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France

An Outline of History

Denis C. Meyer

School of Modern Languages and Cultures

The University of Hong Kong © DC Meyer - 2008

France, an Outline of History

CONTENTS

Introduction : France’s identity as a nation 1. Antiquity and Early Middle Ages (500 BC to 1000 AD)

- The Gauls and the Pax Romana - The great Invasions and the Frankish Empire

2. Late Middle Ages (1000 AD to 1500 AD) - The early Capetians - The growth of the French monarchy - The Anglo-French War (1337–1453) - Joan of Arc (1412-1431) and the reconstruction

3. The “Ancien Regime” (16th – 18th centuries) - Renaissance (16th c.) - The Wars of Religion - Towards absolute monarchy (17th c.) - The Enlightenment (18th c.) - The Revolution (1789-1799)

4. The 19th century

- The First Empire (1805-1814) - The Restoration (1814-1830) and the Monarchy of July

(1830-1848) - Second Revolution of 1848 and the Second Empire (1852-

1870) - The Third Republic (1870-1940)

5. The 20th century

- World War I (1914-1918) - The Interwar (1918-1939) - World War II (1939-1945) - The post-war era (1945-1958) - The Fifth Republic (1958-present)

Chronology of French history

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Introduction France’s identity as a nation

The birth of France (literally: the land of the Franks) as a nation is by no means easy to pinpoint and has been the focus of debate among social historians. One can argue for instance that France came into being in 496 AD, when Clovis, king of the Franks, converted to Christianity and realized under his reign a political and cultural unity never seen on this land since the early Gallo-Roman period (-52 BC to 476 AD). One can also suggest the year 843, when Charles the Bald became the king of Francia Occidentalis, after the collapse of the Frankish empire led by his grand-father the emperor Charlemagne. It could also be 987, date of the coronation of Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian dynasty, which was to reign, through its various branches, for nine hundred years, right to the 19th century. One can also argue that the kingdom of France was only truly constituted when the French realised their political unity under the reign of Louis XI (1461-1483), as the English were driven out of France and most of the provices joined the crown. Or, much closer to present days, France may have born in 1789, the year of the Revolution in which France declared itself a nation, as well as a State. Indeed, these five stages in history are equally important in the process of building France’s identity. However, to add to the confusion, the French look at the Gauls (and not at the Germanic Franks) as their ancestors, that is a people of Celtic origin who arrived massively and lived on the territory from 500 BC onwards to be later subjected to Roman rule until the 5th century. The difficulty of pointing a date for the birth of France reflects the long and complex process that took place to shape a land of thick forests inhabited by various Celtic tribes some 2,500 years ago. This territory underwent profound transformations due to external and internal pressures to eventually become a unified nation, with defined borders, a common language, organized by a constitution and rules, led by a government and institutions. This process involved countless wars, key events, for the country which is now called France developed gradually and absorbed many different influences into its identity.

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1. Antiquity and Early Middle Ages (500 BC to 1000 AD) The Gauls and the Pax Romana

The most ancient man found in France is Homo Erectus, who lived around 950,000 B.C. Much later, after the Neolithic period (4,000-2,500 BC) Celtic tribes started to settle in France, and around 400 BC, they were known as the Gauls by the Romans. The Gauls were agrarian people, iron workers and also feared warriors; in 390, led by their chief Brennos,

the Gauls besieged the city of Rome and retreated only after receiving a large ransom from the city. Step by step, Rome organized their resistance against the Gauls and by 125 B.C., the Romans already dominated southern Gaul. In 51 BC, the Gauls were eventually defeated by the armies of Julius Caesar, in Alesia (Burgundy): after several years of combat, Vercingetorix, leader of the Gauls, had to surrender to better organized and equipped Romans. As a result of this surrender, the Romans were able to occupy the entire land. The two-century long period of relative peace and prosperity that followed Caesar’s conquest of Gaul is known as the Pax Romana (Roman peace). The country was divided into three provinces and Lyon was elected as the capital. During the 2nd century, Romans brought Christianity into Gaul, roads and bridges were built, prosperous cities such as Lyon, Lutece (Paris), Marseille and Bordeaux attested a vibrant economy and a refined culture. From a composite mosaic of celtic tribes, the Gauls evolved into a sophisticated people – the Gallo-Romans – whose elite spoke Latin, served in the administration and adopted Roman culture. Throughout the country, vast agricultural domains were created controlled by powerful landlords who prefigured the ruling class which would later dominate throughout the Middle Ages. However, by the 3rd century, the Roman Empire had already begun its

