services. SREP funding will be leveraged by private sector and MDB’s funding.

2013-2018 9.5 m Investment

0.5 m TA

Climate Change Mitigation: To add at least 50 MW of electricity generation capacity to the grid in order to avoid generation from fossil fuels. To built capacity of commercial banks to assess and mitigate the project risk and finance the projects on commercial terms.

Sustainable Energy Financing

Improve the financial performance of Nepalese industry by reducing energy costs and at the same time reduce emissions of greenhouse gases by primarily helping local Nepalese banks to develop a sustainable business in EE finance and promote energy efficiency within industries.

March 2009- June 2013

464,000 TA Climate Change Mitigation: Usage of EE/RE technologies will reduce the consumption of energy and help reduce the economic and environmental




Change cost associated with usage of

fossil fuels for industrial activities. The displacement of fossil fuel helps curtail escalating levels of greenhouse gas emissions.

B.4 Climate change activities supported by UNDP- Nepal

Project Description Time Line $/£ Relevance to Climate

change

Nepal Climate Change Support Programme - NCCSP

To implement Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA) in 69 VDCs and 1 municipality of 14 climate vulnerable districts of Mid and Far Western Nepal. The lead implementing partner is Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MoSTE) in close collaborationwith Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development. UNDP is providing TA to MoSTE and MoFALD to support the implementation. Start-Up Phase was over on January 10, 2013 with the signing of UNDP TA ProDoc between MoSTE and UNDP.

2012-2015 £14.5 million (Jointly funded by DFID and EU)

Climate Change Adaptation at the Local level

Ecosystem Based Adaptation - UNDP, UNEP, IUCN

Project focusing on strengthening ecosystems in order to have climate change adaptation benefits. Working in Panchase area. Part of a larger global programme on tools and methodologies for EbA in mountainous countries (Peru, Uganda also)

2011-2015 $3.3 million for Nepal. Climate change adaptation at the local level.

Community Based Flood and Glacial Lake Outburst Risk Reduction

To support two of the 9 priority profiles under Nepal NAPA. The two profiles under Nepal NAPA are ‘Community Based Disaster Management for Facilitating Climate Adaptation’ – profile 3 and “GLOF monitoring and Disaster Risk Reduction’ – profile 4. The proposed project’s objective is to reduce human and material losses from Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) and catastrophic flooding events in selected vulnerable districts of Nepal. This will increase the resilience of community affected by flood and GLOFs and improve their capacity to respond effectively to increasing threats posed by climate change and disasters.

2013 - 2016 $6.3 million Climate change adaptation and Climate /Disaster risk management



Gender and Climate Change Strategy

Working closely with the MoSTE on developing a climate change and gender strategy. The Strategy is at the final stages (consultation with the sectoral ministries)

2012 $30,000 Climate Change Policy

Renewable Energy for Rural Livelihoods

This project focuses on renewable energy access in rural areas. It principally involves facilitating micro-hydro implementation at the local level.

$3million (with a further $3.1 million expected).

Climate change mitigation

Comprehensive Disaster Risk Management Programme

The programme will build the capacity of NGOs and CSOs for implementing the CBDRM. It will develop benchmarks against which the effectiveness of CBDRM will be evaluated. The programme will organize training programs for NGOs and CSOs, hold workshops for sharing of experiences, and bring local government and implementing partners together for greater synergy. Other specific activities include developing a Community-based DRM strategyand preparing Local level Community Volunteers. UNDP has implemented the programme in 25 districts and 6 municipalities

Jan 2011- Dec 2015 USD 17.52 million Disaster / Climate Risk Management

B.5 Climate Change Related activities supported by JICA


Change

Participatory Watershed Management and Local Governance Project (PWMLGP), supported by JICA

Goal: Improved participatory watershed management in better collaboration with DSCO and local bodies is applied in other districts by the initiative of MoFSC and MoFALD

Purpose: Improved participatory watershed management in better collaboration with DSCO and local bodies is implemented in the target districts.

Project Areas: Kaski, Syangja, Tanahun, Parbat, Myagdi, Baglung, Kavre&Sindhupalchowk

July 2009 to July 2014

Watershed management and greenery promotion activities

Project for Introduction of Clean Energy by Solar Electricity Generation System

In order to introduce clean energy from solar electricity generation system, the project has been conceived as a first and model project to demonstrate how renewable energy implementation scheme can add up electric power to the national grid.

2010-2012 Scaling up Renewable/Alternative Energy




Change

Technical Cooperation through Senior Volunteer

- Ms. Kyoko Shuku, as Senior Volunteer is providing technical input on advancement of solar power backup system of Solar Laboratory in NAST. Her technical assistance basically targets to connect existing solar power backup system of NAST to the national grid. - Dr. Hiroyuki Kojima as SV is working with NAST to streamline bio fuel as a sustainable form of alternative energy since April 2011. His research has been pioneer on exploring and establishing opportunities to promote bio-diesel fuel (BDF) from Jatropha seeds. He has been supporting NAST to produce bio diesel policy and incorporate it in mainstream energy policy of Nepal.

2011-2013 Scaling up Renewable / Alternative Energy

B.6 Climate Change activities in Nepal supported by the Government of Finland

B.6.1 Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project in Western Nepal

Project/Component Description1 Time Line Budget (Euro)2 Relevance to Climate

Change

Drinking Water Supply Construction of drinking water supply schemes, construction of rain water harvesting schemes, construction of solar and wind powered water lift schemes, construction of raised hand pumps in Terai and raised hand dug well rehabilitation

July 2008 – July 2013

GoF: 2 897 004

GoN: 2 069 573

Total: 4 966 577

Increasing the adaptive capacity of the communities through improved drinking water supply, preparedness for extreme weather events. Adaptation to water scarcity and extreme weather events, floods, landslides. Prevention of drinking water contamination.

1 All the components include also other activities which are not directly related to climate change.

2 The amounts include the GoF and GoN contributions for all the activities under the component, not only the climate change specific activities. The budget includes the actual expenditure of four years (2008-2012) and the budgeted amount for the fifth year.



Project/Component Description1 Time Line Budget (Euro)2 Relevance to Climate

Change

Hygiene and Sanitation Establishment of Open Defecation Free areas; Ecosan Promotion; Improved cooking stoves promotion;

July 2008 – July 2013

GoF: 1 001 134

GoN: 618 248

Total: 1 619 382

Prevention of drinking water contamination during the extreme weather events, heavy rainfall etc. Protection of water sources and vegetation (even climate change mitigation benefits). Improving livelihoods and soil protection by using urea as fertilizer.

Arsenic Mitigation Drinking water arsenic mitigation July 2008 – July 2013

GoF: 371 787

GoN: 219 556

Total: 591 343

Increasing adaptive capacity through the safe drinking water availability.

Governance (capacity building, income generation, environmental conservation)

Water source, sanitation and hygiene practices management in WASH planning; economical and optimal use of water in response to climate change; Multiple Use System (MUS) promotion; Water Safety Planning training.

July 2008 – July 2013

GoF: 975 687

GoN: 639 193

Total : 1 614 880

Adaptation to extreme weather events, floods, increased surface runoff, water scarcity and drought; prevention of water contamination.

Total 8 792 182

B.6.2 Strengthening Environmental Administration and management (SEAM-Nepal) Project

Project/ Component Description Time Line Budget (Euro’s) Relevance to Climate Change

Component 1: Local Environmental Administration

Target DDCs and municipalities have integrated environmental aspects in their periodic and annual planning. They are implementing pollution abatement programs and are annually generating success cases in solving environmental problems and conflicts.

2012-2014 900 000 Local administration has a crucial role in implementing and enforcing Environmental Protection Act and Rule as well as national standards

Expected results: 1. DDCs are annually issuing at least 20 new PCCs, and enforcing compliance, focusing on

Activities

on-the-job support to environmental officers in inspection and PCC management

short term consultancy for sector or issue specific pollution control issues

On going

The DDC’s of Morang, Sunsari, Jhapa and Ilam are all relevant industrial DDC’s. Environmental Officers of these DDC’s are annually updating and issuing new Pollution Control



Project/ Component Description Time Line Budget (Euro’s) Relevance to Climate Change the major polluting industry

facilitating coordination between EIA/IEEs and PCCs in cases of new industry

Certificates, if industries comply with the recommendations/conditions given by Environment Officers. As part of these conditions there are almost often some recommendations/technical suggestions to curb down the air pollution and to add energy efficiency

As short term consultancy, project has in its earlier phase done environmental Inspections to industries. Now as a “Generic Environmental Inspection Guidelines for Industrial Sector” has been published the environmental officers and project experts jointly will do these Inspections and do the follow up of earlier recommendations

Project has also directly supported investments in industries to enhance energy efficiency. These investment directly reduced CO2 emissions in a sustainable way

2. Six model VDCs and their households are mobilized to demonstrate integrated environmental management concept . Dissemination of experiences to within the project area.

• intensive support package to model VDCs

• thematic programs in selected other VDCs (ODF, biogas, ICS, composting

ongoing 300 000 The project is co-financing and giving intensive support to 6 Model-Green VDC’s based on the priorities of Environmental Sub-Committees and the administration. Some of the interventions, like Improved Cooking Stoves (ICS’s) and bio-gas plants, reduce the need of fossil fuels and fire wood and thus help to maintain the “standing stock” of local forests and reduce the net- CO2 emissions. Also composting of organic material reduces the amount of methane released to the atmosphere.

3. One municipality (Ilam) has taken major steps in urban environmental management and other four target municipalities

•Baseline studies and designing criteria and milestones for urban environmental management using international models, in cooperation with MOE, MLD and target municipalities

ongoing 200 000 SEAM-project initiated the concept of Green City of Ilam. The concept has been actualized in “Strategic Plan for Green City Initiative 2012-2016. The strategy concentrates on 10 sectors,



Project/ Component Description Time Line Budget (Euro’s) Relevance to Climate Change have achieved significant progress in one thematic sector

•TA and limited investment support for preparing and implementing action plan

• Support and coordination of the “plastic free zone” concept

• Annual clean-up campaigns

•Compiling performance criteria for urban environmental management

• Joint regional workshop on waste management with RWMP

out of which the following are relevant to Climate Change:

1. Environment 2. Urban planning 3. Energy 4. Transport and Communication 5. Agriculture

SEAM-Nepal projects Completion Phase is supporting interventions in Ilam with 120 000 Euro’s. The funds are allocated mainly to the above mentioned sectors (but also education, which will have only indirect impact to GHG emissions

Component 2: Industrial and Chemical Pollution Prevention

Success stories in pollution control and prevention are developed in polluting industry and commercial agriculture.

ongoing 100 000 Euro The project Completion Phase is designed in such a way that there are not much resources for direct interventions for GHG-reduction of industries, but project will try its best in climate work by:

1. Supporting local administration in better enforcement of env. legislation within industries and through better environmental planning within local bodies

2. Raising awareness within industries (for example a workshop on brick industries was organized recently) and support industries with intervention explained below

Expected Results:

1. Successful cases of pre-treatment of industrial wastewater in Biratnagar as a first step to joining the central sewage treatment system in the city.

Activities:

Lobbying for integrated approach in municipal and industrial wastewater treatment in cooperation with MoI, and industrial associations.

mediate MoU between industry and BSMC in coordination with MPPW and ADB

On going Only wastewaters with high organic content have some relevance to climate change. The relevancy is related to denitrification processes of purification plant (or pre-treatment plant) and the fate of the waste water with organic content



Project/ Component Description Time Line Budget (Euro’s) Relevance to Climate Change screening of potential companies and providing TA for

design and cost estimate of pre-treatment

guidelines for linking of industry with municipal sewer network established with authorities (coordination with Component 4)

2. Success cases of source separation and recycling of industrial waste

•Conducting waste audits and feasibility studies for volunteer companies (coordinate with RWMP)

•Criteria for disposal at the regional landfill established in cooperation with RWMP and waste samples tested at ENSC

•Cases of hazardous industrial waste identified for future action and advice provided for their safe storage

ongoing All advancements in handling and processing of organic industrial waste will reduce emissions of GHG’s

3.Tea cooperatives and tea industry have demonstrated good practices in reducing pesticide contamination.

•Baseline studies of pesticide use, exposure, residues, contamination and health impact in the pilot area

•Training in chemical safety and strategies to reduce pesticide use

•TA for selected cooperative for acquiring certification for organic farming

•Dissemination of findings in the region with national media

ongoing The transformation from chemical pesticides and fertilizers to organic ones reduces the need of industrially produced agrochemicals and thereby reduces also GHG’s emitted in their production. Organic farming also reduces the emissions of nitrous oxides, a power full GHG, from the fields

Component 3: Environmental Monitoring & Communication

A regional environmental monitoring system is established and the data is used to promote policy action and to communicate progress in sustainable development in the region.

30 000 It is stated that:” you can manage only things you measure”. Therefore monitoring, database management and web-portal to post the results is essential part of managing also CO2, N20, HCF, methane or any Greenhouse gas emissions

Expected result:

1. Monitoring data is regularly reported to the national environmental monitoring system and utilized in district profiles, periodic planning and national progress reports.

Activities:

•TA in developing data management and establishing permanent website for communicating monitoring information

•assisting two districts in establishing an industrial compliance monitoring register (in coordination with component 4)

•TA in developing reporting models and references for services provided to the main client segments

ongoing

SEAM is building environmental databases for a regional environmental monitoring system. These data will be posted to an environmental portal, which will be handed over to ENSC, which will be build around SEAM-MMA lab. In portal also Climate Change related data will be housed



Project/ Component Description Time Line Budget (Euro’s) Relevance to Climate Change •interaction with national media for encouraging the reporting of pollution related issues and policy achievements

Component 4: Central Level Support to Local Environmental Management

MoFALD, MoE, MoI and other relevant authorities are coordinating their guidance to the local level in issues relevant to environmental planning, monitoring and industrial pollution abatement.

The climate change issues are embedded to the support to ministeries.

Expected Result:

1. Core elements of a national (water) pollution monitoring program are designed and demonstrated in pilot districts.

Activities:

• Establishment and TA to an inter-ministerial task force assigned to prepare a national pollution monitoring plan

• piloting the plan in the project area

• preparing a model for communicating the results of a regional monitoring system to the stakeholders and public (coordinated action with component 3 and 2)

ongoing At the moment there is not a Environmental Monitoring System” in place in the country. SEAM-Nepal assists MOSTE to establish Environment Monitoring and Indicators Network (EMIN) to assess monitoring programs, create National Core Set of Environmental Indicators (NCEI)

The EMIN will scrutinize also the existing Climate change related databases, prioritize environmental problems, find the gaps in monitoring and make recommendations to fill gaps

2. Technical and Environmental Division of MoI is capable to disseminate knowhow to the district level in CP, EMS, chemical safety.

Activities:

• designing a training of trainers course and handing over training modules on CP and EMS to MoI

• piloting a CP awareness training event for selected industry and Chambers in Morang &Sunsari

• compile CP, OHS, EMS success cases into training material and publish on MoI website

ongoing SEAM organized and supported a workshop on MOI officials on carbon footprint in December 2012

Most of the other training include reduction of GHG’s as a proxy part of content

B.6.3 Climate Change activities supported by HKH HYCOS

Project/Component Description Time Line Budget (Euro or $) Relevance to Climate Change

Framework for cooperation

The development and operation of a regional flood information system require the firm commitment of the participating countries to a framework for regional cooperation. This component deals with the letter of agreements with partner countries for the implementation of the system, meetings and regional platforms for

December 2009 – December 2014

Euro383,300 Provides a platform to share knowledge, methodologies and experiences of floods which are being aggravated due to climate change and variability.



Project/Component Description Time Line Budget (Euro or $) Relevance to Climate Change discussing the project implementation and sharing of experiences as well as establishment of a Project Management Unit.

Regional flood observation network

This component is about upgrading of selected meteorological and hydrological stations in the participating countries to enable sharing of real time data and information to minimize the adverse impacts of floods.


Euro732,000 Hydrometeorological monitoring stations will provide valuable data and information to better understand and respond to extreme events induced by climate change.

Regional flood information system

The regional flood information system consists of an effective data and information transmission/reception capability, adequate national and regional databases and data management systems and the required technical and professional skills. The functioning of the system provides real time data from observation networks to the national centres and the regional centres.


Euro230,000 Regional flood information system will provide the data and information products which are required to minimize the adverse impacts of floods as well as technology and tools. It also provides valuable information to better understand the variability of climate change and its impacts on the frequency and magnitude of such events.

Training and public awareness

This component deals with trainings to the partners at various levels from the local, national and regional level in various topics such as installation, operation and maintenance of stations, database trainings etc. General awareness raising activities to sensitize both the general public and decision makers, and training for a wider group of staff in government agencies and NGOs involved in disaster preparedness and risk mitigation is also a part of this component.


Euro155,000 In the face of changing climate and its impacts on disasters training and capacity building is an important contribution.

B.6.4 Rural Village Water Resource Management Project Far west and Mid west Nepal Project/Component Description Time Line Budget (Euro or $) Relevance to Climate

Change

Rural Village Water Resources Management Project, Phase II (RVWRMP II) in Far and

The project aims to institutionalised community capacity to construct and maintain community managed water supply and adopt appropriate technologies and behaviour related to sanitation infrastructure;

Sept 2010- July 2015

Euro 13.5 m Provides gravity and lifting drinking water, hydropower, climate change adaptations



Project/Component Description Time Line Budget (Euro or $) Relevance to Climate Change

Midwestern Regions in Nepal

improved and sustainable nutrition, food security and sustainable income at community level through natural resources based livelihoods development; and

institutionalised capacity at district level to continue integrated water resources planning and to support communities in implementing and maintaining Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) and livelihood activities.

programme and training and capacity building

B.7 Climate Change activities supported by MSFP (Provided by SDC)

Multi Stakeholder Forestry Programme (MSFP) builds on the achievements of over 20 years of forestry work of the Government of Nepal (GoN)

supported by the governments of UK, Switzerland and Finland. MSFP is a ten-year programme started from January 2012 and will be implemented

in two phases: an initial phase and a full implementation phase. The management of the initial phase will be done by Swiss Agency for Development

and Cooperation (SDC) together with the Government of Nepal. The MSFP aims to improve livelihoods and resilience of poor and disadvantaged

people in Nepal through sustainable and equitable management of forest resources.

Project/Component Description Time Line Budget (Euro or $)

Relevance to Climate Change

Assessment of Local Adaptation Measure in response to climate change

The study is conducted in three districts of Nepal balancing three eco-zones. The study brought 20 best practices on adaptation lead by local community. The study was concluded in three months and used social science research methods.

May-September 2012

Euro 10371

(

Community based adaptation practices in the face of climate change

Documentation of Reflection of Actions for Learning (ReAL) on the Inclusion and Develop resiliency of Dalit for Diversifying their

Working with local communities specially with Dalit to enhance their capacity to diversifying their livelihoods for enhancing their resiliency

This is adaptive collaborative management approach of working with local community

October, 2012 to September, 2014

Euro 37711.50 Developed resiliency in the face of climate change, capacity building, awareness, and other innovative action actions contribute to cc adaptation





Livelihoods in Local Community Forestry Groups in Nepal”.

En-situ and ex-situ conservation of traded Orchid as a means of ecosystem based adaptation

En-situ and ex-situ conservation of medicinal and traded Orchid species

Community participation in Orchid conservation, cultivation and marketing

January, 2013

To December, 2014

Euro 10123.89 Contribute to ecosystem based adaptation, private sector promotion in forestry business, and hence contribute to livelihoods, which reduce risk of uncertainty and food insecurity in the context of climate change

Himalayan Community Carbon Project (HCCP)

a landscape approach for generating practical solutions for addressing problems of poverty, climate change and forest degradation and deforestation. The project expects to bring additional financial resources for the rural communities from Payments of Ecosystem Services.

January, 2013-May 2013

Euro 19798.68 Ecosystem based adaptation, enhancing resiliency of forest, reduce deforestation and forest degradation contribute to reduce emission of carbon, contribute to enhance quality and quantity of water for downstream community, community can sale their carbon to international market

Develop Central Database of Community Adaptation Plan of Action (CAPA)

CAPA are the foundation for enhancing community resiliency in the face of climate change, and also are the foundation to deliver the NAPA and LAPA at the ground level. The Central information system provides a baseline for MSFP and other projects working in climate change

January-March, 2013

Euro 4000 Community based adaptation to climate change,

Mid-term review of Nepal’s REDD Readiness preparation Proposal (R-PP)

Implementation status of R-PP activities, ensure whether Nepal is in line to REDD readiness phase or not

October, 2012-to January, 2013

Euro 4651.78 Reducing emission through deforestation and forest degradation is vital for climate change





Scaling up the Dissemination of Improved Charring Retort to meet Industrial Demand of Char as an Alternative Fuel in Brick Kilns

Reducing emission through the use of charring retort as an alternative for fuel-wood in Brick kilns

Jan-May, 2013 Euro 6308 Reducing carbon emission, reduce fuel wood dependency

Piloting of Paulownia Tomentossa ( a fast growing species) in a community forest, Lalitpur

Paulownia tomentosa (also known as the Empress Tree, Princess Tree or Foxglove Tree; pao tong in Chinese; kiri in Japanese) is a deciduoustree in the genus Paulownia, native to central and western China, but invasive in the US. It grows to 10–25 m tall, with large heart-shaped to five-lobed leaves 15–40 cm across, arranged in opposite pairs on the stem. It is fire tolerant, dead branch of this plant do not burn in normal condition like other fire wood, can be tool for fire control in the context of growing events of forest fire. Paulownia trees are rich in nitrogen, and which could be a useful source of nitrogen supply to agricultural land in a country like Nepal. Piloted in collaboration with community forest users group in Lamatar, Lalitpur

June-December, 2012

Euro 5000 Paulownia tomentossa can be potential tree for climate change mitigation (higher capacity of CO2 sequestration), and adaptation (fire tolerant, soil erosion control, fast growing, nutrition value for agricultural land) can be planted in a degraded part of suitable ecological landscape of MSFP districts.