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http://users.hol.gr/%7Edilos/prehis.htm

http://ancienthistory.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://vroma.rhodes.edu/%7Ebmcmanus/caesar.html


decline, the Roman control over the country loosened. Taking advantage of the increased weakness of its borders, Germanic tribes from Northern and Western Europe started frequent incursions in Gaul by the middle of the 4th century. These warriors were Franks, Vandals, Allamanni or Goths, they were known to the Romans as the Barbarians, since they did not speak Latin and were not Christian. The Gallo-Roman civilization, a long period of relative political, economic and cultural unity brought by the Pax Romana, was about to collapse. The great Invasions and the Frankish Empire

By the beginning of the 5th century, huge movements of population began to pour into Gaul, coming from the East and North-East. These people were pushed to the West by the advance of tribes of warriors coming from central Asia, such as the ferocious Huns led by Attila. Among them were the Franks, the Vandals and the Visigoths. These tribes settled in various parts of Gaul, the Franks in in the North of the country, while the

Visigoths ended in the South-West, and beyond the Pyrenees, in Spain. By the end of the 5th century, the Franks expanded their authority beyond the northern regions, winning decisive battles against their enemies in the Centre and West as well as along the Rhine corridor. The Franks elected Paris as the capital of their kingdom, and their king Clovis, founder of the Merovingian dynasty, converted to Christianity in 496, following his marriage to Clotilde, a Burgonde. In some ways, Clovis' reign (481-511) brought about a new stability and unity to France, by bringing together the old Gallo-Roman civilization with the Germanic cultures of the Franks and other Germanic peoples. After Clovis’ death however, the kingdom was subjected to partition by his successors, but despite the fragmentation of the Merovingian kingdom, from this point on, and for the next three centuries, the Franks would assert themselves as the dominating force in France.

particular gathered

new dynasty - the Carolingians, emerged in the first half of the A8th century, led by Charles Martel, the chief of north-western province of Neustria, who managed to stop the Muslims advance invading from the South. Charles Martel defeated the Arabs in Poitiers in 732, and this victory had the effect of unifying various

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other provinces under his commandment. His son Pepin II the Short expanded this influence and was eventually crowned king of the Franks in 752, in the city of Soissons, in the presence of all the nobility of the kingdom. The new king also received the blessing of the bishops, adding much significance to the event. Three years later, Pepin II was sacred by the pope himself in Paris. From this period, the long lasting association between the royal dynasties and the church proved efficient to ascertain their power and influence on the French society and people.

Charlemagne, the son of Pepin II, expanded

significant reforms t

ouis the Pious, the only son of Charlemagne who survived,

the kingdom of the Franks to form a vast empire encompassing most of Europe. His reign was marked by his close relationship with the papacy in Rome, to whom he offered protection against the Lombards, in Northern Italy. In exchange, the Catholic church gave him its blessing and Pope Leo crowned Charlemagne Imperator in Rome in 800. The long reign of Charlemagne (768-814), an able military leader and administrator, brought o the Frankish kingdom. The administration

was severely streamlined, delegating provincial powers to barons and bishops faithful to their leader; throughout the provinces, religious schools were created, thus giving Charlemagne his reputation as promoter of the arts, education and culture. This period is known as the Carolingian renaissance, the brightest period of the early Middle-Ages. Linherited the kingdom and managed to keep it more or less intact for thirty more years. However, after Louis’ death, the kingdom was divided among his three sons. Following the treaty of Verdun in 843, Louis the German inherited the eastern part (Francia Orientalis), Charles the Bald the western part (Francia Occidentalis), while Lothar had to be content with the central part (Lothinragia), a composite land of various rebellious provinces which would soon become the terrain of repeated battles between Louis and Charles as well as their successors. With the treaty of Mersen (870), the intermediate kingdom of Lothinragia was finally absorbed into the eastern and western kingdoms of the Frankish empire. Meanwhile, by the end of the 9th century, the Vikings, coming from Northern Europe and Scandinavia, had started their

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incursions in many parts of Europe, using their drakkars (longboats) to move quickly along the rivers, besieging cities like Paris, in 885. The Vikings finally settled in Northern France around the turn of the 10th century, their land became in 911 the Duchy of Normandy, when their chief Rollon signed a treaty with Charles III, king of Francia Occidentalis. Following the custom, Charles III offered his daughter to Rollon as a token of friendship and to consolidate the alliance. Rollon has an illustrious descendant, William of Normandy, who conquered England in 1066 at the battle of Hastings to become the first king of England. The Carolingian empire ended in 987, as the last Frankish king Louis V died. His successor inaugurated a new dynasty and a new era for the kingdom of France, still a very fragmented one, culturally, socially and politically.

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2. Late Middle Ages (1000 AD to 1500 AD)

he early Capetians

he election and crowning by the nobles of their new king of

he First Crusade took place in 1095, at the end of the 11th

T TFrance Hugh Capet marks the birth of the Capetian dynasty, a royal lineage which, through its various branches, will dominate France until the 19th century. Although the royal domain of Hughes Capet was small, located south of Paris and extending to the city of Orleans, the kingdom he supposedly ruled was more or less comparable to modern France. However, most of the feudal counties were fiercely independent and the king had only limited power over them. It is only very gradually that the Capetian monarchs, who were initially weaker than their vassals, extended their control over the great nobles who resisted centralization. One of the factors that strengthened the Capetian monarchs was that during the 300 years of their direct lineage, and with the help of the Church which supported the monarchy as a sacred office, they insured that the crown remained within the family, the eldest son inheriting the throne without failing. Also, the Capetians reinforced the system of lord-vassal relationship, already in use under the Carolingians, by which the lord offers protection to his vassal (subordinate), in exchange of his fealty (loyalty). This loyalty is rewarded by a fief (a piece of land) given to the vassal by the lord. This system, broadly defining social politics during the feudal period, placed the king on the top, and step by step asserted the prestige and power of the monarchy, assisted by the Church. The 10th and 11th centuries mark the development of romanic architecture across France and Europe, a style inspired by the ancient roman buildings and characterized by thick walls, round arches, vaults, large towers and decorative arcading. Throughout the country countless churches, abbeys and monasteries were built to reflect the rising influence of Christianity. Tcentury. This expedition to Jerusalem, and the seven other crusades to follow in the 12th and 13th centuries, initially aiming at “liberating” the city from the Muslim occupants, contributed to

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create a sense of Christian identity and an unprecedented feeling of unity among the Western world, thus reinforcing the papacy’s influence in Rome over the Christian lands. The Capetian rule hardened under Louis VI the Fat (1108-1137), who extended the royal domain by crushing neighboring vassals in Ile de France. Just before his death, he arranged with the duke of Aquitaine the marriage of his son Louis VII with Eleanor of Aquitaine, who was only 16. The marriage did not last however, it was nullified 15 years later (1152) on suspicion of Eleanor’s infidelity to Louis the Pious. Eleanor would have reportedly admitted that she “expected to marry a king, not a monk”. The beautiful and art loving Eleanor remarried almost immediately with Henri Plantagenet, a young and powerful vassal who controlled most of the western part of the kingdom. With the addition of Aquitaine (south-west), Henri was the master of almost half and France. Two years after his marriage to Eleanor, in 1154, and at the age of 22, Henri became king of England, controlling most of the kingdom of France. The Aquitaine, lost by France through a bad marriage, will remain under England’s domination for the next three centuries. The growth of the French monarchy

e first great expansion of the royal domain came from the work

great Capetian king of the 13th century is Philip Augustus’

Thof Philip II Augustus (1180-1223), during whose reign the French king for the first time became more powerful than any of his vassals. Philip took Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine from the Plantagenets, thereby tripling the size of the French royal domain. Philip also greatly strengthened the royal administrative system by devising new methods to collect revenue from his vassals. He also created a parliament, a supreme court of justice and a royal treasury. Thegrand son, Louis IX (1226-1270), better known as Saint Louis. His reign started as he was only 12, and lasted more than forty years. Saint Louis was both loved and feared by the people, he had a high sense of his duties as a king and wanted his reign to be marked by justice and integrity. He created for instance a system whereby each citizen had an opportunity to lodge a complaint against officials directly to the court of justice. Saint Louis was also a pious Christian, as his canonization in 1297 demonstrates. He saw himself as only responsible to God, who had put him on the throne to lead his subjects and to ensure their well-being and

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that their life was free of sins. In this way he contributed greatly to create the myth of the divine nature of the French kings, a myth that would culminate under king Louis XIV (1654-1715) and be challenged in the 18th century. Saint Louis ordered the creation of numerous hospitals and schools, among them a college in Paris, La Sorbonne, which was to become one of the great centres of knowledge in Europe. His reign is also marked by the Gothic flamboyance of new cathedrals flourishing in various parts of the kingdom, such as in Paris, Reims, Chartres and Amiens. By lack of a male heir to the throne, the Capetians of direct

he Anglo-French War (1337–1453)