B.8 Climate Change Adaptation and Environmentally Sustainable Growth Projects, Asian Development Bank

Project Description Time Period Investment $

Climate Change Projects

SPCR Investment Project: Building Climate Resilience of Watersheds in Mountain Eco-Regions

The project will enable communities in mountain watersheds that are significantly vulnerable to climate change to have more reliable water resources, especially in the dry season, for domestic and agricultural uses. The Project introduces participatory integrated watershed management in the uplands in the Lower West Seti and Budh Ganga watersheds of Karnali river basin. About 100 communities in 6 districts of far western region – Achham, Baitadi, Bajhang, Bajura, Dadeldhura, and Doti will implement water source catchment plans, stabilize land that threatens water sources and infrastructure, and construct water storage facilities to help sustain the use of scarce water. The communities will manage water and land in an inclusive and integrated manner. The project

2014- 2018 30.11 million (23.537 million PPCR, 4.6 million NDF, $4 million GoN)




experience and lessons learned will be shared globally as part of SPCR’s global learning support program.

SPCR TA: Mainstreaming Climate Change Risk Management in Development

Annex component: Sustainable Ecology for Green Growth (SREGG)

The TA aims to safeguard government’s infrastructure development projects, policies and programs against the impacts of climate change. The TA will support seven government agencies in infrastructure sectors to integrate climate change risk management into their project planning and implementation. The TA will also develop and apply knowledge management tools for climate change, and implement an overall framework for results management for Nepal’s climate change adaptation program.

SREGG will pilot test and demonstrate in the three agro-ecological zones, the potential uses of agri-waste to attain the “triple wins” of improved agricultural production, rural energy generation, and climate change mitigation. The expected outcome is technically, economically and environmentally sound climate change responsive farming systems ready for up-scaling. MOAD is the EA, and NARC and NAST the implementing agencies.

March 2012-January 2017

September 2013- September 2015

7.763 million PPCR (of which $0.6 million for SREGG from NDF)

Scaling Up Renewable Energy Program (SREP)

TA approved for preparation of Investment Project: By leveraging SCF funds with ADB and other donor-assisted funds to set up both credit and subsidy windows for mini-micro hydropower (MMH) and solar home systems (SHS) under Central Renewable Energy Fund (CREF). Focuses on serving Both rural households and businesses not connected to the main grid as well as enhancing alternative energy based supplies to the main grid, contributing to the government’s plan to increase access to electricity from alternate energy sources from 10% to 30% over the next 20 years. ADB will implement two projects.

Rural Electrification through Renewable Energy Project (REREP)

Aims (i) to increase electricity access in rural areas through off-grid renewable energy resources and technologies (mini and micro hydropower and wind and/or solar hybrid system) focusing on mini-grid based systems; and (ii) ensure sustainable operations through capacity building as well as effective and productive end use promotion. It will complement the investments by various development partners, including those under the Nepal Rural Renewable Energy Program.

2013-17 32 million (12 million from SREP)

Support for Small Hydropower Development Project

Aims to create a facility to support to larger, long-term loan program with local private banks. The components, financing modalities, and other opportunities will be determined during project preparation.

2013-17 25 million (10 million from SREP)

Energy Access and Efficiency Improvement Project (EAEIP)

EAEIP approved in 2009 includes two clean energy components; (i) solar street lighting; and (ii) energy efficient lighting financed by CEFPF. In these interventions Nepal Electricity Authority is expected install 1000 solar PV based street lights in Kathmandu valley and distribute 1 million energy efficient compact fluorescent lamps.

2009-2014 4.5 million




Tanahu Hydropower Project (140 MW)

Design of the reservoir type scheme with daily peaking facility is almost complete. Environmental safeguards has been ensured through in-depth study and preparation of EIA and its addendum addressing critical issues like protection of fish population including some endangered fish species, wildlife protection, massive scale of plantation and reforestation program, river safety and so on.

2012-13 4.5 million

Regional Economics of Climate Change

A study on the regional economics of climate change in South Asia covering Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka. The first part of the study focuses on cleaner technology options in the energy and non-energy sectors based on an analysis of marginal abatement cost (MAC) curves. The second part of the study undertakes climate projections and assesses physical and economic impacts of climate change at the detailed sectoral and national levels The overall outcome of the study is to better inform regional and country-level decision makers to learn about green growth options and the needs for adaptation to enhance resilience to climate change.

2010 – 2012 1.2 million

Strengthening Capacity for Managing Climate Change and the Environment

Capacity strengthening: Supported the Ministry of Environment, Science, and Technology (MoEST) in key institutional reforms such as (i) a detailed institutional framework based on a federally-structured government was agreed upon; (ii) the institutional framework produced for the Department of Environment (DOE) and its establishment underway; (iii) a proposal prepared for establishing the Climate Change Center; (iv) a technical proposal for establishing new sections within MOEST; and (v) a technical proposalfor strengthening linkages between MOEST and other agencies. Incorporated new course on climate change into Government’s standard training program for officials, and developed and tested training program for district-level government and non-government stakeholders.

2009-2012 1.275 million

Awareness raising in climate change and environmental management: Fostered productive partnerships with media organizations and government agencies to produce print and broadcast media materials and toolkits on the relationship between climate change, environmental management and public health.

Community-Based Vulnerability Assessment, Risk Mapping, and Adaptation Planning: To improve the capacity of local government and the various development organizations they work with, ADB has supported a consortium of non-government organizations (Practical Action, WWF, IUCN, CECI) and an association of village development committees to develop and test a Nepal-specific methodology for climate change vulnerability assessments, vulnerability mapping, and adaptation planning. Government and non-government partners working in the area of climate change in Nepal agree on this methodology and the tool will be implemented in all of Nepal’s districts under the SPCR.

Climate Data Digitization and Downscaling of Climate Change Projections: ADB supported to digitize the historical meteorological data in Nepal and downscale the general circulation models for Nepal. Eight different projections showing a range of different scenarios for any given area (a 12 to 25 KM spatial grid) are now uploaded into a climate data portal on the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology’s website. The data will be used in climate change risk analysis, especially in locations




that the projections identifying as being highly vulnerable because of climate impacts on nearby natural resources could jeopardize the long-term reliability of development infrastructure.

Climate Risk and Disaster Screening: ADB supported the government’s preparation of a framework for climate change risk that could screen the national development plan and policies to make them resilient, particularly in agriculture, water, transportation and forestry sectors. This will be further developed under the ongoing SPCR TA.

ADB and the government have also piloted a process for screening ADB investments for climate change and disaster induced risks. The process has proven useful to screen all loans and grants approved since 2010 and incorporate climate change risk assessment measures into ADB’s due diligence during project preparation.

Sustainable environment development activities

Second Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project

Improved, affordable, and sustainable water supply and sanitation services which are governed and managed by locally accountable representative bodies.

2010-2016 71.7 Million

Secondary Towns Integrated Urban Environment Improvement Project

Support for environmentally sustainable growth by (i) identifying and developing solid waste management projects by introducing 3R (reduce, reuse, and recycle) principle; and (ii) incorporating climate change projections into the design of urban infrastructure such as urban drainage system.

2011-2016 89.3 million (ADB 60 million)

Integrated Urban Development Project

The project will provide the population in four municipalities with better access to municipal infrastructure and services in a socially inclusive manner. In accordance with the priorities of each municipality, integrated urban environmental improvements, including water supply, drainage systems, solid waste management (SWM) facilities and urban roads will be implemented.

2012-2017 83.9 million

Bagmati River Basin Improvement Project

The Bagmati River Basin Improvement Project aims to improve water security and resilience in the Bagmati River Basin. It will build on the general public’s desire to restore the river environment in the Kathmandu Valley and the Government’s efforts to improve irrigation development and mitigate the impact of water-induced disasters in the middle and lower reaches of the basin. The Project adopts the principles of integrated water resources management (IWRM). PPTA is on-going.

2012-2013 800,000

Urban Transport Planning Management

TA to (i) preparing a comprehensive urban transport and land use strategy, (ii) facilitating institutional enhancement for urban transport planning and management. The TA is preparing an urban transport strategy for Biratnagar. This project conducts a baseline study of transport emissions in Biratnagar, building capacity of the municipal government and establishing a process for regularly monitoring emission and exploring the feasibility of carbon trading programs there.

2012-14 950,000

Local Governance Capacity Development Program

The program was supported by a group of 10 development partners including ADB, and implemented in all districts and village development committees/municipalities of Nepal. It included various components including (i) Empowerment of citizens and communities for active engagement with local governments and strengthening downward accountability; (ii) Local bodies (DDCs,

2008-2012 106.3 million by ADB (total budget 422.3 million)




Municipalities and VDCs enriched with block grants for community led local development; (iii) Capacity Development of local governments for effective service delivery; (iv) Policy Support for decentralization and Local Governance. Institutional strengthening and capacity development in environmental and social safeguards were important activities implemented under the program.

Water Resource Project Preparatory Facility

The Facility aims at environmentally sustainable growth in water resources through (i) detailed feasibility studies for high priority water resources and water induced disaster risk prevention projects undertaken; (ii) environmental, social, and technical capacity of Department of Irrigation (DOI) and Department of Water Induced Disaster Prevention (DWIDP) improved including establishment of social and environmental units and capacity development; (iii) Irrigation Master Plan updated.

2013-2016 11 million

Rural Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Sector Development Project

The rural road and infrastructure focused project is implemented with high priority on environmental sustainability. Labor based, environment friendly, and participatory principle is mainstreamed in the project. Vegetative method of bio-engineering, road side tree plantation, and environment conservation focused methods of road construction and operation has rendered the project to be exemplary in ensuring environmental safeguards in project implementation.

2008-2013 50 million Grant and 50 million Loan

B.9 Climate Change Related activities supported by DANIDA

Project Description Time Line

$ Relevance to Climate Change

Support to AEPC, Government of Nepal: National Rural and Renewable Energy Programme

Building AEPC’s capacity to function as a national resource center for renewable energy promotion in Nepal.

Subsidy/credit financing to Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) through Central Renewable energy Fund for consumers who wish to invest in renewable energy.

Providing support to consumers and private sector service providers with a view to developing, manufacturing, marketing, installing and maintaining renewable energy solutions.

Business developmentmicro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) and households (HH) in rural areas for renewable energy and productive energy end-use

2013-2017 40 Million USD

Raising awareness on the carbon free clean energy and Improving the living condition of the rural population by strengthening their physical and economic access to alternative renewable energy solutions, which are effective and environmentally sustainable.



B.10 Climate Change activities supported by Department for International Development (DFID)


Change

Nepal Climate Change Support Programme (NCCSP)

Jointly funded by DFID and EU. UNDP TA

Focal Ministry: Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment

Implementation of NAPA profile 1 project (community based climate adaptation in forestry, agriculture, watershed and energy); Modality of programme – LAPA preparation and implementation. 14 districts in mid and far western Nepal; (b) Development of low carbon climate resilient development strategy by AEPC

Results: 3 million people with increased climate resilience

2011-2015 40m (DFID)

12m (EU)

Climate Finance (funding source: UK Government’s International Climate Fund)

EU funds – Climate Finance (GCCA – Global Climate Change Alliance)

Multi-stakeholder Forestry Programme (MSFP)

Focal Ministry: Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation

Jointly funded by DFID, Swiss and Finland Government

The MSFP aims to improve livelihoods and resilience of poor and disadvantaged people in Nepal through sustainable and equitable management of forest resources.

Results: 570,000 people lifted out of poverty

80,000 jobs created

560,000 people with increased climate resilience

2011-2015 32.5m (DFID)

Climate Finance (funding source: UK Government’s International Climate Fund)

Community Support Programme (CSP)

Focal Ministry: Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development; Implemented by CARE Nepal

Community empowerment, improved local governance, disaster resilience

Results: 45,000 people with increased disaster resilience

2011-2014 18.2m Development Aid (disaster resilience as a strong component)

Support to build earthquake resilience

Focal Ministry: Ministry of Home Affairs

Implemented by UNDP, Action Aid, Practical Action, British Red Cross

Earthquake & natural disasters preparedness

Results: 4 million people with increased resilience to earthquake threat

2011-2015 28.6m Development Aid (natural disasters as a strong component)

Climate Proofing Growth and Development

Implementing agency (being finalized) 2012-2015 4.8m International Climate Fund

(South Asia Water Governance - SAWG) Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL)

Implementing agency: ICIMOD

Climate Change adaptation; biodiversity

8.1m International Climate Fund

South Asia Climate Resilience Alliance (SACRA)

Implementing agency: IIED

Climate Adaptation

2012-2015 International Climate Fund




Change

Climate Asia Implementing agency: BBC Media Action

Improved climate awareness campaigns

More effective policy influencing

Solutions informed by poor people

2011-2014 3.57 International Climate Fund

Mountain Initiative Support to GoN in Mountain Initiative (Climate Change Negotiation) 2012 65K International Climate Fund

Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN)

Climate Adaptation (Regional knowledge network and capacity building) 2011-2015 International Climate Fund

B.11 NGOs

B.11.1 Institute for Social and Environmental Transition (ISET)-Nepal

Forest and Water Management for mitigating the effects of Climate Change in the Middle Hills, Nepal (2010-2012) aimed to document the specific impacts of changes in weather patterns on agricultural systems, forestry, water and livelihoods along a transect from the Tarai Plains to the high mountain zone. It also sought to understand the differing vulnerability of various socio-eoconomice groups are more vulnerable to the impact of climate change than others.

B.11.2 Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) Environmental Movements in South-Strengthening Climate Network Nepal (2008-10), which aimed to strengthen the civil society movement in Nepal

and build the capacity of NGOs in climate change issues. Local Innovation Experimentation-An Entry Point to Climate Change Adaptation for Sustainable Livelihoods in Asia (LINEX-CCA) (2012-14). The

project aims at improving the livelihoods of climate- vulnerable rural communities to respond to climate change. Sustainable Agriculture Development for Smallholder and Marginalized Farmers in Far Western Hill of Nepal (2014-2017) Working Districts: Doti and

Achham Overall objective of the project is to contribute to improved food security and nutrition of smallholder and marginalized farmers through increased agricultural

productivity, access to market and participation of targeted farmers, institutions, related CSOs in decision making processes. Piloting and Demonstration of Local Adaptation Technologies and Approaches to Address Climate Change Impacts in Okhaldhunga, Udayapur

and Siraha Districts, Nepal (2014-16) Capitalizing on experience and expertise in combating the negative impacts of climate change, this project will pilot climate resilient agricultural interventions along with capacity building of impact groups and target groups.



Strengthening Civil Society Organization and Community Response to Climate Change in Nepal (2014-16) The goal of this project is to increase the Adaptive capacity of climate vulnerable groups of Nepal through proper climate policies at national and local level. The main objective of the project is policy advocacy & capacity building of civil society organizations on climate change and reducing the vulnerability of climate vulnerable communities.

Scaling-up climate smart agriculture in Nepal (2015-17). The project develops portfolios of targeted climate-smart agricultural technologies and practices for benefitting women and marginalized farmers of the three agro-ecological zones (terai, mid-hill, and high hill) of Nepal.

Piloting and Scaling-out Climate Smart Villages (CSV) (2015-16). The project aims to pilot, test and evaluate two CSV models (i. CSV model with solar-based irrigation, ii. CSV model without solar-based irrigation) in five climate-risk agro-ecological regions (Mahottari, Nawalparasi, Dang, Bardiya and Gorkha) and develop a comprehensive implementation guideline to facilitate scaling up of CSV models.

B.11.3 Nepal Development Research Institute (NDRI) Assessment of Role of Community Forests (CFs) in CO2 Sequestration, Biodiversity and Land Use Change (2009-10) this study aimed to: estimate

carbon deposit in forest, document tree species diversity, map land use change areas in selected CFs, and analyze the role of CFs in CO2 sequestration, biodiversity, and land use change.

Local Capacity Building for the Implementation of District Climate and Energy Plan (2011-12) Flood and Inundation under the Effect of Climate Change in Lower West Rapti Rivers Basin (2011-2012) Strengthening Generation and Dissemination of Climate-based Agro-advisories for Smallholder Farmers in South Asia (2014-2015) This project

envisages experience sharing for scaling up climate services to smallholder farmers in Nepal on getting technical expertise from India in order to enhance capacity and capabilities of functionaries and farmers for increasing the usefulness of agro-meteorology advisories.

Adaptation to Climate Change in the Hydroelectricity Sector in Nepal (2015-17). This project studies the vulnerability of hydropower's system and develop the adaptation pathways based on the risk and uncertainty due to climate change and mainstream adaptation into the hydroelectric sector.

Stream Flow Analysis in Bagmati Basin (2014-15). This project tries to understand the accuracy of discharge estimates and possibility of its improvement for some locations of Koshi Basin of Nepal.



Appendix C. Climate Change: Summary of Literature



Table C.1: Impact of Climate Change on water resources

Region River Basin Climatic Changes Impacts on Water resources References

Nepal Bagmati River basin

Decreasing the monsoon flow.

Mean yearly flow of the Bagmati river is also decreasing.

Magnitude of flood is decreasing but the duration of each flood and the frequency of flood is increasing.

The hydrograph is shifting in time which is affecting water availability.

Decrease in river flow

(Sharma RH and Shakya NM, 2005)

Nepal Kaligandaki River The annual runoff is increased by about 1% annually for 1964-2000

(Acharya S, 2010)

Western Nepal

Gandaki River Basin

Increasing temperature, shifting rainfall pattern Flow fluctuations of the river change in river hydrology. (Acharya S, 2010)

Nepal Kulekhani Hydropower Plant

No. of rainy days and level of water in the reservoir of the Kulekhani Hydropower project has decreased.

Decrease in water availability. (Dhakal M, 2011)

Nepal Hindu-Kush Region Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns across the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH)

Influence on water resource availability and food security for the downstream population.

(Miller JD, Immerzeel WW and Rees G, 2012)

Nepal Dhare Kola watershed

Increased trend of rainfall, intensity of rainfall was increased whereas frequency and duration were decreased. Increased trend of temperature.

Drying water sources and substantial decreased in water availability in the area.

(Dhakal K, Silwal S and Khanal G, 2010)

Nepal Tamor Basin Decrease in annual runoff (Sharma, Vorosmarty, & Moore, 2000)

Nepal Kosi basin Increasing temperature Decrease in stream flows (Sharma, Moore, & Vorosmarty, 2000)

India Indus Basin Declining glacier mass on river discharge Decreased in the observed average annual and summer monsoon discharge data from river Sutlej


India Indus Basin Increase in winter maximum temperatures between 1976 and 2005 in the upper, middle and lower parts of the Indus Basin 1.79, 1.66 and 1.20 °C respectively.

An increase in temperature of 2 °C would reduce the annual snow water equivalent.

(Khattak MS, Babel MS, & Sharif M, 2011)

Nepal The Ganges Basin The maximum temperature in Nepal increased at a rate of 0.06°C/ y between 1978 and 1994 with higher altitude

Decrease in annual runoff (Shrestha AB, Wake CP, Mayewski PA & Dibb JE, 1999)

India The Brahmaputra Basin

An increase in average annual temperature in the upper Brahmaputra River Basin

Decrease in water availability due to increase in evapotranspiration.

(Flugel WA, Pechstedt J, Bongartz K, Bartosch A, Eriksson M & Clark M, 2008)




Nepal Banke, Bardia , Dhading and Rasuwa

Average increase in temperature is 0.01 °C in Banke and Bardia, 0.02 °C in Dhanding and 0.03 °C in Rasuwa.

Communities experienced water stress in that area.

Nawalparasi Girubarikhola Catchment

Annual rainfall increased slightly in the GirubariKhola Catchment between 1951-2007

Due to the dependency upon rainfed croplands, there is effect on the supply of irrigation water. Decrease in available irrigation water over (the irrigated area in Nawalparasi has increased in recent decades.