The change of dynasty coincides with the

the population. The

he Hundred Years’ War between France and England

lineage lapsed in 1328, following the death of their last king, Charles VI, one of the grand-grandsons of Saint Louis. The crown of France was thus passed to the Valois, a related family. T

beginning of one of the darkest periods of France’s history. As Philippe VI attempted to drive the English out of France, the French registered humiliating defeats in Crecy (1346) and Calais (1347) which decimated the army elite and surrendered a number of cities of Normandy to the enemy. At the same time, an epidemic of black plague occurred in Marseille and spread soon all throughout the kingdom, killing millions of people, an estimated third of disease provoked irrational behavior from the

population, such as the massacre of Jews of Strasbourg (1349), who were suspected to have started the outbreak. More epidemics will occur in the 14th century, triggering an economic and demographic catastrophe. Tmaterialized into a series of conflicts between the French and the English monarchs and drained the treasuries of both countries. These wars were interrupted, now-and-again, by numerous truces and treaties over a period of 116 years. Under the reign of Charles V (1364–1380), the French seemed to regain the upper-hand against the enemy and the English were left only with a few possessions and cities, such as Bordeaux, Brest, Calais et Cherbourg, but by the time of his successor Charles VI (1380-

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1422), the situation deteriorated again. Two essential factors contributed to this situation : the mental illness of Charles VI which worsened by the end of his reign, leaving him unable to govern, and the alliance with the English of the powerful Burgundy region (south-east). This alliance cost dearly to the Valois, and a terrible defeat of the French army occurred in Azincourt (1415), where more than 5,000 French soldiers and officers perished. This defeat triggered more defeats and king of England Henry V maneuvered to take advantage of the French weakness to assert the English claims on the French throne. In 1420, the treaty of Troyes was signed, by which Charles VI had to destitute his son and declare Henry V the heir to the French throne. He had also the obligation to marry his daughter Isabelle to the king of England. This Treaty meant that the kingdom of France was in effect surrendered to the English. However, Henry’s death occurred only two years later, in 1422, but by that time, he and his ally, the Duke of Burgundy, had conquered the entire northern half of France. The same year, Charles VI passed the way as well, but his son the dauphin Charles has no claim to the throne, the kingdom of the French Valois is on the brink of disintegration. Joan of Arc (1412-1431) and the reconstruction

this context of dire turmoil, the role and symbolism of a young Inwoman who went on to save France from the hands of her enemies cannot be underestimated. Joan of Arc remains a central character in French history and her story is crucial in the construct of the French national identity. Her story is a mixture of heroism and magic : the daughter of a modest family of farmers from eastern France, Joan asserted that she had visions from God that told her to recover her homeland from the English. In 1429, at only 17, she managed to convince the uncrowned Charles VII of her holy mission and was sent with a small army to the siege at Orléans, then occupied by the English. Although initially dismissed by her fellow veteran commanders and wounded in a battle, she gained prominence when she overcame the enemy and lifted the siege in only nine days. Following this crucial victory, Joan helped to several more victories that eventually led to Charles VII coronation at Reims and settled the disputed succession to the throne. Captured by the Burgundians in 1430, Joan was sold one year later to the English and tried for heresy. Joan was found guilty and burned at the stake in the city of

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_VII_of_France

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Orl%C3%A9ans

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Orl%C3%A9ans

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reims


Rouen at the age of 19. Her ashes and remains were cast in the Seine river. The execution of Joan of Arc did not stop the process of

he kingdom’s unity is eventually achieved by Louis XI, the

he 15th century was a period of profound turmoil for France, but

reconquest of the French. In 1435 at Arras, the two former enemies, king Charles VII and Philippe the Good, duke of Burgundy, struck an alliance to combat the English, who are subsequently driven out of several northern provinces, including Normandy in 1450. By 1453, most of the Aquitaine, which the English had held for nearly three centuries, is also recovered. These victories put an end the Anglo-French War. Tsuccessor of Charles VII in 1461. The new crowned king immediately engages the Valois in a war against the rival Burgundians, the former allies of England, who remain a formidable threat to the French crown. For the next ten years, Louis XI and Burgundy’s Charles the Bold will wage battles after battles until the death of Charles in 1477 settles the score. His death marks the end of the Burgundian State, which becomes part of the French kingdom. When Louis XI dies in 1483, several other provinces, including Provence, have also joined the French crown. Tby the turn of the new century, the kingdom is configured as it has never been before and has achieved an unprecedented unity. France is now the most powerful kingdom in Europe and the country is about to enter a new age of deep social and cultural transformation.

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3. The “Ancien Regime” (16th – 18th centuries)

enaissance (16th c.)

By the end of the 15th century,

p

he Wars of Italy, started in 1495 by Louis XI on the pretext of

R

the Kingdom of France had achieved a remarkable unity under Louis XI and his successor Charles VIII who, through his marriage with Anne de Bretagne, managed to attach to the French Crown the fiercely independent province of Brittany, in western France. However, the French monarchs, now the most powerful in Europe, looked southwards to extend their influence, and seek new portunities within the rich

Mediterranean world.

economic and political o

Trecovering lost territories, would last until 1559 and would greatly contribute to the cultural transformation of France in this period. Indeed, in the process of waging these wars against its southern neighbor, supported by Austria and the renegade province of Burgundy, the French political and intellectual elites were also discovering a wealth of treasures: architectural wonders and sculptures from the great Roman past and the present, extraordinary paintings, elegant furniture, refined music and many other works of art brought about by the finest artists of the Italian renaissance of the 15th century. Francis I, crowned King of France in 1515, wanted to think of himself as the protector of the arts and sciences, and strongly encouraged French artists to develop their craft and emulate their Italian counterparts. During his reign, he invited many Italian artists, scholars, architects to

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come to France, among them Leonardo de Vinci, who allegedly died into the arms of Francis I in 1519. Along the Loire River, sumptuous chateaux, such as Blois and Amboise, were built as testimony of the cultural rebirth of France. The French Renaissance is also a vibrant period for the French

he Wars of Religion

By the beginning of the 16th century, the

war that culminated w

literature. While Francis I issued a decree in 1539 that made French (and non longer Latin) the official language of the administration, and with the fast rising printing industry (50,000 books are printed in Lyon and Paris in the course of the 16th century), writers such as Clément Marot (1496-1544), Marguerite de Navarre (1492-1549), Rabelais (1494-1553), Ronsard (1524-1585), du Bellay (1522-1560) define new literary norms and genres which will set the standards for the centuries to come. In 1580, Michel de Montaigne (1533-1594) publishes his Essays, a unique masterpiece which encapsulates the humanist spirit of the Renaissance: tolerance, defiance towards dogmas, cultivation of knowledge, cultural relativism founded on the recognition and acceptance of difference. These ideas expressed by the philosopher of Bordeaux will deeply influence the future generations of thinkers. T

Church of Rome enters a deep crisis and its leadership is being challenged all across Europe. The works of the German Luther (1488-1546) and the Swiss Calvin (1509-1564), both denouncing the excesses of Rome, have a huge impact among the French nobility and create a split between Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The partisans of the Reformation demand a return to the authentic faith of the Gospels, accusing the Roman Catholic Church of corruption and superstition. The Catholics, supporting the papacy in Rome, charge the Protestants of heresy. In 1562, an assault on a group of Protestants triggered a civil ith the massacre of several thousand of

Protestants in Paris on Saint Bartholomew Day (24 August 1572). Further confrontations occurred in the following months, causing

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the death of tens of thousands of Protestants across France. However, after his coronation in 1594, Henri IV, a former Huguenot converted to Catholicism, issued an edict in 1598 (Edict of Nantes) that granted to the Protestants freedom of cult and the restoration of their civil rights. The reign of Henri IV was not only marked by religious tolerance, the new King also showed compassion to the poor and triggered economic growth through controlled spending and regulated administration. Nicknamed Henri the Great, or Good King Henri, he was assassinated by a religious fanatic in 1610. Towards absolute monarchy (17th c.)

ouis XIII, successor to the throne of Henri IV, was too young to

sciences and rationalist thought in the centuries to come.

Lgovern and his mother Catherine de Medicis appointed clergyman Richelieu in 1624 to act as chief minister to the young King. The alliance between the King and the cardinal lasted for nearly 20 years, until Richelieu’s death, in 1642. Richelieu worked hard to strengthen the monarch’s standing, with increased centralized power around his person and diminishing nobility’s influence by increasing their obligations to the king. On the other hand, the freedom granted to the Protestants under Henri IV was seriously eroded, while their freedom of cult remained more or less intact, their control over certain French cities was abolished. Richelieu was also keen to extend French influence over new lands. With generous subsidies granted to the naval force, the French settled colonies in northern America, around the Saint-Laurent river (now Quebec), as well as in Africa, and Madagascar. Internally, Richelieu organized the collection of taxes to secure steady income to the State’s finances which in turn helped the country’s economy through the development of industrial and agricultural projects. Richelieu made himself famous for his patronage of the arts: he created in 1636 the Academie Francaise, an official and prestigious body in charge of overseeing matters pertaining to the French language. The Academy remains today one of the most prestigious national institutions. Arts and letters flourished under the reign of Louis XIII (1617-1643), with playwrights such as Pierre Corneille (1606-1684), notorious for his tragedies inspired by legends and stories of the Middle Ages and the Antiquity (Le Cid, 1637; Horace, 1640; Polyeucte, 1642). It is also in 1637 that philosopher Rene Descartes published his Discourse of the Method, a work which was to influence deeply the development of the