(Duncan J, Budathoki D)

Nepal Narayani Basin The mean average temperature is increasing by 1.16 °C Drying up of water sources (LI-BIRD , February 2009)

China Changjiang Basin Annual mean rainfall exhibits increasing trends in western China

Severe floods, landslides and debris and mud flows (Bates BC, ZW Kundzewicz, S Wu and JP Palutikof, Eds, 2008)

China Temperature increases and decreases in precipitation along with increasing water use

Caused water shortages that have led to drying up of lakes and rivers

(Bates BC, ZW Kundzewicz, S Wu and JP Palutikof, Eds, 2008)

Nepal Sankhuwasabha The amount of annual precipitation is decreasing and the pattern is becoming erratic.

There is increasing trend in annual maximum temperature and decreasing trend in annual minimum temperature.

Water shortage which leads to decreasing productivity of major cereal crops

(Sharma M, Dahal S, 2010)

Kailali, Nepal Gadariya Uncertainty and uneven occurrence of rainfall Climatic stress enhanced contamination of water sources severe impact in Gadariya and lack of irrigation water is severe

(Maharjan SK, Sigdel ER, Sthapit BR and Regmi BR, 2011)

India Brahmani River Basin

4°C rise in temperature with maximum decrease (12%) during monsoon and minimum (2.7%) during pre-monsoon season.

Decrease in annual streamflow (Sikka AK and Islam A)

India Mahanandi River Basin

Decrease in monthly flows, the occurrence of high flows is likely to reduce significantly due to high surface warming and there is a decreasing trend in the monthly peak flows.

Decrease in water availability (Mondal Arpita and Mujumdar PP, 2014)

Pakistan Pakistan has experienced most severe drought on 1998-2002, rainfall was below normal

Surface water availability was reduced by over 30%. The total surface flows in the major rivers declined from 162.1 billion cubic meters (BCM) to 109.4 BCM.

(Muhammed A, Stewart BA, Mitra AP, Shrestha KL, Ahmed AU, Chowdhury AM, 2004)

Nepal Upper watersheds of Bhotekoshi and Sunkoshi

Intense rainfall in 1981, 1982, 1987,1988,1990,1995 and 1996

Experienced major disasters flood, landslides and debris flows

(Muhammed A, Stewart BA, Mitra AP, Shrestha KL, Ahmed AU, Chowdhury AM, 2004)

China Yellow River Basin The temperature has increased by 0.5–3°C in most parts of the basin, and the mean temperature has increased by 1.5°C.

Water stress situations of both water quantity and water quality in the basin

(Mu J, Qunchang Liu, Gabriel HF, Di X, Jingdong X, Caili W and Hejing R, 2014)




The mean annual precipitation fluctuations show a decreasing trend in the basin in general over the past 50 years

Nepal Indrawati Basin The simulation for the Indrawati basin showed no significant trend in average annual precipitation in the reference period from 1980 to 2008.

The simulation for the Indrawati basin showed no significant trend in water availability, or in seasonal water availability, in the reference period from 1980 to 2008.

(Sijapati S, Bhatti MT and Pradhan, 2014)

China Tarim River Basin The temperature increased by nearly 1°C over the past 50 years.

The average annual precipitation exhibited an increasing trend with a magnitude of 6.8 mm per decade.

The stream flow from the headwater of the river exhibited a significant increase during the last 20 years

(Chen YN, Li WH, Xu CC, Hao XM, 2007)

China Tarim River Basin Since the late 1980s, drought appeared to be decreased and floods increased

Water flow in the mainstream has been declining when compared to the rising flow rates in the headstreams.

From the 1950s to 2006, water flowing into the Tarim River from the four headstreams reduced by 1,514* 108m3/s

(Fan YT, Chen YN, Li WH, Wang HJ, Ki XG, 2011)

South Asia, China

Indus, Ganga, Brhmaputra basins

No significant precipitation trends at large basin scale or regional scale but several localized trends

(Nepal & Shrestha, 2015)

India Irrawaddy River Increasing temperature up to 27% for 6°C Reductions in mean discharge for the smallest temperature increases.

(Singh CR, Thompson JR, French JR, Kingston DG and Mackay AW, 2010)

Tanzania Pangani River Basin

A decrease in rainfall during June-October period and adjoining months, increase in November-March rainfall.

Minimum temperature increase by approximately 2° C (range of 1-3°C) during all months, maximum temperatures increase in July-November.

The seasonality of stream flows in the Pangani is likely to be changed due to hotter and drier winters.

Flows have been reduced from several hundred to less than 40m3 per second.

(IUCN, 2007)



Table C.2: Climate Projections

Scenario Region River Basin

Impacts

References Temperature Precipitation Stream flow

A2 Scenario, HadRM3

Nepal Brahmaputra basin

The projection indicate that the temperature will continue to rise

23% increase in future precipitation. 48% increase in surface runoff, (ICIMOD, 2010)

B2 Scenario, HadRM3

Nepal Brahmaputra Basin

14% increase in future precipitation a 28% increase in surface runoff (ICIMOD, 2010)

A2 Scenario, HadCM3 mode

Nepal Indrawati Basin Average annual precipitation in the Indrawati basin was projected to decrease slightly by 0.9, 1.4, and 3.0% of baseline by the 2020s, 2055s, and 2080s, respectively


A2 and B1 scenarios

Nepal Koshi Basin Annual maximum temperature is projected to increase by 0.3°C per decade.

Annual minimum temperature is projected to increase by 0.3 °C and 0.2 °C per decade.

The mean annual precipitation for the whole basin is projected to decrease by 1-3% in the 2030s and increase by 8-12% in 2050s

Projections revealed no significant changes in the seasonal distribution of flows, with the monsoon remaining the dominant hydrological driver.

(Bharati L, Gurung P, Jayakody P, Smakhtin V, and Bhattarai U, 2014)

A2 Scenario, HadCM3 model

Pakistan Hakra Branch Canal area

Average annual precipitation was projected to decrease by 7.8% by the 2020s, with decreases in early summer, autumn, and early winter, but then to increase by 49% and 36% of baseline by the 2050s and 2080s, respectively

Overall flows in the canal were also projected to decrease slightly under all three time segments (2020s, 2050s and 2080s) in future climate scenarios, except the 2050s scenario during the monsoon season.


A2, A1B, B1 Scenario, SWAT

China, Nepal, India and Bangladesh

Ganges Basin Dry season, monsoon, and post-monsoon flows were projected to increase by up to 20%

(Hassan A, Wahid S, Shrestha ML,Rashid MA, Ahmed T, Mazumder A, Sarker MH, Hossain BMT, Mumu Sarazina and Sarke MH, 2014)


China, Nepal, India and Bangladesh

Ganges Basin A frequency analysis of flood events under the climate change scenarios showed that a 50-year flood will become a 20-year flood by the 2050s under the A2 and B1 scenarios, and a 10-year event under the A1B scenario.





Impacts



China, Bhutan, India and Bhutan

Brahmaputra Basin

A frequency analysis of flood events under the climate change scenarios showed that a 50-year event becoming a 35-year event in the Brahmaputra basin.



India and Bangladesh

Meghna Basin A frequency analysis of flood events under the climate change scenarios showed that a 50-year event becoming a 20-year event in the Meghna basin.



India and Bangladesh

Meghna Basin Flow was projected to increase in all seasons.

More than 60% of annual flow occurs during the monsoon, and this may increase by the 2050s.


RCP 4.5 Nepal Langtang River Basin

The projected temperature shows an increasing trend of 0.015 °C per year

The projected precipitation a slight negative trend -1.903 mm per year.

The projected annual discharge from the Langtang River basin showed a positive trend of 0.003 m3/s per year over the period 2010 to 2050.

The average contribution of snow and the annual discharge during 2010-2050 was projected to be 47%.

(Kayastha RB, Kumar R, Lamsal D, Singh S, Shrestha KL, Shrestha AB, Pariyar SK, 2014)

A2, A1B, B1 scenarios

Nepal Poiqu/Bhotekoshi/Sunkoshi basin

An increase in average monthly temperatures (of the order 1–4°C) with the greatest changes in February and the least in March and November

Total precipitation was projected to decrease from June to August under all three scenarios.

Daily discharge was higher under the A1B than the B1 or A2 Scenarios.

(Khanal NR, Hu JM, Cao J, Koirala HL, Li YG, Nepal P, Li J, Jia FH and Mool PK, 2014)

RCP 4.5 India Kafni Catchments

The projected trend was positive for temperature (0.033°C per year) in both wet and dry seasons

The projected trend was positive for precipitation (18.50 mm per year) in both wet and dry seasons

The river discharge was projected to increase up to 2040 and then decrease gradually, in both the wet and dry seasons.

The projected annual discharge from the Kafni River basin also showed an overall positive trend (0.012 m3/s per year.

(Kayastha RB, Kumar R, Lamsal D, Singh S, Shrestha KL, Shrestha AB, Pariyar SK, 2014)




Impacts


A1B China Yellow River Basin

Precipitation decreasing by 5 and 10% and evapo-transpiration increasing by 10 and 15%

Irrigation water demand will increase and the water situation will become more stressed in 2030 and 2050

(Mu J, Qunchang Liu, Gabriel HF, Di X, Jingdong X, Caili W and Hejing R, 2014)

China Yangtze River Basin

The mean upstream water supply will decrease between the two time slices 2000-2007 and 2046-2065 at the rate -5.6%

(Vaidya RA, Sharma E, 2014)

A1B Scenarios

China Yangtze River Basin

An annual temperature increase of approximately 3.5 °C

An increase of annual precipitation in North and a decrease in South.

Runoff in the upper reach of Yangtze River is projected to increase throughout the year in the future, especially in spring when the increase will be approximately 30 %. Runoff from the catchments in the northern part of Yangtze River will increase by approximately 10 %, whereas that in the southern part will decrease, especially in the dry season, following precipitation changes.

(Gu H, Yi Z, Wang G, Wang G, Wang J, Ju Q, Yang C, Fan C, 2015)

Hindu Kush Himalaya

Overall, studies indicate that the mean upstream water supply will decrease between the two time slices 2000–2007 and 2046–2065 at rates of -8.4% for the upper Indus, -17.6% for the Ganges, -19.6% for the Brahmaputra, and -5.6% for the Yangtze

(Immerzeel et al. 2010).

GHG Scenario

India Krishna River Basin

The river basin is expected to receive reduced level of precipitation in future.

Reduction has also predicted in evapo transpiration & water yield of the basin.

(Gosain AK, Rao S & Basuray D, 2006)

GHG Scenario

India Mahanandi River Basin

The river basin is expected to receive comparatively higher level of precipitation in future.

(Gosain AK, Rao S & Basuray D, 2006)

HadCM3, A2 emissions scenario

India Tunga-Bhadra River Basin

Stream flow in the Tunga-Bhadra River was predicted to increase by 46% by the 2080s in accordance with

The average annual stream flow record an increase of 4%, 17.1% and 43.9% respectively in the 2020s, 2050s, and 2080s under A2 scenario.

(R Meenu, S Rehana & PP Mujumdar, 2012)




Impacts


increase in precipitation projections of 28%.

HadCM3, B2 emissions scenario


50% increase in future precipitation simulated by the HadCM3 B2 scenario in the 2080s produced a 103% increase in direct runoff

The average annual stream flow record an increase of 5.4% and 18.5% respectively in the 2050s, and 2080s under B2 scenario.


(MIROC) 3.2, A1B Scenario


The maximum daily temperature in sub-basins under A2 scenario increased by 1, 2.1 and 3.4 °C respectively in the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s.


A1B and A2 Scenario

Ganges Basin Temperature in the basin is likely to increase.

Overall increase in monsoon precipitation 12.5% and 10% with decrease during pre-monsoon and increase during the post- monsoon seasons

(Pervez MS & Henebry GM, 2014)

A1B Scenario

Ganges Basin Average temperature will increase to 2.8-3.9 °C by 2100

(Jeuland M, Harshadeep N, Escurra J, Blackmore D and Sadoff C, 2013)

A2 Scenario Ganges Basin Average temperature will increase to 3.5 to 4.8 °C by 2100

(Jeuland M, Harshadeep N, Escurra J, Blackmore D and Sadoff C, 2013)

A1B, B1 and B2 Scenario

Koshi Catchment

An increase in summer, autumn and annual precipitation but a decrease in spring precipitation.

(Agarwal A, Babel MS & Maskey S, 2014)

A2 and A1B Scenario using PRECIS

Pakistan Indus Basin An increase in temperature in both northern and southern Pakistan

Precipitation in the upper Indus Basin is projected to increase by 25% compared to baseline by 2046-2065.


A2 and B2 Scenarios, HadCM3

Pakistan Indus Basin Increasing trends for minimum and maximum temperatures throughout Pakistan

(Kazmi DH, Li J, Rasul G, Tong J, Ali G, Cheema SB, Fischer T, 2014)




Impacts


SPHY model Indus Basin The annual runoff will increase by 7-12% by 2050, primarily due to accelerated melt in the upper Indus Basin together with an increase in precipitation.

(Lutz AF, Immerzeel WW, Shrestha AB & Bierkens, MFP, 2014)

Nepal Dudh Koshi Catchment

Contribution of snow melt to river flow in the Dudh Koshi Catchment would decrease by 31% with a 2 °C rise in temperature and by 60% with a 4 °C rise, changing the river from snow-dominated to rain-dominated.

(Nepal S, Krause P, Flugel WA, Fink M & Fischer C, 2014)

SRES Scenarios

China The Mekong River

The decline in annual flow of the Mekong River by 16-24% by the end of the 21st century is projected and would contribute to increasing water stress.


CO2 concentration of 540ppm and 720ppm

Thailand, Lao PDR, Vietnam

Mekong River Basin

The trend of increasing precipitation by 10-30%, throughout the region under future climate condition at CO2 concentration of 540ppm and 720ppm, especially in the eastern and southern part of Lao PDR

The most of the sub-basins tend to have higher discharge under impact of climate change

(SEA, START RC, 2006)

A2,B2 Scenario, PRECIS/ECHAM

China Mekong River Basin

An increase of 0.02 to 0.023 °C per year

An increase of 1.2-1.5 mm/year precipitation over the period 2010-2050

(Hoanh CT, Jirayoot K, Lacombe G and Srinert V, 2010)

A1B scenario China Lower Mekong Basin

An increase of 0.012 to 0.014 °C per year.

An increase of 0.1 to 9.9 mm/yr precipitation.

Increase in mean annual rainfall of 13.5% by 2030.

(Eastham J, Mpelasoka F, Mainuddin M, Ticehurst C, Dyce P, Hodgson G, Ali R and Kirby M, 2008)

GCM Lebanon The annual net usable water resource would decrease by 15% in response to GCM estimated average rise in temperature of 1.2 °C under a doubled CO2 climate

The flows in rivers would increase in winter and decrease in spring.


Asia The duration of seasonal snow cover in alpine areas namely the Tibetan

(Bates BC, ZW Kundzewicz, S Wu




Impacts


Plateau, Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia is expected to shorten leading to a decline in volume and resulting in severe spring droughts.

and JP Palutikof, Eds, 2008)

SRES A1B Scenario

Japan The future flood risk in Tokyo between 2050 and 2030 under the SRES A1B Scenario is likely to e 1.1 to 1.2 times higher than the present condition.


HadCM3, A2 emission scenario


15%, 9% and 26% increase in annual stream flow was estimated during 2020, 2050 and 2080 respectively

(Sikka AK and Islam A)

HadCM3, B2 emission scenario

23% and 28% increase in annual stream flow estimated during 2050 and 2080

PRECIS Scenarios


Maximum increase (94%) in pre-monsoon, minimum increase (43%) in monsoon season

52.5% increase in annual stream flow (Sikka AK and Islam A)

WatBal Model

Langtang Khola An increase of temperature of 4°C and an increase of 10%, the runoff in the Langtang would increase by 2.2%.

(Chaulagain NP, 2006)

WatBal Karnali, Narayani, Koshi and Bagmati river

An increase in temperature of 4% and an increase in precipitation of 10%, the runoff in the Karnali, the Narayni, the Koshi and Bagmati Rivers in Nepal.

(MOPE, 2004)

A2 Scenarios Han River Basin Under the scenarios, the shortage increased by 2.20-2.74 times from references years of 2020-2030 target years of 2031-2060.

Shift of runoff concentration from July, August, and September to August, September and October.

(Kim SJ, Jun HD, Kim BS, Kim HS, 2010)

Business as Usual Scenario-BAU (Variable Infiltration Capacity

Thailand Chi and Mun River Basin

The model shows trend of increasing discharge in both river basin. However during the decades of 2010s, the water supply in both river basins might decrease slightly with higher fluctuation during the decade.

(APN, 2008)




Impacts


hydrological model)

A2 Scenarios Thailand Chao Phraya It will experience an increase in precipitation up to 3.1%,, 7.4% and 22% in the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s respectively relative to baseline period for dry season

The water availability is expected to increase up to 25% for 2080s

(Shrestha S, 2014)

B2 Scenarios Thailand Chao Phraya It will experience an increase in precipitation up to 0.8%, 8.4% and 13.5% in the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s respectively relative to baseline period for dry season.

The water availability is expected to increase up to 23% for 2080s

(Shrestha S, 2014)

A2 and B2 Scenarios

Thailand Mae Kok, Bang Pakong, Mae Khong

An increase in precipitation ranging from 21.4 to 37.8 % and 15.4 to 30.6 % for A2 and B2 scenarios respectively considering both dry and wet seasons by 2080s.

The extreme water availability is observed in 2080s ranging from −7 to 47 % and −17.8 to 54 % for wet and dry periods respectively relative to baseline period.

(Shrestha S, 2014)

A1B Scenarios

USA Yakima River Reservoir system

There will be change in annual temperature by 1.18°C in 2020s, 2.05°C in 2040s and 3.52°C in 2080s.

There will be change in annual precipitation by 0.22% in 2020s, 2.1% in 2040s and 4.9% in 2080s

Water shortage that occur in 14% of years historically increase to 32% in the 2020s, to 36% in the 2040s and 77% of years in the 2080s

(Vano JA, Scott M, Voisin N, Stockle CO)

B1 Scenarios USA Yakima River Reservoir system

There will be change in annual temperature by 1.08°C in 2020s, 1.57°C in 2040s and 2.49°C in 2080s.

There will be change in annual precipitation in 1.9% in 2020s, 2.2% in 2040s and 3.4% in 2080s.

Water Shortages occur in 27% of years in the 2020s, 33% for the 2040s and 50% for the 2080s

(Vano JA, Scott M, Voisin N, Stockle CO)

2° C Scenario

Canada Liard River Basin

Winter and spring seasons have a temperature increase of 0-2°C, while summer and autumn both increase by 2-4°C in the 2°C Scenario.

The autumn and winter seasons have the largest increase in precipitation. As the scenario temperature increases, basin-wide precipitation increases by at least 10mm except in the summer.

The increase of winter low flow (4 to 12%) due to the higher recession flow from the larger autumn rainfall events.

(Thorne R, 2011)

HadCM3 GCM

Canada Liard River Basin

With each degree of warming under the HadCM3 GCM, both precipitation and runoff increased by at least 5%

(Thorne R, 2011)

HadCM3 Africa Okavango River Basin

Warming levels up to 6 °C There are changes in excess of 10% in the mean annual river flow

(Hughes DA, Kingston DG, Todd MC, 2011)




Impacts


HadCM3 Brazil Rio Grande Basin

Increase in global mean air temperature of between 1 and 6 °C

Mean annual river discharge increases, relative to the baseline or control run period (1961-1990), by +5% to +10% under the SRES emissions scenarios.

(Nobrega MT, Collischonn W, Tucci EM and Paz AR, 2011)

A2 Scenarios Brazil Rio Grande Basin

Mean river flow increases by 10% (Nobrega MT, Collischonn W, Tucci EM and Paz AR, 2011)

GCM Brazil Uruguay River Basin

Mean stream flow in the Brazilian parts of the Uruguay River Basin was projected to change by between -15% and +25%

(Nobrega MT, Collischonn W, Tucci EM and Paz AR, 2011)

GCM

A2 and B1 Scenario

North America Yukon River Basin (YRB)

Increasing temperatures in the 21st century. The largest temperature changes are seen in the winter months (>6°C)

Increased precipitation for the YRB during the twenty-first century.

The largest increases in runoff for the months of May through July. There is an apparent increase in runoff estimated for the month of September for many of the GCMs.

(Hay LE, McCabe GJ, 2010)

A1B Scenario

West Africa Volta River Basin

A basin-wide increase in annual average temperature of up to 3.6 ° C.

A decrease in annual average rainfall of approximately 9% by 2050 and 20% by 2100 respectively

By the end of the century, average annual discharge and groundwater recharge decrease by approximately 45% and 53% respectively.

(McCartney M, Forkuor G, Sood A, Amisigo B, Hattermann F and Muthuwatta Lal, 2012)

A1B Scenario

Peru Rimac Basin Temperature is expected to increase by one to two degree Celsius.

Increasing precipitation intensity The storage function will be lost, increasing water flow in winter and decreasing it in summer.

(BMZ, KFW, 2010)

HadCM3 Washington, USA

Tualatin River Basin

It predicts monthly temperature changes of 3-11°F by 2080

From 2050 through 2080 winters get progressively wetter and summers get progressively drier than the year 2000 climate.

By 2040, the watershed's average annual runoff will be less than its historic average. The summer stream flows will decrease between ten and twenty percent.

(Palmer RN, Clancy E, VanRheenen NT, Wiley MW, 2004)

HadCM2 California San Joaquin River Basin

It projects faster warming for two future periods (2010 to 2039) and (2050 to 2079)

It projects wetter conditions relative to present climate.

There would be increased reservoir inflows, increased storage limited by existing capacity, and increased releases for deliveries and river flows

(Brekke LD, Miller NL, Bashford KE, Quinn NWT and Dracup JA, 2004)

PCM California San Joaquin River Basin

It projects drier conditions relative to present climate.

There would be decreased reservoir inflows, decreased storage and releases, and decreased deliveries

(Brekke LD, Miller NL, Bashford KE, Quinn NWT and Dracup JA, 2004)




Impacts


A2 and B2 Scenarios

Nile River Basin It projects that temperature will increase from 2.6 to 5.2°C by 2080 under A2 Scenarios and 1.6 to 3.5°C under the B2 Scenarios

Precipitation scenarios indicate both increases and decreases by 2080.

By 2030 annual flows are projected to decrease by 18 bcm below the equatorial lakes, 4 bcm on the Blue Nile, and 8 bcm along the Main Nile

(Tidwell AC, 2006)

A1B Scenario

Netherland Oueme Catchment, Benin

An increase in temperature until 2049

The discharge decreases by about 44% in the final decade as compared to the reference period.

(Giertz S, Diekkruger B and Hollermann B, 2012)

GCMs Chateauguay River Basin

The temperature increase during winter months will be above the annual average.

The precipitation will be lower. Under the future climate, water discharges in the summer-fall periods could exceed the maximum flow discharge.

(Roy L, Leconte R, Brissette FP & Marche C, 2001)

Hadley and Echam Scenarios

Sobat Basin The final 30 years of low indicate between -5% to -18.4% flow changes from the baseline period.

Hadley and Canadian scenarios

Blue Nile Basin Project deficits from 2.6 to 9.3 bcm. By the 2080s the range of projected deficits grows to 8.4 -24.7 bcm (15-45%).

(Tidwell AC, 2006)

BAU Scenarios

USA Colorado River Basin

Average annual temperature changes for the Colorado River basin were 0.5°C warmer for control climate and 1.0, 1.7 and 2.4°C warmer for periods (2010-2039), (2040-2069), (2070-2098).

Average annual precipitation for the control climate was slightly (1%) less than for observed historical climate and 3, 6, and 3% less for future periods (2010-2039), (2040-2069), (2070-2098).

Annual runoff in the control run was about 10% lower than for simulated historical conditions, and 14, 18, and 17% less for Periods (2010-2039), (2040-2069), (2070-2098).

(Christensen NS, Wood AW, Voisin N, Lettenmaier DP & Palmer RN, 2004)



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D.1 Design Process

Design of small and medium irrigation systems in DOI mainly refers to the rehabilitation design of FMIS that was initiated since mid-1980s under donor assisted programs. However, it also refers to design of new irrigation systems, though their numbers are limited compared to numbers under rehabilitation design

Rehabilitation of FMIS is usually done through irrigation sector projects that comprise a cluster of small and medium irrigation systems (FMIS), termed here as subprojects. As of now, the DOI has already rehabilitated over 1,500 FMISs irrigating over 210,000 ha of cultivated land3 . While doing so, the DOI has established 15 step processes for project implementation (DOI, 1999), of which following 4 steps relate to design: Identification survey Sub-project verification and prioritization Feasibility study Detail design

Most of the irrigation sector projects follow these four steps in designing their subprojects, though these steps may be named differently in different projects.

Identification survey relates to pre-feasibility study. It involves joint field visit by DOI engineer, agricultural staffs, and farmers.

Sub-project verification and prioritization is an important step where subprojects are verified either by project consultant or by a higher level DOI technical team usually named mobile irrigation team (MIT). At this stage, sub-projects are prioritized using several criteria like (a) sources of water (b) level of technical difficulties (c) main canal (d) command areas (e) environmental considerations (f) accessibility (g) farmers commitment, and (h) pattern of land holding.However, there are no criteria related to vulnerability to climate change.

Table Error! No text of specified style in document..3: Irrigation Desing Steps

SN Design steps Description

1 Field survey This involves engineering (land and water resources, topography, geotechnical, command areas), agricultural (farming system, cropping environment, soil) and socio-institutional survey (people, local institutions and WUA)

2 Agricultural and engineering analysis,

This involves: (a) evaluation of existing cropping environment and planning for future cropping pattern, (b)assessment of command areas, (c) assessment of water availability, irrigation requirement, and water balance (d) planning of irrigation

3 The related projects include the World Bank-funded Irrigation Line of Credit (ILC) (1988), the Asian Development

Bank (ADB) funded Irrigation Sector Project (ISP) (1988), the UNDP/World Bank/ADB-funded Irrigation Sector Support Project (ISSP) (1989), and the Danida /UNDP-funded Dhaulagiri Irrigation Development Project (DIDP) (1989), are some examples of this. These programs are continuing through different names like Nepal Irrigation Sector Project (NISP), Community managed Irrigated Agriculture Sector Project (CMIASP), Irrigation and Water Resources Management Project (IWRMP) etc

Appendix D. Irrigation Design, Implementation and



SN Design steps Description

and design of proposed subproject

infrastructure and their conceptual engineering design (e) engineering cost estimate and economic / financial analysis

3 Environmental and social safeguard studies

This involves: (a) Environmental assessment of rehabilitation or new works (b) assessment of impact of rehabilitation and new development works on minority and disadvantage groups of the society including women (re-settlement, loss of lands and property, loss of livelihood, their development needs and priorities etc)

The extent of social safeguard studies conducted (or to be conducted) by DOI depends on the nature of projects. In donor assisted projects, social safeguard studies are conducted in greater details depending on their needs. However, such studies are hardly conducted in the government funded projects like Medium Irrigation Project (MIP).

Unlike social studies, environmental studies are conducted in all sub-projects as per environmental protection rules (EPR) 1997 of the Government of Nepal.

D.1.1 Detail design

Detail design includes detailing of all the engineering and agronomic components of design conducted during feasibility study. It includes: (a) irrigation and agronomic system planning including delineation of command areas, (b) water resources assessment, (c) hydraulic and structural design of irrigation infrastructure (d) cropping system and crop planning (e) operation and maintenance design (f) WUA institutional design (g) costing of subproject and (h) economic / financial analysis

Detail design also includes design of engineering, agricultural and social mitigation measures that are identified, if any, for minimizing environmental and social impacts.

D.2 Design responsibilities

DOI implements two types of projects termed here as central and sector level projects. All the central level projects are large projects, which are implemented by specific project offices, whereas irrigation sector projects are implemented by respective irrigation divisions and subdivisions4 under the coordination of a central level project coordination unit located at DOI. The design responsibilities for small and medium irrigation systems (subprojects) are describe below, and these are all covered by irrigation sector projects.

The design of small and medium irrigation system (subproject) under irrigation sector projects is the joint responsibility of irrigation divisions / subdivisions and central level project coordination unit. But, presently, these offices are relying more on consultants for designing irrigation system (subproject).

Usually, irrigation sector projects are supported by two levels of consultants. The project implementation support consultant (PISC) at the central level is the first level of consultant, which provides design guidelines and supervises the irrigation system design done by the irrigation division and subdivisions.

4 There are a total of 73 irrigation division and subdivision offices in the country



Besides this, the irrigation divisions / subdivisions recruit subproject specific consultants (2nd level) mainly for the survey and design of specific subprojects.

This means design of most of the small and medium irrigation systems in DOI is done by sub-project specific consultants recruited at the level of irrigation division / sub-division. Theoretically, designs done by the subproject specific consultants are to be reviewed by the project implementation support consultant and several other design review tiers of DOI. But, the DOI lacks proper monitoring system of its design process.

D.2.1 Allowances for climate change in the design process

The existing design process in DOI has not made any allowance for climate change in designing irrigation infrastructure. However discussions on this aspect are continuing, mainly for accounting anticipated floods in designing irrigation infrastructure through the provision of infrastructural measures like safety embankments, emergency spillways, and fuse plugs.

Unlike in the case of flood flows, discussions on the likely mitigation measures for accounting reduction in low flows are not taking place within DOI.

This necessitates developing a mechanism for introducing climate change allowance in designing irrigation system. Such allowances may best be considered at the level of sub-project verification and prioritization, and feasibility study. This may be done by introducing: (a) a set of criteria related to climate change at the level of sub-project verification and prioritization, and (b) climate change vulnerability assessment study and their mitigation measures at the level of feasibility study.

D.2.2 Allowances for other changes in water demands

Other changes in water demands here include mainly the changes due to non-agricultural uses of waters like water needs for urbanization, industrial uses and environmental flows.

Except the environmental consideration and customary water rights, the design guidelines are silent on the allowances for other uses of water and their changes. On the environmental consideration and customary water rights, guidelines note followings: Water rights issues from in areas upstream and downstream of the proposed water abstraction site

should be studied. Project will not be recommended in case there exist conflicts in use right of waters Environmental assessment of any rehabilitation or new construction should be carried out as per

pertaining rules of the Government of Nepal and donor community

Theoretically, allowances for other changes in water demands are to be made while preparing integrated river basin plans. Though the Nepal’s Water Resources Strategy and National Water Plan aim to manage waters at the level of a river basin, this principle has not yet been reflected in the DOI design guidelines.



D.2.3 Irrigation design manuals

D.2.3.1 PDSP manual

There is no dearth of irrigation design manuals in the Department of Irrigation. Many of the design manuals developed during 1980s were project specific5 . However, in 1990, the Department of Irrigation for the first time published 22 volumes of complete irrigation design manuals and guidelines. These manuals cater most of the needs of irrigation design and they are popularly known as PDSP manuals6 .

Furthermore, considering the complexity of hill irrigation, DOI in 2006 published additional guidelines for the design of irrigation systems in hills and valleys. In addition, DOI has also published brief manuals on the design of micro irrigation schemes such as drip, sprinkler and tank irrigation as these were not covered by PDSP manuals.

In recent past, some of the projects in DOI again started a trend of producing design manuals by updating and compiling parts of the PDSP manuals into one or two volumes as per their project needs. The reasons are two folds. First, the PDMP manuals are already out of stock, and are not available for uses. Second, for practical reason, it was useful to pull together required components of PDSP manuals into one self-contained volume for project specific uses. Following are examples of some such manuals: Farmer managed irrigation system design manual 2002 prepared by Nepal Irrigation Sector Project. CMIASP planning and design manual 7 2011, prepared by the community managed irrigated

agriculture sector project (CMIASP).

D.2.3.2 Computer aided design software

In recent years, many irrigation design engineers in DOI and also in consulting firms have started using various computer aided software in designing irrigation infrastructure. Some of the commonly used computer aided software are:

5 Some of the old days manuals are: Medium Irrigation Project design manual; ILO design manual; Second hell

irrigation design manual; Dhaulagiri irrigation development design manual; Hill irrigation manual developed by institute of engineering and son on

6 The list of the manuals include: M.1 General System Planning; M.2 Survey and Mapping; M.3 Hydrology and Agrometeorology; M.4 Soils and Land Use; M.5 Sociology and Farmer Participation; M.6 Groundwater Irrigation; M.7 Headworks, River Training Works and Sedimentation; M.8 Distribution Systems, Canals and Canal Structures; M.9 Drainage; M.10 Engineering Cost Estimating and Economics; M.11 Infrastructure Planning; M.12 Tender Documents and Construction; M.13 Operation, Maintenance and Management. The supporting guidelines and other documents are: G.1 Upgrading of Farmer Built and Operated Systems; G.2 Shallow Tubewell Development; G.3 Small /Medium Scale Project Development; G.4 Rehabilitation of Government Schemes; D.1 Interim Field Design Manual (Superseded by D.2); D.2 Field Design Manual; D.3 Standard Structures Designs; D.4 Simulation Model Manual; and a standard drawing manual

7 This is an update and compilation of parts of the field design manuals (D2 & D3), Hydrology and Agro-meteorology manual (M3), and Head works, river training works and sedimentation Manual (M7)



CropWat 8: FAO developed software for estimation of crop water requirement and subsequently irrigation requirement.

Softwel Canal: software developed by Softwel P. Ltd Nepal for the design of canal. It provides comprehensive and optimized solution for canal design

Microsoft Excel spreadsheet: Several engineers have developed design spreadsheet on their own using Microsoft Excel for designing irrigation infrastructure. Such spread sheets are (were) developed following available design manuals, text books, and guidelines pertaining to the knowledge of their developers. Many other engineers simply copy such design spread sheet and design irrigation infrastructure. Some use them with proper understanding the spreadsheet, while some others use them mechanically without understanding their logics.

HEC RAS: Some engineers use HEC-RAS for modeling water profile in canals due to operation of the canal regulators (cross and head regulators)

Win Flume: Some engineers also use Win Flume for design of broad crested weirs

D.2.3.3 An internet based subproject preparation system

The community managed irrigated agriculture sector project (CMIASP) has developed a GPS/GIS based survey and mapping methodology which was successfully linked to Google map through web application. With this, the command areas and canal alignment could be mapped very efficiently, and these can be viewed at any time through internet8. Later, this methodology was also linked with an internet based data processing and template driven subproject report preparation systems. These methodologies are becoming increasingly popular in DOI.

Furthermore, the Department of Irrigation is proposing to add web based irrigation system design into the internet based data processing system. Such web based irrigation system design will help achieving consistent levels of quality in detail design and project preparation. Components of irrigation design like (a) identification of catchment area and assessment of available flows, (b) crop water requirement, (c) cropping system design, (d) sizing of canal capacities etc. may be included in such web based design.

D.2.3.4 Non conventional irrigation systems in Nepal

In Nepalese context, conventional irrigation system means an open gravity canal fed by a river or a lake that supply waters to farmers field for irrigation by flood methods. So, any irrigation system other than the conventional irrigation is primarily a nonconventional system.

Non-conventional irrigation in Nepal mainly includes: Irrigation system with a piped canal networks for both the supply and distribution of waters, especially

in the hills. This technology is becoming popular in hills of Nepal Water harvesting for irrigation with appropriate mode of water distribution system Drip irrigation from a storage system at higher elevation, whichoperates through the gravity.

8 Before the use of this methodology several anomalies on the estimation of command areas of irrigation system were

reported. Such anomalies are now avoided



Sprinkler irrigation system, also operates through the gravitational hydraulic water head. Tank irrigation Treadle Pump

D.2.4 Shortcomings of the present design procedures and design manuals of DOI

Some of the shortcomings of the present design procedures of DOI are listed below: The PDSP design manual recommends the use non-dimensional hydrographs developed in 1982 for

assessing flows through un-gauged rivers. It is understood that this method is not that reliable especially for medium and small streams in the Terai 9 until the non-dimensional hydrographs are updated with current data.

As far more comprehensive climatic, hydrological, and physiographic data are now available since the development of the method in 1982, accuracy of the method could be greatly improved by re-establishing non-dimensional hydrographs with the use of these data.

Though there are no shortages of irrigation design manuals in the Department of Irrigation, the department does not have code of practice in designing irrigation systems. As a result, country wide uniformity in the design small and medium irrigation system is not seen. The situation is further aggravated as actual survey and design of small and medium irrigation system are executed by wide ranges of consultants recruited locally throughout the country.

DOI does not have a central design cell for quality control and quality assurance of design works. DOI does not have a mechanism for monitoring the design process and design outcomes DOI does not have a central knowledge base (documentation system) to learn from past experiences. DOI does not have methodfor estimating anticipated low and high flows due to climate change Data on climate change forecast are not available for influencing design of irrigation system. Climate change forecast suggests that numbers of dry days are increasing gradually. But, the DOI

does not have methods for incorporating these dry days in assessment of irrigation requirements.

References

DOI (1999) Procedural guidelines for farmer managed surface irrigation systems, Nepal Irrigation Sector Project, Department of Irrigation, January 1999, Kathmandu.

DOI (2006) Guidelines for irrigation system desogn in hills and valleys, Full Bright Consultancy Pvt. Ltd and Project Engineering Consultancy and Research Pvt. Ltd, for DOI, Kathmandu, January 2006

NISP (2002) Farmer managed irrigation system design manual, Nepal Irrigation Sector Project, IDA Credit 3009-Nep, prepared by Royds Consulting Ltd in association with Associated with Rural Development Inc,

Consolidated Management Services P Ltd, and Multi Disciplinary P Ltd, Department of Irrigation, Kathmandu, June 2002

9 As far more comprehensive climatic, hydrological, and physiographic data are now available since the development of the method in

1982, accuracy of the method could be greatly improved by re-establishing non-dimensional hydrographs with these data



E.1 Hydrological design parameters

E.1.1 Return periods

Return period of hydrological events is one of the design parameters required in designing any hydraulic infrastructure in a river. This also reflects probability of occurrence of such events, and subsequently risk factor. For example, 1 in 5 years return period means expected hydrological event occurs in 4 out of 5 years. Alternatively, there is a risk that in 1 out of 5 years, such hydrological event may not occur.

The decision on return period is subjective. Table 1.1 presents suggested return periods of hydrological events as proposed by the PDSP manuals

Table 4: Suggested Return Periods for Hydrological Events

SN

Return period Remarks

1 Irrigation supply reliability 5 FAO recommends : 70-80% reliability

2 Effective rainfall (homogeneous sequence) 5

3 Canal capacity (independent) 5

4 Run-of-the-river diversion rate (independent) 5

5 Head works flood protection

Major Irrigation System in Terai 100

Other Irrigation Systems 50

7 External drainage

Channels (Hills and Terai) 10

Cross drainage structure 25

Major drainage structure 50

8 Catch drains 10

9 Internal drainage

Terai ( 3 days rainfall) 10

Hills (1 days rainfall) 10

Source: PDSP manual

Above values of return periods are shaped based on economic considerations10 and affordable level of risks (social and economical).

10 Some of the aspects that shape the values of return periods are: (a) Importance of structure to be constructed, (b) Effect of overtopping of the structure,(c) Potential loss of life and downstream damage, and (d) Cost of the structure

Appendix E. Hydrology



In recent past, anticipated change in extreme hydrological events (like floods, low flows) due to climate change has posed new level of risks in designing hydraulic infrastructure, as intensity and frequency of such events are now increasing. In this context, concerns are being raised by irrigation designers whether it is worth considering aspects of climate change in designing return period values.

Once decision on return period is made, flood flows are assessed using various methods listed below

E.1.2 Flood Flows

Table 5: Flood Estimation Methods

SN Methods Data required and limitation Remarks

1 Flood estimation from existing records using frequency analysis:

Note: Various methods are available. PDSP manual recommends Gumbel’s or Log Normal distribution

Requires past long term data (20 years or more).

Does not consider anticipated future data

Can anticipated future data be used in the flood frequency analysis?

2 Regional flood relationship (WECS, 1989):

Note: the method is derived for Nepal based on the regression analysis of past data. It first estimates Q2 and Q100. Thereafter, Q50 is estimated

Applicable to areas more than 100 sq.km.

Uses only the catchment area data below 3,000m

This method has been updated by Sharma and Adhikary

Can the relationship be developed using anticipated climatic data (rainfall)?

3 Rational method(Q=0.278 C I A)

Note: widely used method for small sized-catchments of less than 25 sq.km

Requires data on catchment area, rainfall intensity, runoff coefficient

Considers only the past data

The predicted peak discharge has same probability of occurrence as that of rainfall intensity

The run-off coefficient is constant during the rain storm, and

The recession time is equal to the time of rise

Can we use this method with anticipated future climatic data?

4 U.S. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method

Applicable in small catchments and is widely used in irrigation projects for catchments below 100 km2.

Requires data on: designed rainfall, catchment area, rainfall-run off relationship, soil parameters etc

Considers only the past data

Can we use this method with anticipated future climatic data?

5 Flood estimation from trash

Note: This method is based on the slope area survey of the particular

river stretch where past flood level can be recorded with the help of old inhabitants and or localinformants.

Requires data on river cross section, river gradient, flood marks etc



All the above methods use only the past data. None of them use anticipated climatic data in estimating flood flows. Thus, methods / software needs to be developed for assessing likely flood using climate change forecast

E.1.3 Available Flows

Available flows are assessed using various methods listed below

Table Error! No text of specified style in document..6: Low Flow Estimates

SN Methods Data required and limitation Remarks

1 Frequency analysis:

Note: This method computes 80 % reliable flows using the recorded monthly flow of more than 10 years

Requires past long term monthly flows data (10 years or more).

Does not consider anticipated future monthly flow data

Can anticipated future data be used in the frequency analysis?