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The 17th century is known as the classic age in France and King ouis XIV, nicknamed the King Sun, or Louis the Great,

een to associate to his rule brilliant people, such as

his rule. In the waEurope since the

lace had to be built. Versailles, onveniently situated far from the hazardous Paris centre, took

Lepitomizes the unparalleled grandeur of the French monarchy in this period. Louis was only 5 years old when his father Louis XIII passed (1643) and the young heir had to wait until his majority in 1652 to access to the Throne of France. Still, Louis XIV started his reign under the supervision of Richelieu’s successor, Chief Minister Mazarin, who triggered a lot of discontent among the French nobility. However, in 1661, following the death of his unpopular Minister, Louis XIV decided to assume full control of the State. The King of France was only 24, and this decision was emblematic of Louis’ style, who conceived the monarch’s authority as a divine right and the King as the pure embodiment of God.

Louis XIV, as absolute monarch, was also k

Colbert (Marine and Finances), Louvois (Military and War), Vauban (Engineering and Fortifications), who all contributed massively to Louis XIV’s ambitions and successes: during the 55 years of Louis XIV personal reign, France spent some 30 years at war. France’s key victories over Holland and Spain in 1681 allowed the country to aggregate to the Crown eastern and northern territories (Alsace, Lorraine, Franche-Comté). But the glorious period of Louis XIV, which lasted until 1685, was not only about winning battles, the King Sun wanted the arts to reflect the grandeur of ke of the baroque style that developed across 16th century, French classical art rested on

values such as simplicity, balance, clarity as well as meticulous rules. Together with architecture and painting, French literature reached unprecedented standards with authors such as Molière (1622-1673), Racine (1639-1699), Boileau (1636-1711), La Fontaine (1668-1696), Madame de la Fayette (1634-1693) and de La Rochefoucauld (1613-1680). For such a king, a formidable pacnearly half a century to complete and was the most gigantic architectural work ever undertaken in France. Louis XIV and his

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court moved to Versailles in 1684, starting a life of high-spending and lavish ceremonies, draining the country’s finances, already under serious strain. From this point on, discontent grew among the population at large, further aggravated by the economic crisis triggered by the Edict of Fontainebleau (1685), by which all rights granted to the Protestants a century ago were nullified. This decision of Louis XIV, who never tolerated the partisans of Reformation, provoked the exodus of hundreds of thousands Huguenots, taking with them their wealth and riches across the border. This exodus, as well as the heavy cost of continuous wars from 1688 to 1697 against France’s neighbors, and later against Spain from 1702 to 1714, threw the State’s finances into a desperate situation. By the end of the reign of Louis the Great in 1715, France was close to bankruptcy and had to abandon vast territories in North America to the British partly to recover its losses. The Enlightenment (18th c.)

t-grandson of the Sun King inherits the rone, after reaching his majority. The financial situation of the

ntry in Europe, the rench culture is influential and serves as reference, French

In 1728, Louis XV, the greathState is disastrous, legacy of the previous regime. On the other hand, a new class of wealthy citizens has emerged, thanks to the hefty dividends derived from overseas trade and commercial outposts in various parts of the world: Canada, French Guiana and West Indies, Africa, Mauritius (Indian Ocean) and India. The slave trade between Africa and the New World also provides a source of huge income for this new commercial bourgeoisie enriched by the colonial expansion. When Louis XV’s Chief Controller of Finances attempts in 1749 to levy a new tax on wealthy citizens, the Parliament rejects the proposal in a humiliating defeat for the State. This episode reflects the widening gap between Versailles and the rest of the country, as well as the paradoxical situation of a cash trapped government unable to exert control on an increasingly assertive industrial and commercial front protecting its own interests. In this period, France is the most populous couFscholars are highly regarded, French artists are on demand. The French language is the diplomatic language across the continent, and the European elite speak French, from London to Vienna, from Madrid to Utrecht. The brilliance of French intellectuals

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culminates with the publication of the 28 volumes of the Encyclopedia, from 1751 to 1772. The work, edited by Denis Diderot, a philosopher, and d’Alembert, a mathematician, is defined as an attempt to collect all possible knowledge in virtually all aspects of the sciences, history and the arts. This monumental endeavor, which would remain a major reference tool for the following century, is emblematic of the spirit of the Enlightenment, advocating that knowledge leads to progress, and that progress paves the way for better justice and societies.