2 WECS method (1989):

Note: the method is derived for Nepal based on the regression analysis of past data.

Qmean (month) = C x (basin area)A1 x (area below 5000m +1)A2 x (mean monsoon precipitation)A3

It estimates mean monthly available flows

Applicable to areas more than 100 sq.km.

Requires data on: (a) basin areas, (b) areas between 5000m, (c) mean monsoon rainfall

The method is very weak for the small rivers draining into Terai

This method does not provide Q80, normally used for irrigation design

Can this relationship be developed using anticipated climatic data (rainfall)?

3 MIP method

Note: the method uses regional hydrograph developed for Nepal using spot measurements. For this, the country is divided into seven hydrological regions with a hydrograph for each region showing mean, 20 % & 80 % reliable flows.

Requires data on: catchment area; spot measurement of flow on the concerned watercourse in the dry months (September – May)

The method is very weak for the small rivers draining into Terai

This method is widely used for assessing available flows of a small un-gauged stream for designing small and medium irrigation

Above methods do not use future climatic data. Thus, methods / software needs to be developed for incorporating climate change concerns while assessing Q80, mean, and Q20 flows through un-gauged catchments

E.1.4 Crop water requirement

Commonly assessed parameters for estimating crop water requirements are:



Table 7: Crop Water Requirements

SN Parameters Influenced by Climate Change?

1 Decide cropping pattern No; In case of irrigation facility

2 Calculate ET0 Yes

3 Identify crop coefficient (Kc) for each stage of crop development

Don’t know

4 Calculate ETcrop

ETcrop��ETo��Kc

No additional climate change impact

5 Crop water requirement Yes

E.1.5 Calculation of ET0

Several methods (Blaney and Criddle, Thornwaite, Pennman, etc) are available for computing reference crop evapotranspiration. Modified Pennman is the most commonly used method. These days many engineers use FAO developed cropwat-8. It requires monthly data on Minimum and maximum temperature (mean monthly) Wind speed Humidity Sunshine hours

Presently, ET0is calculated using the past climatic data. In order to account for climate change impact on crop water requirement, ET0 needs to be computed with forecasted climatic data

E.1.6 Effective rainfall

Rainfall is one of the sources for meeting crop water requirement, while the other source is irrigation. However, how much water is coming from rainfall and how much water should be covered by irrigation is, unfortunately, difficult to predict as rainfall varies greatly from season to season.

Further, not all rainfalls are effective in terms of crop growth. Some percolates to depths below the root zone, some is lost to evaporation, and some runs off to contribute to stream flow.

Though existing methods worked well in the past, reliability of these methods in the context of extreme variability of rainfall as a result of climate change has become uncertain. In this context, some of the concerns raised by designers are: What will be the effective rainfall in a situation of climate change induced extreme variation in rainfall,

especially its intensity and duration? How to account a situation of long dry spells in calculating irrigation requirement that are expected to

occur as a result of climate change



E.2 Differences between methods for large and small irrigation

Large irrigation systems are usually designed to draw waters from large or medium rivers. In most cases, such rivers are gauged. So, in the case of large irrigation systems, hydrological features (low flows, high flows, design flows etc) of the concerned rivers are assessed through several methods and the outputs are compared. Further, in the case of large scale projects, hydrological features of the concerned rivers are also assessed through suitable hydrological models: analysis will be extensive, time consuming and costly.

Unlike above, most of the source-rivers of the medium and small irrigation systems are un-gauged. So, methods described above (WECS method, MIP method, and others) are mostly used for assessing hydrological features of medium / small irrigation systems. In this case, other than a couple of spot measurements of discharge at site, not much of field investigation are required. So, the hydrological features are assessed quickly and they are less expensive. But, their reliability can be questioned, which are negotiated with the size of the system.

E.3 Weaknesses perceived in this approach; gaps in knowledge/methods

Following are some of the weakness (related to medium and small irrigation) The PDSP design manual recommends the use non-dimensional hydrographs developed in 1982 for

assessing flows through un-gauged rivers. It is understood that this method is not that reliable especially for medium and small streams in the Terai. As far more comprehensive climatic, hydrological, and physiographic data are now available since the development of the method in 1982, accuracy of the method could be greatly improved by re-establishing non-dimensional hydrographs with the use of these data.

Above situation is also applicable for other empirical methods Present manuals prescribe use of past data for assessing hydrological features of small and medium

irrigation system. In the context of climate change, these methods need to be updated to allow use of projected future data.

Hydrological features of small and medium irrigation systems are usually assessed using any of the methods recommended by PDSP or other manuals. As these are empirical methods, their reliability could be site specific. Thus, it will be useful to recommend assessment of hydrological features using more than one method for comparison.

Though there are no shortages of recommended methods / process for hydrological assessment, the Department of Irrigation does not have code of practices in their uses. As a result, country wide uniformity in the hydrological assessment of small and medium irrigation system is not seen. The situation is further aggravated as actual hydrological assessments of small and medium irrigation system are executed by wide ranges of consultants recruited locally throughout the country.

One of the strong pertaining weaknesses is absence of M&E systems in DOI. As of now the department of irrigation has already built several thousands of small and medium irrigation systems where hydrological features were assessed using above methods. To what extent the assessed hydrological features actually matched in reality is not known. In absence of such monitoring, scientific update of these methods are difficult.

Lack of database of anticipated future climatic data for use by several stakeholders.



F.1 Status of Water Resources Development in Nepal:

Nepal is endowed with abundant water resources from an availability point of view. The bodies of water here are regarded as the key strategic natural resources with the potential to act as the catalyst for the all-round development and economic growth of the country. There are about 6,000 rivers in Nepal with a total drainage area of 194,471 sq. km. Out of this, 74 % lies within the country. 33 of these rivers have a drainage area that exceeds 1000 sq. km. The drainage density expressing the closeness of the spacing of channels is about 0.3 km/sq. km. The development of Nepal’s water resources could generate hydroelectric power, furnish water for irrigation and supply water for domestic and industrial uses.

F.1.1 Impact of Land Use Change on the Hydrological Regime

One of the major aspects of upstream-downstream linkages in terms of water is the relationship between upstream changes in land use and land cover and downstream water availability. Land use change and its impact on different aspects of the environment has been studied both a global and regional or local perspective. Land use management practices can have both positive and negative impacts on water quantity (water availability, ground water recharge and runoff) and water quality (soil erosion, sedimentation, pollution). These processes and associated attributes indicate importance relationship between upstream and downstream areas and developing a better understanding of the interaction between land use and hydrological processes is a major concern in the context of sustainable water resources management.

The impact of land use change on average stream flow has also been investigated. Most research on forest removal in catchments has confirmed an increase in stream flow volume (Douglass and Swank, 1975; Hamilton and King, 1983; Hilber, 1967; Ives and Messerli, 1989). Hilbert (1967) investigated the effects of altering forest cover on water yield in 39 catchments worldwide. The results suggested that forest reduction increases water yield and reforestation decreases water yield. Bosch and Hewlett, 1982 extended Hilbert’s work and reviewed land use changes in an additional 55 catchments with similar results. Several more recent studies have also indicated that a reduction in forest cover can increase water yield (Andreaassian, 2004, Bosch and Hewlett 1982; Herron et al.2002) interpreted mainly as the result of reduced evapotranspiration from the reduced forest cover.

F.1.2 Impact of Land Use Change on Soil Erosion and Sedimentation

The role of vegetation cover in reducing soil erosion in the headwater areas and transition zone, and thereby reducing sediment load in flood plain areas, is widely discussed. Stocking (1984) suggested that lack of vegetation cover accelerates erosion, and Walling (1999) noted that a change in surface condition from natural undisturbed land to cultivation will in general result in an increase in soil erosion rate. The impact of land use change on rates of soil loss, and in particular the impact of land clearance (i.e, removal of trees and vegetation) and cultivation on erosion rates, have been extensively documented. Results obtained from erosion and catchments experiments provide clear evidence of the sensitivity of erosion rates with regard to changing land use and related management (Waling 1999)

Appendix F. Sediment



F.1.3 Climate Change and Suspended Sediment Load in Himalayan Basins

Landslides are frequently triggered by rainfall in regions under the influence of a monsoon climate as well as by the earthquake and this is responsible for a variety of human and environmental impacts. The large amount of sediment produced causes changes in river morphology and rapid deposition in reservoirs and is of great concern in addition to the direct human and economic consequences. Landslide hazard assessment of hill slopes is an essential requirement for effective watershed management,

The sediment transportation of rivers in Nepal is quite high. The specific sediment load is in the order of 1,000 t/km2/yr in high mountain to 8,000 t/km2/yr in Siwalik. The huge amount of suspended sediment coming every year during the rainy season is causing serious problems in the operation of the hydro plants and irrigation canals. The settling basins are normally provided in hydropower projects to trap mostly suspended sand particles to reduce sediment concentration in the turbine flow in order to protect wear and tear of the turbines. Similarly, settling basins are also provided in irrigation projects in order to reduce heavy siltation in the canals. Therefore, it is important to ensure the reduction in sediment load in the sediment laden rivers of Nepal.

The effects of climate change on mountain hydrology are likely to have consequences for mountain people, particularly in terms of the water resources, vegetation, grazing land and other resources on which they are dependent. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has indicated that global warming is occurring relatively faster in recent decades, with the rate of temperature increase being greater in the high-altitude Himalaya than in the lowland parts of Nepal (Shrestha et al., 1999). One effect of the temperature rise is that glaciers are retreating faster than previously in the Himalayan region (International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), 2009; IPCC, 2001;2007). The case study on the changes in river flows and sediment loads in Upper Kaligandaki River Basin has indicated that there is a trend of increasing sediment load in Upper Kaligandaki River. The increasing trend is likely to continue and will have detrimental consequences on the current land use and infrastructure. Increased sediment input to glacier-fed rivers may lead to increased suspended sediments, channel instability, erosion, and flooding.

F.1.4 Climate Change and Effect on Slope Stability and Landslides Climate change has a profound effect on slope stability and landslide as well other mass wasting in high relief regions of the world. The natural processes which pose hazards to people and development in these areas have accelerated as a result of this recent de-glaciation. These include glacier avalanches, landslides and slope instability caused by glacier de-buttressing, and outburst floods from moraine- and glacier-dammed lakes. In addition, changes in sediment and water supply induced by climatic warming and glacier retreat have altered channel and floodplain patterns of rivers draining high mountain ranges. If climate change proceeds as forecast in mountainous terrain with glaciers, then one of the most apparent results will be a rise in the timberline that will result in a decrease in the extent of the alpine zone, reduced snow and increased rain at elevations close to the present snowline, and increased snowfall on higher and colder mountains. Melting of permafrost and more intense rainfall may initiate or increase the frequency of landslides and debris flows in some areas. In recent times, the Himalaya is confronted with problems of population growth, persistent poverty, natural resource degradation, stress on ecosystem services, climate



change, melting glaciers and increasing disaster risks due to frequent and increasing natural hazards such as landslides, flash floods, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF’s) and soil erosion.

Further, the surface processes including landslides in Himalaya are greatly influenced by tectonics that have formed and even influencing present mountain building process as evidenced by active tectonics and GPS observations. Physical interactions between tectonics, surface erosion processes, and climate are manifold and many intricate relationships could be thought of between the tectonic growth of topography, erosional destruction of topography, and climatic influence on erosion rates that have direct bearing on mass wasting phenomena including landslides

F.1.5 Observation on the Effect of Climate Changes

Geo-morphological processes in response to climate changes, such as warming and increased precipitation, could be catastrophic. The evidences of climate change in different parts of the world have been reported, although such examples are scanty due to lack of instrumental data. An increase in sediment yield in various rivers in Himalaya can be attributed to soil erosion and landslides in upper reach due to increase in rainfall. Some of the power projects could not operate in peak discharge period due to high silt content in waters of Himalayan River. Therefore, the evidence of landslides, floods, high rate of erosion, higher concentration of suspended particles in river water, and change in phenology as well as plant species indicate towards changing environment in Himalayan region. It has been reported about the following events in Nepal. Less cold and frosty winters; Less snowfall in winter; Increased rain and snowfall after winter and unusually intense summer rainfall; Increased frequency of avalanches, flash floods, windstorms and hailstorms; and Rise in the altitude of the tree line.

Increasing rainfall intensities and frequencies attributed to climate change, coupled with population growth can drastically increase landslide-associated casualties, especially in countries of Hindu-Kush Himalayan region, where pressure on land resources often lead to slope cultivations which are very much prone to landslide disasters. The change in the land-use often leads to over saturation of sub-soil either due to irrigation in agriculture areas or wastewater disposal in new human settlements. It has been observed that new urban centers in hilly areas or increase in population further aggravate the situation by adding more water to the already vulnerable pore water condition. The subtle change in the hydrological regime can disturb the equilibrium on hill slope and finally it results in slow creeping and subsidence leading to large landslides.

F.2 Watershed and Soil Conservation in Reducing Sediment Yield

Nepal’s temperature is rising faster than global average with high warming rates in the Himalaya. The precipitation is becoming unpredictable resulting extremities. Poor people, whose livelihoods are nature based, have experienced the impacts of climate change and are coping to their best. Adaption to climate change is an urgent action for the poor communities.



The adaption and coping strategies to climate change therefore demand integrated approach. It needs integration within the natural ecosystems, within the soci-economic system and between natural ecosystems and socio-economic system. At the grass root level, the integration can more effectively be carried out in watershed based approach. In this context, the approaches such as water resources management, forest & land conservation and agriculture & livestock management are being implemented. The implementation of climate change adaption project is helping the communities for perception to climate change and its impacts, the coping strategies and the need for adaption through participatory approaches. Community based adaption activities have responded to climate change and its impacts. The lessons learned from these projects indicated that climate changes adaption requires integrated conservation and development program together with focus on disaster risk reduction.

F.2.1 Water Resources Management

Water resources for irrigation is found to be the most affected one. Landslides and debris flow occur during rainy seasons and destroy channels while, the water flow in the stream is decreased during dry season. Landslides and debris flow are due to increase in events of intensive rains. On the other hand, the stream beds have risen because of deposition of gravels due to flash floods and debris flow, which have covered up the remaining small stream water making it inaccessible for irrigation. There is a need for rehabilitation of the irrigation channels following such event.

F.2.2 Forest and Land Conservation

Plantation works are required to be done in the catchment/watershed areas to reduce soil erosion and landslides. There are Forest User Groups to manage the watershed areas in almost all the villages. They control the penetration of outsiders and locals to collect forest products. Plantation are done on both community and private lands. Grasses have also been effective in reducing soil erosion. This will ultimately lead to less sediment yield and reduce sediment transportation in the rivers.

F.2.3 Agriculture and Livestock Development

Agriculture has been affected by change in rainfall patterns. Total agriculture land has decreased because of land cutting by landslides, floods and covering by debris. This warrants for intensive farming of the available land y increasing the number of crops a year or increasing the high yield crops. The increase in number of crops a year is possible after reducing siltation in the channel and rehabilitation of eroded irrigation channels.

F.2.4 Conclusion The Himalayan ecosystems are complex, fragile, and unique in geomorphology and react to climate

change in a manner different from other mountain system due to the fact that Himalayan orogeny is even active today and tectonics play an important role in earth surface processes and landform development. Therefore, coupling and decoupling of climate and tectonics plays an important role in deciphering the influence and interaction of each component in slope stability and mass wasting in the region. This fact is more pronounced across vast stretches of Himalaya evidenced by numerous



occurrences of landslides and high sediment yield. Catastrophic geomorphic processes in Himalaya are heavily influenced by climatic factors. As a result, the occurrence of these processes, which include landslides and outburst floods, is very sensitive to climate change. In Himalayas, the analysis of historical data and a limited number of cases, suggest that under conditions of possible increased precipitation in future, the frequency of debris flows and landslides will increase. Therefore, any sustainable development planning in the region must address the adaptation issues related to climatic effects in terms of landslides, flash floods, GLOF, glacial retreat and erosion.

Climate change impacts are observed in several sectors of Nepal among which water resources in one of the hardest hit sector. Evaluating the impacts in water resources is challenging because water availability, quality and stream flow are sensitive to changes in temperature and precipitation. Increased demand for water caused by population growth, changes in the economy, development of new technologies, changes in watershed characteristics and water management decisions are some of the other factors to be taken into consideration. Water is considered to be a vehicle to climate change impacts and hence needs to be handled carefully and skillfully.

Nepal is highly vulnerable to recurrent floods and landslides. In Nepal, devastating floods are triggered by different mechanisms such as i) continuous rainfall and cloudburst ii) Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) iii) Landslide dam outburst floods iv) Floods triggered by the failure of infrastructures and v) sheet flooding or inundation in low land areas due to an obstruction imposed against flow.

Analysis of monthly flows trend of some the rivers indicate that the contribution of snow melt in runoff is in increasing trend for snow-fed rivers. Similarly, for non-snow fed rivers, dry season flows are decreasing and wet season flows are increasing. It is also observed that the numbers of flood events are increasing as well as the effect of single flood is also increasing to more days. The changing precipitation pattern indicated that the drought period was becoming longer, though there was no definite trend in the annual precipitation amount. The impact on snow and glacier is found to be very high. Negative trends are observed in the glacier mass balance. Glacial Lakes are expanding and the threats of GLOFs are ever increasing.

Agriculture is the mainstay of Nepal’s economy. Climate variability directly affects agriculture production as agriculture is one of the most vulnerable sectors to the risks and impacts of climate change and water shortages. Any further decrease in water resources, especially during the non-monsoon seasons would adversely affect agriculture production. It will have a direct impact on the livelihood of the people.

Reduction in forest cover is likely to increase the average stream flow to downstream area and vice versa in the shorter term. However, in long term, accelerated erosion might cause the loss of soil profile, increase in overland flow and decrease in base flow.

Vegetation cover hinders soil erosion but the impact is mainly visible at a smaller catchment scale. The main source of sediment load in the Himalayan rivers basin scale is believed to be natural erosion from High Himalayas.

Climate change is likely to affect the hydrological regime of the Himalayan rivers with increased discharge overall but with the increase adding to the high flows of the monsoon season with possibly lower discharge in the dry season.

The most established benefit of forest cover is in controlling erosion and downstream sedimentation.



F.3 Sediment Transportation of Major Rivers of Nepal

All river basins have the same erosion behavior, independent of location, size and catchment characteristics. Erosion rates calculated from suspended sediment fluxes range between 0.1 and 2.8 mm /year. The erosion rates of the three main basins of Nepal are in the range 0.9–1.5 mm/year. Erosion rated in the higher Himalayas are relatively low (0.5 mm/yr, except for Kali Gandaki), while in the Lesser Himalayas they range from 0.2 to 2 mm/yr. The sediment transportation of the major rivers is shown in the following table

Table F.1: Sediment Load of Major Rivers

S.N. Name of River Catchment Area(km2)

Annual Suspended Sediment Transport

(million tons) Specific Sediment

Yield (t/km2/yr)

1 Karnali at Chisapani 43,000 105.00 2,442

2 Saptakoshi at Barahshetra 54,100 130.76 2,417

3 Tamor at Mulghat 5640 39.90 7,074

4 Sapta Gandaki at Narayanghat 31,100 106.90 3,437

5 Mahakali at Pancheshor 12600 55.00 4,365

6. Marsyangdi at Dam Site 3750 22.00 5,867

7. Middle Marsyangdi at Dam Site 2729 15.00 5,496

8 Kaligandaki at Dam Site 7,618 37.50 4,922

F.3.1 Sediment Management at Project Design

The natural erosion and sedimentation rates are extremely high and management of the land or water resources must accommodate these processes. Manmade reservoirs should be designed to facilitate heavy sedimentation. The Engineers often have to work with a vacuum or with poor sediment data, even when preliminary data pointed to serious sedimentation problems. The Engineers have been slow to change designs originally suited to low-sediment rivers. The Chitawan Irrigation Project is such an example. The intake for the pumping station and the pumps were not designed to operate under the normal high sediment levels of the Narayani River in the monsoon. Sediment load in the Narayani gorge, a few kilometer north of the pump intake, regularly exceeded the concentration that the pump was designed to handle, During three measured storms, sediment concentration on the river exceeded 20,000 ppm. The main canals were completely filled with fine sand only after three months of operation. Damage was so extensive and no water was supplied to farmers for the 1985 winter irrigation season.

There are two lessons learned from such a failure. The intake was positioned in backwater where sediment load tend to settle rather than be carried away by the river and the operators of the pumping station were maintaining inflexible pumping schedules, unmindful of the fluctuating sediment loads in the river. In a country such as Nepal, where sediment load commonly exceed 10,000 ppm, river sediment concentration must be monitored and when a critical level is exceeded, the pumping stations or intake should be closed down.



The headwork of irrigation canals can be built with sediment excluders that bypass a portion of the sediment before it enters the main canal. Also, ejectors in canals can remove high load. One such ejector on the Chhatra Canal, off the Sapta Koshi removes over 50% of the sediment load and returns it to a drain leading back to the river. It is hoped that this will help reduce the burden of de-silting the major Chatra Canal, where at present over 200,000 cubic meter of sediment is removed each year. All permanent large scale irrigation projects should include such sediment removal structures as part of a normal design.

For small scale irrigation projects, with a discharge less than 1 m3/s, engineers might consider building a permanent main canal and intake structure and have a locally built temporary diversion feeding the intake. When river discharge and bed load exceeds a certain levels, the temporary diversion is washed out, permitting flood to pass flood, the diversion can be remade by local materials and methods and water returned to the canal with minimum disturbances.

Hill irrigation schemes have even more problems than Terai schemes because along with diversion and intake instability, contour along steep slopes to the command area. There are several canals in Nepal over 10 km long that have held water throughout a full monsoon season. Geologically unstable slopes combined with canal seepage can result in massive slumps and landslides on which it is very difficult to reconstruct a canal. These unstable areas must be well lined or in some cases bridged in order to prevent the disruptive effect of seepage into the slope.

Designers and planners must be aware of the role of silt in hill irrigation schemes. Whereas the sediment clogging canals on the Terai is largely fine or medium sand and can only be removed at great cost, sediment entering hill irrigation canals can be vital to the success of the project. In some areas, it is necessary to design steep canal gradient where the down cutting into unlined canal beds can be quite severe. The coarser sediment carried by the irrigation water acts to protect the canal bed and reduce down cutting

F.3.2 Recommendation: The Climate Change Adaption Projects are recommended to be implemented to cope with the effects

of the climate change An integrated land and water management approach should be developed at catchment and basin

scales to ensure that interventions contribute to sustainable development as a whole and do not have detrimental impacts.

The watershed management and soil conservation are recommended to be implemented in each and every watershed/catchment areas as these help in reducing landslides and also help ultimately in less sediment production

F.3.3 References:

Bhusal, JK; Subedi, BP (2015), Journal of Hydrology (New Zealand) Volume 54 Issue 1

Gurung, Chandra Bahadur, Watershed Management Approach for Climate Change Adaption



PK Champati Ray and D.D. Joshi, The effect of climate change on geomorphic processes and landslides occurrence in Himalaya, - SSARC Workshop Climate Change and Disasters: Emerging Trends and Future Strategies, 21-22 August 2008, Kathmandu, Nepal

Santosh Nepal, Wolfang Albert Flugel and Arun Bhakta Shrestha, Upstream-downstream linkages of hydrological processes in the Himalayan region- published in Springer Open Journal Hydrological Processes

Water Resources of Nepal in the Context of Climate change, Government of Nepal, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat



G.1 Introduction

Nepal's agriculture is highly dependent on climatic factors both in the past and present. Before two and half decades or so in the early 1980s, the population of Nepal was close to 15 million as compared to today's population of over 28 million. With growth in population, the demand for food production also increased to feed the growing number of people. However, our way of farming –mainly subsistence-based involving still 68-70% of the population of our country remains the same –with hardly any substantial change in the productivity of staple cereals and cash crops. Despite the declining productivity trend of Nepalese agriculture, the agriculture sector today contributes to about 38 percent of the national gross domestic product (GDP) and is still of primary importance to the livelihood of millions.

This Himalayan country which once used to be self-sufficient in food production and even exporting its surplus production to India and Bangladesh in the early 1970s (till 1973) is now vulnerable to food insecurity and as a result depends on huge imports. Among the various factors affecting food production and productivity in our Nepalese context, the increasing dependency of Nepalese farmers on rain-fed agriculture (monsoons), poor and insufficient irrigation infrastructure in place for augmenting cropping intensity and crop area coverage alongside insufficient investment in agricultural infrastructure including lack of controlled greenhouses for food production are some of the fundamental reasons which has made Nepalese farmers increasingly vulnerable towards the vagaries of climate change in general and uncertainty in weather such as droughts, floods, hailstorms, variation in temperature and precipitation in localized agricultural biomes in particular.

Studies have found that overall crop yield of staple food crops such as wheat, maize and paddy (rice) could decrease in South Asia by up to 30% by the end of this century compared with an increase of up to 20% in East and South East Asia (Practical Action, 2010). In Nepal, the predicted decrease in precipitation during the winter months will reduce winter and spring crop production. Temperature increases are also expected to reduce wheat and maize yields, whilst increased variability in both temperature and precipitation will pose significant challenges to farming practices. Irrigation fed agriculture will be increasingly threatened as water resources deplete. Landslides and flash floods have already reduced the area of cultivable land in Nepal and its continuation is likely to reduce agricultural productivity in the future. Moreover, the agriculture sector in Nepal is becoming more and more feminized because of increased male out-migration. Recent research on the feminization‘ of agriculture and natural resource management illustrates that women carry out 6.3 to 6.6 times more agricultural work that men (Pravettoni 2011; Nellemann et al. 2011).

Based on aforementioned facts about our vulnerability to rain-fed dependent and climate sensitive agriculture as well as the feminization trend of our farming system we need different adaptation practices to the changing climate in order to ensure our food security and sustainability of people's livelihoods.

G.2 Factors and Changes influencing Irrigated Agriculture in Nepalese Context

The following factors and changes that have affected Nepalese agriculture are briefly mentioned below under 3 broad categories:

Appendix G. Agriculture development and Climate Change



Agro-ecological factors: Changes in land-use pattern and ownership of land Land degradation resulting from soil erosion, landslides, loss of fertile top-soil rapid deforestation which triggers run-off hindering water retention and recharge in soils Unrestrained and haphazard use of commercial fertilizers, chemical pesticides and herbicides Low adoption of climate-smart agriculture and its implementation strategy by farmers and its related

supporting institutions Unsustainable agricultural practice Loss of agro-biodiversity and genetic erosion Lack of soil conservation, water conservation and harvesting practices adopted by farmers in general

Policy and Institutional Factors Inadequate Government policy and subsidy mechanism to encourage farmers to sustain agricultural

practice in the long run. Low coverage of Government Extension Services ( hardly 15% of farmers are reached). Ineffective Agricultural commercialization policy of Government. Lack of multi-stakeholder coordination among Government, NGOs, CBOs, Agricultural Cooperatives

and Farmer Groups. Difficulty of getting institutional credit and loans without collateral – especially for resource-poor

farmers Inadequate trained human resources and Leader farmers for upscaling Good Agricultural Practices

(GAP) Dearth of monitoring and early-warning system in place brought by uncertainty in climate and weather

patterns affecting agricultural practice and outputs Extremely Low adoption rate of crop insurance policy by farmers owing to lack of awareness and

knowhow – which raises their vulnerability to cope with climate change effects.

Additional Inter-connected Factors Abandonment of farmland due to low returns from agriculture Conversion of agricultural lands into non-agricultural purpose (rapid land plotting for real estate

development and its expansion) Availability of cheap food products in local market (due to subsidy in other countries) resulting from

globalization and economic integration. Such convenience of food availability in local market (regardless of their quality) is a disincentive for farmers to boost local agricultural production and compete with the prevailing market price.

Out-migration of youth to cities and abroad for jobs – resulting in low availability of agricultural farm labors.

Increased consumerism mainly triggered by increased remittance inflow from abroad leads to easy-going life-style among majority of erstwhile farmers which eventually discouraged farming practice as a way of life. The result is agricultural lands are left fallow thus decreasing cumulative crop coverage area and cropping intensity.



Huge import-export gap of agricultural commodities due to low government priority given to agriculture (less than 4% annual budget allocation to Agricultural Sector in Government Red Book) in actual practice.

G.3 Role of Climate Change in Irrigated Agriculture

Temperature and precipitation (rainfall) have both synergistic as well as adverse relationship with regards to crop production and productivity depending upon the growing season, crop types, fluctuation and its duration as well as in combination with other factors & farm management practices such as use of agricultural inputs, mono or intercropping, crop canopy coverage, texture and structure of soil in a particular area, crop rotation, etc. Findings from the past studies have found that maximum temperature and minimum precipitation have had adverse effects on the yield of major cereal crops especially rice and maize. (Bhandari, G; 2013)

G.3.1 Impact of Temperature in Irrigated Agriculture

Temperature has been and will be an important climatic factor which determines the selection of crops by farmers, the cropping pattern, the time of sowing, transplantation, the incidence or prevalence of disease and pests in crops, crop harvest and post harvest operations including packaging. Record shows that the average temperature has increased by 1.8 degree Celsius (0C) during the last 32 years in Nepal. (Bhandari, G, 2013). A study based on an analysis of temperature trends in Nepal from 1977 to 1994 (collected from 49 stations), indicates a consistent and continuous warming during the period at an annual rate of 0.06 0C (MoENV, 2010). A similar study conducted by Practical action (2009), looking at data from 45 weather stations for the period 1976-2005, indicates a consistent and continuous warming of maximum temperatures at an annual rate of 0.040C.

These studies also indicate that the warming trend in the country is spatially variable (Thapa, S & Joshi, G.R. 2014). Tiwari (2009) showed that average temperature of Nepal has increased from 0.06 to 0.098°C over last 30 years and precipitation is characterized by large inter annual variability with substantial decrease in amount over last 5 years. In general, temperature directly affects yield and quality of food crops thereby exacerbating vulnerability in food supply.

For instance, paddy (rice) is more vulnerable to temperature fluctuation in comparison with wheat, maize, millet and barley. The optimum temperature for better growth of paddy and good yield is 22-300C. However, the maximum and minimum temperature at which different varieties of paddy can be cultivated ranges from 370C to 120C. For paddy, an increase in the temperature has unfavorable effects in the hotter region while it has favorable effects in the colder region. For wheat, the mean daily temperature for optimum growth is between 200C and 250C. However, it can tolerate temperature as low as 80C and as high as 320C depending on the variety and duration of sunshine. For wheat, increasing temperature is favorable in the hotter region while it is largely harmful in the colder region.

Patel et al., 2010 in his experiment of warming of soil temperature effect in wheat showed the harvesting/ 49 ripening days decreased by 12 days. According to him, temperature increase affects the penology of



crops during early stage of growth. The increased temperature increases the soil temperature which is important for crop development, leaf appearance, shoot development, flowering and fruiting (Vincent & Gregory, 1989). In case of maize, the optimum temperature for its better growth and good yield is 18-200C. At lower temperatures below 150C, its growth is stunted and at higher temperature above 300C, vegetative growth is profuse. A research conducted in National Agricultural Research Council (NARC) revealed that an increase in temperature potentially affects physiological growth of crops across different stages especially panicle initiation, flowering, milking and maturity reduced by 14, 5, 6 and 14 days, respectively. Though flowering/fruiting period are not easily sensed by people, this increased temperature might have impacted on their phenological behavior. Research shows that temperature increase is responsible for decreasing in ripening/ harvesting days by week or two weeks. This indicates that the increased temperature has been affecting the crops growth and cycle in a number of ways.

G.3.2 Impact of Precipitation in Irrigated Agriculture

Precipitation (rainfall) and hydrology cycle is the most important climatic factor for agricultural production and productivity. The average precipitation in the country is 1768 mm, but varies greatly from place to place owing to sharp topographical variation, forest coverage in the region as well as monsoon and westerly winds. It has been reported that to produce 1 kg of paddy approximately 3,000 litres of water is required whereas to grow paddy in 1 hectare of land about 800,000 litres of water is needed over a cumulative period. (Basnet, B.M.S. 2009). On an average, the amount of precipitation required for paddy is 500-650 mm per month depending upon the prevailing conditions such as solar radiation, location and gradient of farm plot, temperature, growth duration, cultivar/variety, etc. The consequence of rainfall on paddy yield is observed to be either beneficial or harmful depending on the seasons and altitudes. Spring rainfall is valuable for paddy in the low-altitude region while summer rainfall is beneficial for the mid-altitude region. Similarly, summer rain is detrimental for the low altitude region and spring rain is unfavorable for the mid-altitude region in terms of yield but both of these reduces the risk of yield variability. In case of wheat crop, rainfall requirements are 350-500 mm for better yield which also depends on other climatic factors and topographical region in Nepal. For instance, about 238 mm of rainfall is good for wheat yield in west Nepal. (Bhandari, G, 2012).

Regarding maize crop which is a heavy water feeder, it is reported to be adversely affected by the current climate change trend in Nepal. The seasonal water requirement of maize is 400-500 mm and the total water requirement from sowing to harvesting period is 486.6 mm. IPCC, 2007 projects that there will be a general increase in the intensity of heavy rainfall events in the future, and an overall decrease as many as 15 days in number of rainy days over large part of South Asia. This will cause significant warming particularly at higher elevations, leading to reduction in snow and ice coverage, increased frequency of extreme events like flood, drought, and increased precipitation (NAPA/MoE report, 2010). Baidhya et al., 2007 have shown more erratic rainfall pattern (unusual high intensity, less rainy number of days) of rainfall in the country. Such events increase possibility of climatic extremes like irregular monsoon, droughts and floods. Malla, 2008, reported the heavy monsoon has shifted to the end period of monsoon. Traditional rainfall of Ashar (June-July) and Bhadra (August-September) has been shifted towards Shrawn (July-August) and Bhadra (August-September) in Kathmandu affecting negatively in paddy production. Winter drought of 2008/09 in Nepal was the worst drought ever had happened with less than 50% rainfall which



had significantly impacted crop production across Nepal. The hill and mountain agriculture were more impacted than terai (MoAC/WFP/FAO, 2009). According to MoAC/WFP, 2009/10 the monsoon in 2009 experienced a significant delay: it started on the 23rd June and became active only after the 25th July. It remained active till the 15th October extending the retreat period by more than 20 days. NCVST, 2009 revealed frequency of long drought events, especially during winter is increasing and winter drought of 2008/09 is considered as a signature event of climate change

G.3.3 Changes Noticed in Recent Years

There have been hanges in amount and seasonality of precipitation decreasing winter rain erratic rainfall patchy rainfall – i.e. sudden rain in a small region but no rain in nearby location. Based on past studies and field observation, it can be inferred that an increase in the variances of both temperature and rainfall have adverse effects on crop production in general. Conversely, a change in the level of temperature and rainfall induces heterogeneous impacts, which can be considered either beneficial or harmful depending on the season, altitude, type of soil and crop.

G.4 Changes in Crop types and Crop varieties

There has been a noticeable change in the type of crops and its varieties grown by farmers before a decade and half as compared to recent times i.e. now-a-days. The changes found with respect to the crop types and varieties grown by Nepalese farmers in all agro-ecological zones in two different time periods are as shown in the table below. New crops such as Asparagus, Lettuce, Ground apple, Kiwi and Dragon fruits, Strawberries, shitake mushrooms which were rarely seen before 15 years or so are commercially grown these days by many farmers.

Table G.1: Crop Varieties

Crop Type Varieties/Cultivars grown 20 years ago

Varieties grown/ cultivated now

Remarks

Paddy Kala Namak, Basmati, Sathari, Kane jeera, Santha (60 days maturity), Karangi, Rato Anadi, Jhinua, Ekle, Jethobudo, Marshe dhan, CH-45, Bindeshwori, Chaite -2, Mansuli, Sabitri, Himali, Kanchan, Tainan-1, Kanchan, Taichung-176

Sama mansuli, Gorakhnath, Komal, Sabitri, Taichung, Radha-4, Sarju-49 and hybrids like 1561, Puja, Mithila, Loktantra, Swarna Sub -1, Barkhe -2014, Hardinath-2, Lalka Basmati

Traditional aromatic rice varieties are rarely grown these days– leading to genetic erosion & extinction of some.

Wheat Achyut, Rohini, UP-262, Nepal 297, Annapurna-4, BL – 1022,

Bhrikuti, Gautam, Bijaya,Improved number lines Nepal 971, BL -1473, WK 1204

In some areas farmers still use old varieties of wheat but very rarely

Maize Rampur Composite, Rampur Pahenlo, Arun-2, Manakamana-1, Ganesh-2, Rampur-2,

Rampur Hybrid-2, Gaurav Hybrid, Manakamana -4, 5 & 6, Deuti, Alrounder F1, Super 900, Pioneer -3522 & 3785 F1, Bigbos F1,

Most commercial farmers grow hybrid maize. On the other hand, farmers growing for household consumption still grow old varieties.

Potato Santha (Early maturity), Traditional white tuber potato,

True Potato Seed (TPS), Desiree, Cardinal, Khumal

The Red ones are preferred by



Crop Type Varieties/Cultivars grown 20 years ago

Varieties grown/ cultivated now

Remarks

Lentil (Musuro) Sindur, Simrik, Shishir, Simal, Sikhar

Khajura Mausuro -1, 2, Sagun, Maheshwor Bharati

Chickpea (Gram)

Sita, Kosheli, Kalika Avrodhi, Tara

Rape seed (Tori)

Bikash, Pragati, T-9 Preeti, Unnati, Morang Tori-2, F1 Hybrid JY-16

Cauliflower Kathmandu Local, Dolpa snowball, Sarlahi Dipali

F1 Hybrid Lines – NS 60N, NS 106, Fuliyama, White snow, Manaslu, Super White Top, Silvermoon, Snow Queen, Kasmire, Snow Krown, Anna Cup

Some Farmers still prefer to grown traditional Kathmandu Local varieties because of taste reasons and big curd size

Cabbage Copenhagen Market New F1 Hybrid lines – Nepa Round, Nepa Green 777, Green Koronet, Green Chalenger, Golden Ball, Asia Cross, Zenith, Futoski

Brocolli Local Open Pollinated (OP) with some Hybrids

Mostly F1 Hybrid lines – Green Dom 80, Green Parasol, Sakura, Everest Green, Aarli U, Nok Gak

Carrot Nantes Forte New Korudo (OP), F1 Hybrids – Sigma, Nepa Drim, Kuroda Mark IT, Maskade

Okra (Lady's Finger)

Parbati, Arka Anamika (OP) Arka Anamika along with F1 Hybrid lines, e.g.Jaya

Tomato Pusa Ruby, NBL-1, Roma, Manprekas

Mostly F1 Hybrid Lines – Srijana, Gaurab 555, Minto, Manisha, NS 815, NS 719, Ureka, Nova, Madhuri, Jina.

G.5 Changes in Cropping Pattern and Calendar over the years

One of the most direct consequences of unexpected variation in climate resulting in uncertainty in the frequency and duration of rainfall, sudden rise in temperature and local weather pattern is the increased risk of failure of regular crop cycle of main cereal crops such as rice, wheat, maize and potato which are still considered to be the dominant crops in our cropping system. Past studies have shown that the crop calendar is changed mostly in terms of crop harvesting period. Sowing period of most crops is unchanged except in case of main paddy plantation since it depends on the occurrence of monsoon rains in our Nepalese context. It was found that crop harvesting period has been reduced by 10-15 senescence days (Patel et al., 2010). The dominant cropping pattern in the three topographical belts of Nepal i.e. Terai, Hill and Mountain regions (before 15 years or so) as well as the change in the cropping pattern in recent years (since last 12-15 years) is given below alongside for comparison.



Table G.2: Crop Patterns

Location Traditional Changed

Irrigated Lowland Traditional Rice – Wheat + Lentil/beans – Maize

Rice – Potato+ Lentil – Vegetables

Rice – Mustard – Summer vegetables

Improved Rice – Wheat + Lentil/beans – Maize

Hybrid Rice – Potato/ Lentil /Local pea – Hybrid Maize + Beans

Improved Rice – Winter vegetables – Summer vegetables

Cucurbits + Beans – Winter Vegetables – Sesame

Commerical Banana

Commerical Fish Farming

Un-irrigated Lowland Traditional Rice – Wheat – Fallow

Rice – Mustard– Fallow

Rice – Potato– Fallow

Sugarcane

Hybrid Rice – Wheat – Fallow

Improved Rice – Winter Vegetables – Fallow

Improved Rice – Lentils/ Horse grams– Dhaincha

Citrus Farming (Sour Lime)

Irrigated Upland

Traditional Rice – Wheat – Maize

Rice – Potato– Maize

Rice – Wheat– Vegetables

Improved Rice – Cole crops (Cauliflower, cabbage, brocolli) – Sunflower / Flaxseed

Improved Rice – Lentils/Peas/carrot– Summer Vegetables+ Asparagus

Improved Rice – Off-season Tomato (Plastic house) – Summer Vegetables

Unirrigated Upland Maize+Millet – Black gram– Fallow

Maize – Millet– Potato

Maize+Ghaiya Rice – Legumes – Fallow

Hybrid Maize – Millet – Fallow

Hybrid Maize – Buckwheat– Fodder grass (Berseem, Napier, Molasses)

Ghaiya Rice – Ground Apple

Kiwi Fruit / Ground Apple

Coffee + Ginger

Mountain Maize – Potato – Fallow

Maize – Wheat– Fallow

Niger – Potato – Fallow

Maize – Traditional Beans – Fallow

Maize – Cole crops (Cauliflower, cabbage) – Fallow

Potato – Potato – Vegetable (Commerical Farming, with drip irrigation)

Commerical Apple Farming Commerical Cardamom

Resulting from the increase in the number of warm days in summer months with delayed monsoon and decrease in the number of cooler nights in winter months with little or no rainfall as witnessed by the majority of farmers in Nepal, there has been a shift in the cropping calendar of staple crops – especially paddy and wheat alongside other crops. The cropping calendars of Field study sites – in Sindhuli, Nawalparasi and Ramechhap districts are shown in Annex 1, Annex 2 and Annex 3 respectively for comparative analysis.