Diderot and d’Alembert are not the only authors to promote new ideas, other

to-be first French Canother prolific write

omes to an end in 1774, as the King uccumbs to smallpox, a disease that kills hundreds of thousands

intellectuals question the political establishment of the monarchy, and its long association with the Catholic Church: In 1748, Montesquieu (1689-1755) publishes the Spirit of the Laws, advocating tolerance and the advent of the secular state, with independent and separate legislature, executive and judiciary. This work will deeply influence the future American Constitution (1787) and of course the soon-onstitution in 1791. Voltaire (1694-1778), r and prominent intellectual, prosecuted by

the French authorities, publishes in 1756 his most influential work, Essay on the Manners and Spirit of the Nations, a vast description of global history, where he affirms his faith in mankind, enlightened by Reason. As for Rousseau (1712-1778), one of his major works, The Social Contract (1762), develops the idea of the democratic nation, founded on equality, justice, and devoted to the well-being of its people. The long reign of Louis XV csof people in France each year. His grandson will take the succession. Louis XVI inherits a country with disastrous finances, a growing discontent across all classes of the society, from the poor who cannot afford to pay their taxes to the rich who don’t want to share their capital. In this tense context, France is about to implode.

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The Revolution (1789-1799)

The Revolution is one of the most significant moments in French

country rise up to take their owof simple concepts such as

poverty, igh taxation, widening gap between the State and the civil society,

d that a constitutional onarchy would provide the best system is these times of changes.

history. Within ten years, the events taking place will change the country deeply and for ever. These events will also have a profound impact on Europe and on the rest of the world. For the first time in modern history, the citizens of a n fate into their hands in the name freedom, equality, solidarity that

should be enshrined into laws and a constitutional framework. In short, democracy, the rule of the people, is being experimented at the scale of a nation, which has been dominated for centuries by one single class, the aristocracy, and its ally, the clergy. The causes of the Revolution are multiple: widespreadheconomic and financial crisis, new political ideas, anticlericalism, resentment of the class privileges enjoyed by the nobility, all these factors and many other contributed to the upheaval of 1789. What pulled the trigger though was an attempt by Louis XVI to push new taxes to ease the disastrous financial situation of the State. As the legislation was turned down, the King had to convene in May 1789 at Versailles the Estates General, an assembly representing the three orders of the society, i.e., the clergy, the nobility and the Third Estate (the people). However, disputes arose over the genuine representation of the people’s wishes and soon the Third Estate deputies proclaimed themselves a National Assembly with constitutional powers. On July 14, the citizens of Paris stormed the Invalides, where they found weapons and canons, then attacked the Bastille, a huge prison in the heart of the city, seen by the revolutionaries as the symbol of the repressive monarchy. Within hours, the Parisians were in control of the city and the provinces quickly followed. Major changes were on the march and will be unstoppable. Initially, the revolutionaries conceivemAccording to the new constitution, the King would remain Head of State, but the Assembly would retain its influence on the executive

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and legislative powers. The new national flag reflected this compromise, the colors of the city of Paris (blue and red) combined with that of the monarchy (white). In August 1789, the declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen set out the basis for such a political framework. The text declared boldly that all citizens should enjoy the same privileges and equality of rights.

In 1792, France entered a war against Austria, backed by a coalition of countries.

through the infamousended in 1795, as th

The French revolutionary army however registered a key victory against the enemy in Valmy, Eastern France. This victory gave a new momentum to the Revolution, and the new Convention proclaimed the First Republic, which constitution was based on the Declaration of 1789. Louis XVI, suspected of plotting with the enemy, was executed in January 1793 and a few months later began the darkest period of the French revolution, as the country tilted into a civil war, involving thousands of executions guillotine. This episode, known as the Terror, e Directory took over from the Convention.

The new regime however became quickly unpopular, stained by rampant corruption, political maneuvering and heavy-handed repression of dissent. Taking advantage of the situation, a young general named Bonaparte, already famous following several successful military campaigns, made his way quickly to the top to stage a coup d’état in 1799. This event effectively put an end to the Revolution and under the new Consulate, Bonaparte created the position of First Consul, thus securing for himself entire control of the country.