G.6 Government Policy on Climate Change Adaptation in Agriculture

Realizing the inevitability of climate change effects in Nepalese agriculture and farming system and resulting from the pressure from Multinational (International) Organizations (World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Donor partners) the Government of Nepal (GoN) have taken a decisive step in Climate Change adaptation and mitigation measures in recent years.



Nepal is one of nine countries participating in the global Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR) financed by the Climate Investment Funds. This program provides financing for least-developed countries to pursue a climate-resilient development path that reinforces poverty reduction goals.

Nepal prepared the “Strategic Program for Climate Resilience” (SPCR) to outline its program to respond to priority climate risks. The SPCR complements the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA), Climate Change Policy, Local Adaptation Plans of Action (LAPAs).

The Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MoSTE) is the Government of Nepal’s focal ministry for the PPCR.

The multilateral development banks —the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and the World Bank—administer the funds on behalf of the Climate Investment Funds and supervise the projects in collaboration with MoSTE.

Nepal’s SPCR has five components: Component 1: Building Climate Resilience of Watersheds in Mountain Eco-Regions Component 2: Building Resilience to Climate-Related Hazards Component 3: Mainstreaming Climate Change Risk Management in Development Component 4: Building Climate Resilient Communities through Private Sector Participation Component 5: Enhancing Climate Resilience of Endangered Species

In the Minsitry of Agricultural Development (MoAD), there is a dedicated section called Agricultural Management & Information System (AMIS) Unit which handles programs related to PPCR by coordinating with other Line agencies and stakeholders.

G.7 Institutions and Institutional Arrangements to Manage Climate Change Issues.

Beginning in 2009, for effective implementation of climate change policies and actions, national coordination mechanisms and institutional arrangements were created by the GoN. The GoN formed the Climate Change Council (CCC) in 2009, prior to the 15th Climate Change Conference in December 2009. The CCC is a 25-member high-level coordination body chaired by the Prime Minister, and includes 11 ministers and eight technical experts nominated by the GoN, with MoSTE functioning as the Secretariat of the Council. This is now the highest advisory body dedicated to climate change and continues to be chaired by the Prime Minister. Its task is to provide high-level policy and strategic oversight, to coordinate financial and technical support to climate change-related programs and projects, as well as to secure measures to benefit from climate change-related international negotiations and decisions.

In recent times, Nepal Climate Change and Development Portal – a portal collaboratively managed by Nepal Climate Change Knowledge Management Centre (NCCKMC) established at Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) and the climate change community of practice in Nepal is also operational. This portal provides climate change practitioners a platform to conduct research, network,



discuss, and share climate change knowledge. It aims to empower and support individuals, institutions, and communities to undertake climate change action.

G.8 Lessons Field Case Studies

G.8.1 Kauchhe, Kamalamai Municipality, Sindhuli District.

In Lowland farming (mostly in irrigated land), the farmers in the Kauchhe region cultivate two crops of paddy – the main paddy in the monsoon season (June to Oct-Nov) and second paddy (also called Chaite Dhan in local language) in the spring season (Feb-March to Mid-May). Regarding choice of crops, Spring Paddy mostly comprised of locally adapted cultivar and Monsoon Paddy is mostly Sabitri. Other crops grown in irrigated to partially irrigated lowland are wheat, maize, potato and lentil. The planting and harvesting seasons of different crops are clearly shown in the cropping calendar in Annex 1. About 92-95% of the farming takes place in lowland (irrigated to semi-irrigated land) in the Kauchhe region according to the information provided by Mr. Dor Prasad Subedi (current Chairperson of Ward Citizenship Forum) of Kamalamai-14 and other key informants.

On the other hand, rainfed agriculture is practiced in dry areas which are not reached by irrigation facilities. Upland (Bariland) farming is highly negligible (5-8%) in the Kauchhe region. In such areas, the dominant crops is maize and mustard. Maize is sown in April-May and harvested towards end of July till early August. Thereafter about two months of fallow period is then followed by Mustard crop which is sown in Oct-Nov and harvested in late March-Early April

The cropping intensity in the area is 300% (i.e. 3 crops within 12-month period). Regarding plant protection measures, farmers generally use fungicide (Di-ethane M45) in potato crop throughout its life cycle for controlling late blight disease. This fungal disease of potato is mostly prevalent during period of intense fog accompanied by cold weather. In case of paddy farming, farmers use the Endosulfan insecticide for controlling bugs. Use of environmental friendly bio-pesticide is almost nil which is mainly because of lack of awareness and access to such plant control measures. However, one Women Farmers Group have received some training regarding Integrated Pest Management (IPM) recently.

Key Informants during the group discussion mentioned that the farmers of the region have noticed some change in the local weather pattern in recent years such as unexpected rise in temperature during the summer months, prolonged dry season without rain for 4-5 months which used to receive rainfall during earlier periods (i.e. before 15 years), sudden short period rain shower in some portion but completely dry in other nearby regions, etc. Such erratic pattern of variation in local weather regimes in recent past is mainly thought to be attributed to global rise in temperature and climate change.

G.8.2 Girwari Irrigation System, Nawalparasi District

We interviewed farmers / local people at 3 locations in Girwari Irrigation system in Nawalparasi District Near the Main east-west highway at Madhyabindu-7, Chormara, Nawalparasi Basantapur, Ward No. 9, previously Tamsariya VDC



Julphe, Deurali VDC

Based on personal interview and exchange of discussions, some of the salient features of the area are as given below: Paddy, wheat, Maize alongside potato and tori is the dominant cropping pattern in the whole region Some farmers have started venturing into commercial vegetable farming – mostly off-season Tomato,

cucumber, Banana as a quick source of cash income for the farm households. This year about 95 % farmers completed paddy transplanting in month of Ashad (mostly Ashad 15-30) Farm mechanization has almost replaced human labor in agriculture since the last 10 -12 years. Many

farmers in the area own tractors. In winter season, about 40% of the arable land is brought under cultivation and the rest remain fallow Use of hybrid seeds (mostly in case of Paddy and vegetables) has replaced traditional open pollinated

(OP) cultivars in the irrigation command area of Girwari Main paddy cultivars used by farmers: Sabitri, Sama, Warr, Gorakhnath, Hybrid varieties -501 & 509. Even in irrigated farmlands, farmers mostly depend on rainwater throughout the crop cycle for reliable

yield (especially in Paddy) Farmers have no coping mechanism or strategy in place which is brought by the uncertainty in weather

and rainfall pattern resulting from climate change. They mostly depend on fate for rain to come. Most of the source of Household income of people comes from Remittance (in about 60% of the Farm

HHs), the rest from agriculture. There is intense competition in getting irrigation water to the farmlands among the WUA farmers due to

scarcity of water flowing in the branch canals. Lack of good and reliable irrigation infrastructure is the main problem faced by farmers which is making them vulnerable to climate change and its effects. Farmers are quite busy especially during the monsoon months in repairing the Check dams/weir which are fragile and poorly put in place to control washing away by flood from Girwari river. This temporary measure to convert water in farmlands from the Girwari river through branch canals is highly unreliable, labor intensive and cumbersome as per the views expressed by the local farmers.

From the Climate change adaptation point of view, farmers seem less prepared to face the challenges brought by increasing water scarcity in the region in the coming years.

G.8.3 Sringheghat Irrigation System (SIS) The SIS command area lies in the tropical agricultural belt in the plain area of terai. The dominant crops are paddy, maize, potato & wheat interspersed with summer and winter

vegetables, commercial banana cultivation, oyster mushroom farming etc. Livestock rearing (mainly improved Jersey, Holstein), goat farming, and Fish farming (Indian major

carps – Rahu, Naini, Bakhur) alongside Chinese carps (Grass carp, Silver carp, Common carp) are practiced by some farmers on a commercial scale. About 50 % of farmers raise 1-3 cows, 2-3 buffaloes, a few goats for milk and meat. A limited number of farmers also raise poultry on a commercial scale.

The command area of SIS is approximately 2500 hectare as informed by WUA farmers. The source of water for irrigating the farmlands takes place through the existing farmer-managed branch canals (currently 11 branches as sub-system) originating from the Banganga river along with monsoon rains.



By mid Shrawan i.e. July end of this year, plantation of paddy has been completed in most of the individual farm plots (lowland) except in some areas of Jhanda.

Recent Event: Natural disaster in the form of flood which occurred on Ashad 10 & 11, 2073 has damaged farmlands and farmer-managed irrigation canals. Many households were inundated and partially submerged. Flooding was more common in informal settlement areas. Informal settlers were encouraged to occupy flood-prone areas mostly by different political lobbyist or local leaders as a result of vested interest (to gain popularity or use them as vote banks in future) as informed by the WUA leader farmers.

Forest area is decreasing mostly because of illegal felling of trees and logging of wood. This has a direct bearing on the decreasing trend of livestock population per household, since this reduces forage production & its availability. The result is low availability and use of Farm yard manure (FYM) in farming. Local breed of cattle (cows, buffaloes, male buffaloes and bulls) has decreased substantially over the years. This leads to low production and use of FYM in farms.

Ironically, milk production has increased since the last decade mostly because of rearing of improved cattle breeds (like Jersey, Holstein) and cross-breeding with the local breeds resulting in vigorous off-springs. The other reasons mentioned by farmers for increasing milk production are the growing trend of using animal hormones and vitamin supplements. As informed, there are 2 milk collection-cum chilling centres in the area.

Farm mechanization has increased. Farm tractors, land levelers and harvesters are commonly used by farmers. This has replaced traditional plough using bullocks (which was common 15 years ago)

Every household has at least 1 or 2 family members sending remittance from abroad. This has led to increased consumerism in the area, construction of reinforced concrete modern dwellings as those found in urban cities. This has resulted in extra income to the inhabitants through apartment and room rentals, opening of consumer shops as a business enterprise. This change also reduces the dependency of people on farming activities as the sole source of livelihood support for their family.

Better earnings from remittance source as well as better wage rates in other non-farm sectors (such as construction, factory jobs) has shifted agriculture labor from farm-centered occupation. This changing scenario has relegated agriculture sector to a secondary or less priority area as a means of livelihood support for the family.

G.8.3.1 Changes in Farming system witnessed by local people As a traditional practice, before 12 years or so, paddy plantation usually span for a period of 1.5

months on average. All family members used to get involved in Nursery bed raising, land preparation, transplanting of paddy using bullock ploughs, hand tools and equipments. Mutual interchange of farm labors used to be common those days among neighboring farmers especially during the main paddy transplanting season. Now-a-days, almost all farmers use Tractors for ploughing their farm plots and they accomplish their task of land preparation and transplantation within a few days.

Erratic and unreliable rainfall pattern has been reported by farmers to be a commonly observed phenomenon in recent times. This is often followed by patchy or segmented rainfall – i.e. sudden rain in a certain limited geographical area and no rain at all in the nearby region.

Pest surge in crops have been noted by farmers of the area especially since the last ten years or so. Before 15 years, there was hardly any need for pesticide spray in crops such as paddy, summer vegetables (cucumber, sponge gourd, brinjal, tomato) and winter vegetables (cauliflower, cabbage,



Rayo sag (greens). These days, use of systemic and contact pesticides is almost mandatorily adopted by farmers in their farm plots. The reason behind this change is because of the emergence of new pests resulting from hotter summers and milder winters – which favors pest proliferation and growth.

Use of traditional Paddy varieties before 15-20 years: Kala Namak, Basmati, Anaji, Sathari, Kane jeera, Santha (60 day maturity), Karangi, Rato Anadi. Now-a-days, these old rice cultivars have been replaced by new or improved cultivars such as Sama mansuli, Gorakhnath, Komal, Sabitri, Taichung, Radha-4, Sarju-49 and hybrids like 1561, Puja, etc.

G.8.3.2 Main problems/Issues Identified by farmers: Farmers still pre-occupied with their dependency on rainfed agriculture as the main factor for

increasing their production and productivity. Moonsoon rains these days is unreliable, scanty and do not occur when farmers and/or crops need the most.

Unreliable and seasonal surface water irrigation from Banganga river and its sub-system. Lack of durable and reliable irrigation infrastructure for diverting water to farm plots (Traditional earthen branch canals (kulo) results in heavy loss of water through seepage and

infiltration. For e.g. in the khets (lowlands) of Motipur, Farmers have to convey water using traditional Kulo covering a distance of about 5 km. It takes about 4 hours for the water to reach their farm plots from the main canal. By the time, the water reaches their plots, its volume has been reduced by almost two-third in certain times. At other times, when the demand for water is high, the water never reach the upper and lower tail ends. Farmers are facing this problem since many years on a regular basis.

Lack of farm labor during the peak growing season. Reason: Most young members of the family are abroad. Old-aged veterans are unable to toil hard in field. Farm tractors do not prefer to work in small plots or overcharge – making it uneconomical to small land holders. The result is lands remain fallow especially during the winter months.

Heavy use of commercial fertilizers since the last 10-12 years and increasing trend of pesticide (insecticide and fungicide) usage alongside low use of organic compost or farm yard manure (FYM) has led to gradual degradation of soil, reduced water holding capacity of soil, insurgence of new pests and disease outbreak in crops. This situation coupled with washing away of top soil and ground cover from flood and surface run-off has resulted in loss of soil fertility and productivity. This increases the risk of crop failure and low yield making agriculture less attractive to the farmers residing in the region.

Use of heavy farm equipments (like tractors) can lead to compaction of sub-surface layer of soil. In the long run, this may result in low water holding capacity of soil, loss of soil microbes, water logging – which ultimately hampers crop production & productivity.

G.9 Adaptation strategy and Coping Mechanism

Realizing the long history of traditional farming practice including domestication of plants and animals by human civilization through ages, in diverse cultures and different farming systems within the region, climate change and its plausible impact seen on agriculture or foreseen in near future is a very recent phenomena being experienced by Nepalese farmers in Terai, hills and mountains in varying degree, dimensions and proportions. The transfer of technology regarding adaptation and viable agricultural practices are usually found to take place through the following modes as given below: Informal transfer of technology through personal contact and communication,



knowledge and skill transferred from past generations (fathers and forefathers) through travel, migration and exposure to other cultures and places as a result of formal technology dissemination channels run or directed by state agencies (e.g. Govt.

research and extension wings) as well as other non-state actors like INGOs, NGOs, civil society and private sector)

through autonomous realization of changes needed in farming practice and mitigation measures by innovative leader farmers and diffusion of the same to others in the vicinity and surrounding areas

Studies and observations in the different agro-climatic zones of Nepal by various experts and agriculturists on climate change in the past and present has revealed the following adaptation strategies and coping mechanism being adopted by Nepalese farmers in their farms and farming system. Practice of diverse, integrated and mixed farming system – which seems suitable for adapting to

climate change impacts as compared to mono-cultural practices being the dominant farming system practiced for decades in developed countries

Growing of a large number of annual and perennial crops (mixed and multiple cropping) in the same land. Such practice not only provides food security to the family when any one crop fails but also provides a wide range of food and nutrients for the family.

Development and adoption of drought tolerant as well as lodging and flood resistant crop cultivars which can thrive in such harsh conditions (e.g. rice and wheat varieties used by farmers these days in flood-prone areas are mostly of dwarf types and in dry areas- farmers generally cultivate the tall varieties). The same is true in case of banana cultivation in terai plains.

Conservation of traditional open-pollinated seeds & cultivars (varieties) of crops and vegetables. Such cultivars are better adapted to the local conditions. This not only provide seed security to the farmers but are also more resilient to the negative effect of climate change such as prolonged drought, dry weather, temperature and rainfall fluctuations. Furthermore, the traditional varieties are also resistant to crop diseases and pest attacks and require less inputs to grow and thrive. On the flip side, they give lower yield than modern hybrid varieties, however total crop failure is very unlikely as compared to hybrids and improved cultivars – which are more risky

Breeding and selection of seeds and cultivars of crops with greater sensitivity to location-specific climatic conditions.

Practice of Zero-tillage, minimum or conservation tillage especially during wheat cultivation in order to reduce loss of water via evaporation from soil surface, economize water-use efficiency in dry areas, conserve soil fertility and lower production costs.

Sustainable management of community forests by Forest Users group who are simultaneously also the members of farmers group. The organized management and practice of community forestry not only helped the local farmers in meeting their livelihood needs who depends on forest resources and its products but also indirectly promotes in conservation of biodiversity, provides fodder and mulch for domestic livestock and crops and makes farmers more resilient towards climate change impacts. In the long run, increase in forest coverage helps to bring rainfall in the area – which creates a synergetic effect in the overall micro-environment of the region and its surroundings.

Cultivation of legumes in marginal and dry lands mostly in un-irrigated areas where water scarcity is always high. Some leguminous crops like cowpea, soybean, mungbean, blackgram are capable of fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere for supporting their growth and development. Nepalese Farmers



grow legumes mostly as intercrop or secondary crop in the aisles / alley of rice and maize fields. These crops hardly need any extra fertilizer or after-care management and still thrives and produce good yield of crops after their maturity.

In order to cope with water scarcity for irrigating farmlands, farmers these days have resorted to constructing plastic ponds in order to collect rain water. Construction of plastic ponds has multiple benefits. It can be used for irrigation, for homestead fish farming, for washing clothes, utensils and other cleaning purpose. From the environmental perspective, it prevents run-off and washing away of nutrients from the soil. It is also more economical and convenient in the long run since it obviates the need to purchase water from outside during emergency situation.

Cultivation of millet and buckwheat in rainfed upland areas where irrigation facilities are virtually non-existent. These crops can tolerate water scarcity and dry weather conditions and still produce yield.

A gradual shift from unbalanced application of commercial fertilizers to increased use of Farm Yard Manure (FYM) and organic compost is happening these days among farmers. Many farmers in rural areas have also started vermin-composting for turning plant residues, biomass and animal dung into organic compost for application in farmlands. Through trainings and informal knowledge exchange among peers, many farmers these days are aware of the fact that increased application of FYM and organic manures helps in increasing crop yield, helps retain moisture in the soil for long periods and improves soil fertility and productivity. This practice is also considered to be more sustainable and economical apart from increasing their resiliency to climate change impacts.

Use of hybrid seeds of vegetable is quite common among farmers since the last 10-12 years especially in the terai and mid-hill region of Nepal - which is not a new development in the adoption process. However, over the last 7-8 years, there is also a rapid increase among the farming population who are quite attracted to growing hybrid rice and maize. Seeds of hybrid cereals cost at least 6 times more that open-pollinated traditional varieties and farmers are ready to invest that amount. The reasons being at least 2-2.5 times increased yield potential of hybrid cereals and quick maturity. The downside is that hybrid cereals only respond to high application of fertilizers and manures as well as timely irrigation. This is only possible in areas where there is assured irrigation. Since irrigation is highly uncertain owing to the rapid drying-up of traditional springs and water sources in recent years, so farmers especially in the terai region rely on deep tube wells whereas in the lower foot-hills and lower mid-hills they use to lift water from the perennial river source nearby using electric motor pump and supplementary pipes. Some farming community especially in Dhading, Nuwakot and Parbat district also use hydraulic Ram pump which pumps water without electricity through siphoning system capitalizing gravitational energy. The increased yield from hybrids is not only sufficient to feed the family round the year but also to sell surplus in market. This ensures their food security in the current precarious situation of climatic uncertainty and therefore can be considered as an adaptation strategy in order to overcome or minimize possible risk factor.

In order to combat the negative impacts of climate change and reduce risk, farmers these days have diversified their farming. Many farmers especially in lower foothills and mid-hill region have abandoned rice cultivation since it demands a lot of water throughout the growing season. Instead, farmers have started growing off-season vegetables (mostly tomato, cucumber, bell-pepper) in plastic house, cultivation of ginger and turmeric – which are relatively more drought tolerant, citrus farming (sweet orange, junar orange, lemon and lime) – which can withstand drier spells and do not require continuous water supply for their growth.



There has been a rapid rise in commercial Bee farming for honey adopted by farmers since the last 12-15 years both in the Terai ( Apis mellifera species) and hills (Apis serana species) of Nepal. Demand for organic honey is increasing day by day both in the domestic and international market and majority of farmers have adopted this profession in order to supplement their income from their main farming occupation. Honey bees are major pollinators for contributing to increased crop yield and biodiversity conservation. So, it can play an often unseen but important role in offsetting the negative influence of climate change.

G.10 Recommendation and Conclusion

Farmers are less prepared to face the vagaries of weather and climate in the foreseeable future based on various past studies, farmers’ perception and field observation reports.

In order to combat the negative effects of Climate Change, Nepalese farmers need to diversify their crops in their farms. This not only ensures their food security and family nutritional needs but also give leverage to them in case of withstanding yield loss in particular crop(s) due to climatic, environmental and disease & pest infestation factors.

There is a need for robust irrigation infrastructure, investment in new and innovative irrigation technologies (such as drip irrigation, sub-surface irrigation, rainwater harvesting, construction of low-cost plastic water ponds) in order to make optimum use of available water for sustaining crop production.

Afforestation measures and agro-forestry practice along with adoption of Sloping Agriculture Land Technology (SALT) in farming will ensure conservation of soil and improved water retention in soil profile for optimum plant growth. Such practice also ensures sustainability of our farming system apart from providing the ecological balance.

There is also a need to increase the application of FYM and/or organic compost in farm plots with better management of plant biomass, organic residues and improvement in solid waste management both in rural and urban areas.

Government initiated programs focusing on climate change in agriculture need to be more focused on vulnerable communities with multi-stakeholder participation and involvement of NGOs, CBOs, Farmers Groups, Farmers Cooperative Associations and Private sector.

Government of Nepal should lobby with International Agencies in securing more Grants and Funds in the Agriculture sector especially towards adaptation, mitigation and developing resiliency of Nepalese farmers and farming system.

Proper channelization of available budget and financial resources with transparency should be given special priority based on past experience of delayed budget release and improper inter and intra ministry coordination as well as private sector mobilization in development efforts.



If all the aforementioned recommendation/ suggestions are heeded with sincere effort then it can surely pave the way for a positive direction towards enhancing farmers' resilience and adaptation capacity to combat the negative effects of climate change.

G.11 References:

Adhikari, J. 2014. Agriculture Adaptation Practices in South Asia – Case of Nepal. SAWTEE Working Paper No. 01 (iii)/14.

Basnet, B.M.S., 2009. Rice and water. In: Our heritage. Pp. 29-31.

Bhandari, G. 2012. Estimation of potential Evapotranspiration and Crop Coefficient of Wheat at Rupandehi District of Nepal. International Journal of Agricultural Management & Development (IJAMAD), 2(1). March: Pp 41-47.

Bhandari, G. 2013. "Effect of precipitation and temperature variation on the yield of major cereals in Dadeldhura district of far western development region, Nepal". International Journal of Plant, Animal and Environmental Sciences (IJPAES). Vol 3, Issue-1, ISSN 2231-4490.

IPCC.2007. Climate change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Summary for Policy Makers.

Malla, G. 2008. Climate Change and its Impact on Nepalese Agriculture. Journal of Agriculture and Environment. Review Paper. 9: 62-71.

MoAC, WFP and FAO. 2009. 2008/9 Winter Drought in Nepal: Crop and Food Security. Joint Assessment Report. MoAC, Nepal. Pp 3-4.

NARC.2005. Released and Registered Crop Varieties in Nepal. Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Kathmandu.

NCVST. 2009. Vulnerability through the Eyes of Vulnerable: Climate Change Induced Uncertainties and Nepal’s Development Predicaments. Institute for Social and 59

Environmental Transition-Nepal (ISET-N), Nepal Climate Vulnerability Study Team (NCVST) Kathmandu.

Nellemann, C, R. Verma, and L. Hislop. (eds). 2011. Women at the frontline of climate change:

Gender risks and hopes. A Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Environment

Programme, GRID-Arendal.

Patel, R.H., M. Laegdsmand, J.E.Olesen and J.R. Porter. 2010. Climate Change and Agriculture. Growth and Yield Response of Winter Wheat to Soil Warming and Rainfall Pattern. Journal of Agricultural Science. 148:558-562.



Practical Action. 2009. Temporal and Spatial Variability of Climate Change Over Nepal (1976-2005). Practical Action, Kathmandu.

Practical Action. 2010. Promoting Adaptation to Climate Change in Nepal.

Pravettoni, Riccardo. 2011. ―Gender division of labour in agriculture and household activities -

Nepal and India. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal.

Rai, A. 2012. An assessment of Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture and Livelihood of Farmers: A case study of Siridibas VDC, Manaslu Conservation Area, Gorkha. Dissertation, M.Sc. Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal.

Thapa, S & Joshi, G.R. 2014. "Impact of Climate Change on Agricultural Production in Nepal". Nepalese Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol 2 & 3, July 2014.

Tiwari, K. R., K. D. Awasthi, M. K. Balla and B. K. Sitaula. 2009. Local People’s Perception on Climate Change, its Impact and Adaptation Practices in Himalaya to Terai Regions of Nepal. Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Pokhara, Nepal. Retrieved on Oct, 1, 2011 from URL:http://www.forestrynepal.org/publication/articles 4837.



Monsoon-dependent rain-fed agriculture is practiced in around 65% of the arable land in Nepal which makes it highly vulnerable to the vagaries of climate change. The diversity of topography in mountains, hills and terai along with varying climatic regimes in different agro-ecological domains brings with it uncertain weather and climate related hazards such as heavy downpour, hailstorm, prolonged droughts, unexpected floods, landslides, snow avalanches, GLOF, heat waves, cold waves and accompanying crop disease. Such phenomena poses challenges to agricultural production, productivity, food security and negative impacts to the vulnerable groups whose livelihood is dependent on subsistence farming (about 60 % of the population). Such climate-induced challenges underpin intervention efforts by the Government of Nepal (GoN) & its responsible Ministries for addressing, mitigating or minimizing its adverse effects in the long and short run.

The Ministry of Agricultural Development (MoAD) is currently implementing "Building Resilience to Climate-Related Hazards (BRCH) Project" which is one of the five projects under Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR) launched in 2009. The PPCR is a country-led program based on National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) being administered by the multilateral financial supports of World Bank (WB), Asian Development Bank (ADB) & Climate Investment Fund (CIF). The BRCH is one of four program components identified in Nepal's Strategic Program for Climate Resilience (SPCR). The SPCR was developed by the GoN and got approved on June 28, 2011 by PPCR Sub-Committee of the CIF.

At a broad level, the Climate Change Program Coordination Committee (CCPCC) is the coordination body of seven dedicated climate change projects including the PPCR program. This committee is chaired by the National Project Director (NPD) for PPCR at Ministry of Science, Technology & Environment (MoSTE) and is responsible for ensuring integration of project-specific monitoring and evaluation (M&E) frameworks, consolidation of project lessons learned as well as facilitation of data, information and output sharing amongst the climate change programs.

The BRCH project has four (4) components as given below: A. Institutional strengthening, capacity building & implementation support of Department of Hydrology

& Meteorology (DHM); B. Modernization of observation networks and forecasting; C. Enhancement of the service delivery system of DHM; D. Creation of an agriculture management information system (AMIS).

The MoAD is responsible for implementing the component-D under BRCH project. The other components – A, B and C are being implemented by the DHM under MoSTE. The total budget allocated for implementing component-D is US $ 6 million granted by WB with project duration of 5 years (2013-2018).

The objectives of BRCH project is to enhance the technical and institutional capacity of government to

Appendix H. Agricultural Management Information System



mitigate climate related hazards by improving accuracy and timeliness of weather & flood forecasts and warnings of climate vulnerable community by developing Agricultural Management Information System (AMIS). AMIS aims to provide a mechanism for delivering timely relevant climate and weather information under Early Warning System (EWS) and assisting as agricultural decision support tool to farmers.

AMIS is geared to achieve its aim by providing open data access for information and web portals; & building information & communication technology (ICT) assisted communication opportunities to

strengthen the voice of the farmers on agricultural issues.

The four main components of AMIS as categorized by MoAD are: AMIS Infrastructure – such as reliable data/web/windows server/ computers, printers, software, AMIS

web-portal at the central level; Agro-call centre having solar-powered backup system, Digital display board at prominent locations, computer with internet facility & printer at district level; Mobile (smart phone), SIM card, Rain gauge, Thermometer at the Farmer Community level.

AMIS Products: The range of AMIS products and services includes- (i) Agro-advisory services, (ii) Agro-weather & climatic information, (iii) Early Warning Systems (EWS), (iv) Agro Call Centre (Notice/ Digital Display Board), (v) Internet/ Websites and Telecommunication Services through SMS, Interactive Voice Response

(IVR), Toll free Number, (vi) Broadcast/telecast through television, radios, newspapers and local FM stations.

Product Dissemination (i) Agriculture Data digitizing and archiving, (ii) Weather & climate informed agriculture crop map, (iii) Crop/ Livestock monitoring system, (iv) Climate information products such as seasonal climate projections & outlooks & its potential

impact on crops, (v) Agriculture insurance schemes and risk transfer instruments.

Capacity Building and Sustainability - which includes institutional strengthening through trainings for key human resources at the central and district level and extension workers & farmers at the community level on use of AMIS information products.

Table 1 and Map 1 given below shows the 25 districts where AMIS is chosen for implementation by MoAD as a pilot project during its project phase.



Table 1: AMIS Pilot Districts

Map 1 : Showing AMIS pilot districts in different colors according to their development regions

For the current Fiscal year 2014/15, the AMIS project is implemented in the following 8 districts : 1. Banke 2. Bara 3. Dhankuta 4. Jumla 5. Kavre 6. Rupandehi 7. Siraha 8. Sunsari

The schematic diagram in figure 1 shows the AMIS linkage at different tiers.



Figure 1

Note: Additional information about AMIS can be obtained from the website: www.namis.gov.np.



1. Title

Framework for increasing the resilience and effectiveness of small and medium scale irrigation systems in Nepal

2. Project Objectives

The Project objectives are to: 1. Improve the approach and methodology of the Government of Nepal and other stakeholders with

regard to planning and delivery of efficient, effective, equitable and climate-resilient irrigation systems.

2. To generate new and transferable knowledge by assessing cross-sectoral decision-making processes institutions and policy for irrigation development, management and resource governance.

3. Provide a framework to identify entry-points and options to increase the resilience and effectiveness of small and medium scale irrigation systems, accounting for potential impacts of climate change to these systems, and contributing to the resilience of small and medium scale farmers.

4. To ensure that the new framework plans and standards are well understood by the relevant governing and implementing parties, to maximise their implementation.

3. Description of services

The purpose of the research is to identify ways to increase the resilience of small and medium irrigation systems in Nepal, and to develop a flexible, adaptable framework for achieving resilience in such irrigation systems.

This research will provide the MoI with a framework for building climate resilience in small and medium-scale irrigation systems, including improving irrigation effectiveness, efficiency and equitability in the face of climate change and climate extremes. The supplier(s) will conduct research to: analyse national policies and institutions influencing irrigation development in Nepal; assess how climate change and extreme weather events impact irrigation systems in the short, medium and long term; and develop a set of recommendations for irrigation policy, regulation and technical standards to guide future decision-making and investment. The research team will engage closely with key public and private actors involved in irrigation design, governance, investment and use throughout the project, and it will have a strong component of capacity building for local researchers and practitioners.

Approach and Methodology

The purpose of the Project is to build the resilience of irrigation systems through recommendations for integration of climate change risks and opportunities into the design and delivery of irrigation projects. The project will produce some field level evidence and develop a flexible, adaptable framework that can be used by the Ministry of Irrigation and other stakeholders, and which can accommodate the improving knowledge of climate change and its impacts for Nepal.

Appendix I. Terms of Reference



This research will approach irrigation from a multi-disciplinary (cross-sectoral) perspective, situating irrigation systems within the wider socio-economic, agricultural and hydrological context. Policy and regulatory recommendations will include technical, financial and institutional dimensions of irrigation practice. In the course of the research, the team will document and disseminate insights of interest and relevance to a wider group of research, policy and practice stakeholders within and beyond Nepal

Inception Phase

The supplier will use the inception phase to ensure a common understanding of the issues and reach agreement on how we will undertake the study as a whole. This will include:

Inventory and mapping of major stakeholders, programs and institutions currently engaged in water resources management and agriculture in Nepal (at various levels);

Consultation with relevant stakeholders, including the Department of Irrigation, (national / sub-national level) from various ecological zones, sectors and levels of government to inform and finalise the research framework;

Review of climate models and scenarios, and the main changes anticipated in various zones Review of irrigation typology, covering water source, infrastructure, management, agriculture Detailed plan for implementation phase, which will include a summary of the arrangements for:

o review of future climate scenarios, covering precipitation (rain/snow), runoff and temperature, and hence impact on flood and low flow assessments;

o Selection of river sub-basins and irrigation systems for survey and assessment; o Implementation methodology for field studies, including arrangements for NGOs; o Use of data, literature and consultations for developing implementable recommendations; o Communication and dissemination strategy; and o Updated schedule of deliverables

Preparation of inception report

A Project Steering Committee will be formed by MoI/DoI and supplier will present findings to this forum to solicit comments and approval. After submission of the inception report, an initial workshop will be held on the purpose, objectives and methods for the study, and the anticipated outputs

Deliverables: 1. Project Flyer 2. Early Full Blog 3. Inception Report - including: approach to work; expected results, detailed work plan and

activities, roles and responsibilities for partners (consortium and government), timelines and deliverables, identification of stakeholders and stakeholder analysis, initial consultations, M&E framework, and reporting timelines.

4. M&E Framework and Indicators for the project

Implementation

The supplier will build on existing studies of the irrigation sector to develop a framework for understanding and improving the climate resilience of irrigation in Nepal.

The major activities to be performed are summarised below, although these will be reviewed in the inception phase, as outlined above.



Assessment and review of the irrigation sector in Nepal

Build on existing studies of the irrigation sector, focusing on small and medium scale irrigation, to develop a framework for understanding and reporting irrigation, and hence assess the:

state of the irrigation sector in terms of effectiveness, efficiency, equity and resilience. supply and demand for irrigation water, noting non-climatic changes such as demand from other

sectors, population growth, urbanisation, etc. political economy of the irrigation sector. key institutional gaps that need to be addressed to build an effective system for climate resilient

irrigation, and the effectiveness of current policy, regulatory, and investment mechanisms in the sector.

Impact of recent technical, policy and institutional innovations for small and medium scale irrigation systems in the context of changes in water availability due to climate variability.

Role of additional stakeholders, relationships and interests for irrigation amongst those who are involved specifically because of climate change-related impacts

Climate Assessment Review of existing evidence and literature on current and projected impacts of climate change on

small and medium-scale irrigation systems and users, on both demand and supply side and over short, medium and long term. This will include consideration of the full range of potential climate changes that may occur in Nepal, as well as the different types and scales of irrigation systems, and the various agro-ecological zones

Collate results from all the available CMIP5 climate models and their relevant integrations. Review and assess the adequacy and reliability of the data for the purpose of this study, in

consultation with stakeholders.

Field studies

Undertake participatory field surveys, in selected areas, using methods such as diagnostic learning and action planning, to

ensure a consistent information base on the performance of systems, threats to sustainability, opportunities for increasing productivity, and understanding of climate change by local officials and communities, and related issues.

Identify potential measures and interventions in the field study sites to improve the ability to cope with climate change and variability in the field study sites, focusing on interventions needed in addition to normal good practice for irrigation management

The field studies will be undertaken following a literature review to ensure that data is collected to augment existing knowledge of representative systems and to build on existing understanding of climate resilient irrigation. The extent and location of these studies will be determined in the inception report.

Documentation of best practice interventions Identification of those interventions (including social, financial and institutional measures) which

can be adopted across the country to help ensure that irrigation is climate resilient as well as being pro-poor and supporting other national priorities. This will distinguish to the extent possible and appropriate the differences between agro-ecological zones and regions of the country, and will draw on both field studies and secondary data



prepare guidelines to inform the reassessment of the methodology for hydrological assessments, especially in ungauged catchments, to take account of climate change projections.

Capacity building of stakeholders and knowledge management Engagement and consultation with relevant stakeholders at national and sub-national levels

throughout the project to input to, validate and understand the research findings; Carry out on-the-job training of selected relevant stakeholders in the course of the study and

facilitate other capacity building through project workshops and other activities Ensure that the findings are widely disseminated through academic articles submitted to local and

international journals and conferences. Prepare briefing papers and other knowledge products.

Framework document

The framework should outline policy, regulatory and investment options to increase the resilience and effectiveness of irrigation systems including the requirements for:

Policy recommendations, including institutional actions needed to address the main risks, putting climate change into this context.

Technical designs / standards for increasing the resilience of current and future irrigation systems for different agro-ecological zones;

An action plan for the Ministry to inform next steps towards mainstreaming of climate change considerations into irrigation policy, planning and practice - giving priority to ensuring that ongoing activities in the small / medium irrigation sector are sustainable;

Recommendations for inter-ministerial coordination mechanisms (especially MOA and MOI).

Stakeholder Engagement

The supplier will engage and consult with relevant stakeholders at national and sub-national levels throughout the project to input, confirm and understand all aspects of the research, to encourage the first steps of implementation, and to assess the need for additional support. The supplier will ensure that the findings are widely disseminated through academic articles submitted to local and international journals and conferences and will also prepare briefing papers which will be freely accessible and downloadable, and use these as discussion papers for workshops.

Deliverables:

The deliverable schedule will be developed during the inception phase, taking account of the requests of the steering committee and recognising the outputs of related programmes. The deliverables will include:

1. Annotated bibliography and literature review on climate change and irrigation in Nepal. 2. Technical briefing papers and policy briefs (2-3 papers) on topics to be agreed with the steering

committee. Examples of potential topics include current vulnerability of irrigated agriculture to climate change; design and management recommendations for climate-compatible irrigation; irrigation as a tool for climate change adaptation; and mainstreaming adaptation to climate change into irrigation policy.

3. Case study reports on responses to climate change, derived field studies and related literature and consultations.



4. Framework document - which outlines the policy, regulatory and investments required to increase the resilience and effectiveness of small and medium scale irrigation systems: a. Policy recommendations b. Recommendations on technical designs / standards c. Action plan to move to next steps towards mainstreaming of climate change considerations

into policy, planning and practice; d. Recommendations for inter-ministerial coordination mechanisms.

Further details, including options for additional deliverables, may be specified during the inception phase and duly reflected in the Inception Report.

Communication and Dissemination

The supplier team will design an overall strategy at the outset and we will update this as the project progresses. It is imperative that the outputs are communicated in a way that facilitates successful ownership by local stakeholders.

Deliverables:

The following workshops will be delivered: A project launch meeting to be held in Kathmandu after submission of the inception report

between key team members and national level stakeholders, to review the study objectives and methods

Following each seasons field work, further consultations/workshops would be held to discuss findings from rural communities and knowledge collected through global best practice reviews.

A technical discussion on the draft framework report and recommendations with the key participants from DOI and other national stakeholders

A final workshop aimed at transferring knowledge, building awareness among local practitioners, and collecting feedback to ensure the guidelines are within local realities.

4. Deliverables to be supplied by you

No. Deliverables/ Milestones Due Date

1 Inception report with final list of activities, outputs, timetable, methodology, stakeholders etc. ( including approach to work; expected results, detailed work plan and activities, roles and responsibilities for partners (consortium), timelines and deliverables, identification of stakeholders including detailed stakeholders analysis, M&E framework, and reporting timelines). To be agreed with CDKN and the Ministry of Irrigation / Department of Irrigation.

April2015

CDKN Objectives form (M&E Framework and Indicators for the project)

April2015

2 Training of local partners (depending on capacity and need) Throughout study, with initial training plan incorporated in



inception report

3 Events and consultative workshops (to be conducted on a ‘needs basis’ as and when required), together with review workshops on main deliverables.

To be finalised during the inception stage

4 Regular blogs for CDKN’s website including photo-stories; human-interest stories; and learning reflections

At least 1 every 6 months

5 Briefing papers / policy briefs on topics of interest to stakeholders. List to be detailed in the inception report, and may include:

Technical briefing paper & policy briefs - irrigation as a tool for climate change adaptation - vulnerability of irrigation and irrigated agriculture to

climate change - inter-ministerial coordination mechanisms - Design and management recommendations for

climate-compatible irrigation - mainstreaming adaptation to climate change into

irrigation policy Review documents

- Annotated bibliography and literature review on climate change and irrigation in Nepal

Case study report - Climate resilience of irrigation in different agro-

ecological zones, and responses to climate change

On elements of research throughout project, and at project end (further details to be given by supplier in the Inception Report)

6 Framework document which outlines the policy, regulatory and investments required to increase the resilience and effectiveness of small and medium scale irrigation systems

Policy recommendations Recommendations on technical designs / standards Action plan to move to next steps towards mainstreaming

of climate change considerations into policy, planning and practice;

Recommendations for inter-ministerial coordination mechanisms

Interim – month 12 (after one main irrigation season)

Draft – Month 21 (after two main irrigation seasons)

Final - Month 24 (end of project)

7 At least one paper submitted to an academic (ideally open access) journal

Project end

8 Presentation of research results at relevant national, regional and international events and conferences

Interim and Final workshops at month 15 and 22. Others TBC

9 CDKN Quarterly Progress Report On a quarterly basis

10 CDKN M&E documents Quarterly and at project end

11 Final Report Month 24