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4. The 19th century

The 19th century in France is a period of deep changes and political

in the cities. In the meandominant class, stimulating t

nce were great and his priority was bring the country back to its feet after decades of financial

instability, testing various regimes (empire, republic, monarchy). It is only in the last quarter of the century that the Republican ideals conceived by the revolutionaries of 1789 were achieved. Indeed, the heritage left by the Ancien Regime is heavy, and with the industrial revolution, a new social layer emerges, the working class, dwelling time, the bourgeoisie becomes the he commerce and the industry, while

imposing its moral and social values. The First Empire (1805-1814) Bonaparte’s ambitions for Fratomismanagement and political turmoil. Under his rule were created many lasting institutions: the Bank of France was set up to ensure monetary stability; the Civil Code gave to the judiciary and society a solid foundation where to anchor decisions of justice and it is still the basis of civil law in France today; several prestigious schools were created to secure the training of the elite in the administration and the military; he also reinforced the central government by creating the positions of prefects to administer the departments created in 1790. Napoleon, while carrying on with the Revolution’s ideal of a laic state, was also favoring a rapprochement with the Catholic Church, which had been evicted from power control in 1789 and .

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But these ambitions ran even beyond the borders of France: five

owever, the disastrous attempt to invade Russia in 1812 marked

he Restoration (1814-1830) and the Monarchy of July (1830-1848)

he fall of the First Empire coincides with the end of the

years after his coup d’état, in 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French (1804) under the name of Napoleon 1 and soon sent the French armies marching across Europe. At its peak in 1811, the Napoleonic Empire dominated most of the continent, with the exception of England. Napoleon saw himself as a liberator, rather than a mere conqueror, and under his firm rule, he purported to build a federation of free peoples in Europe who could unite around liberal governments articulated to a democratic constitution, committed to civil law, fostering education, science and the arts and combating feudalism. Ha turning point in Napoleon’s success. The following year, a coalition of six states defeated the French army and invaded France, forcing Napoleon’s abdication in 1814. Exiled in Elba (Italy) for almost a year, Napoleon made an extraordinary comeback to regain for hundred days the control of the nation. However, the French armies were defeated again in June 1815, ending this time and for good Napoleon’s reign, who was deported on the island of St. Helena in the middle of the Atlantic. He died there six years later. T Trevolutionary period in France, after more than 20 years of wars and conflicts that have caused the death of more than 3 millions people across Europe. In 1815, France is economically weak and deeply divided. In Europe, a coalition is formed, the St. Alliance, to respond immediately to new attempts by France to initiate new conflicts. However, with the monarchy restored and the accession to the throne of Louis XVIII, grandson of Louis XV, the conditions for a new equilibrium seemed to be reunited. The new king could not ignore 25 years of profound changes in the country, and at the same time he needed to provide assurance to the conservative forces that the country was safe for the many refugees to return. In 1814, the Chart was adopted, a sort of constitution that allowed the formation of political parties and an advisory bi-cameral assembly with little power. The chambers were elected by voters who could afford to pay a hefty poll tax, which effectively limited the number of voters to a few thousands, and among the wealthiest. The political spectrum was then divided into three

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streams: the liberals, who advocated a return to the fundamentals of the Revolution; the Constitutionals, who wanted to associate a proper constitution to the royal regime; and the ultra-royalists, who wanted to see a return to absolute monarchy. The reign of Louis XVIII, with all its weaknesses, marked a period of relative peace and economic prosperity in France, and in many respects, allowed much more freedom of expression than the Napoleonic regime ever did. Charles X ascended to the throne in 1825, following the death of

he Assembly chose the duke of Orleans as the next king of

Louis XVIII. The new king had a totally different agenda which became apparent as soon as his coronation, which took place in the cathedral of Reims, according to the Ancient Regime tradition. Charles X wanted to pass power to the ultra-royalist and did his best to weaken the prerogatives granted by the Chart to the Liberals. In 1830, Charles X committed the French troops to the invasion of Algeria, effectively starting the colonization process in which will be engaged for the decades to come. The same year, he dissolved the Assembly, hoping to return a favorable majority, but the plan failed. Following another attempt to dissolve the new Assembly, the Parisians staged an insurrection on the 27, 28 and 29 July, known as the Three Glorious Days. Charles X was forced to abdicate and flee the country. TFrance, a descendant of Louis XIII. The new king assumed power under the name of Louis-Philippe for 18 years, the longest reign since Louis XV. Louis-Philippe was initially popular among the masses for his liberal views, and his reign seemed to mark a return to constitutional monarchy, the Chart being enforced and somehow widened in its scope. These measures however, which included a cheaper poll tax, still favored mostly the wealthy middle class and very soon, in the wake of an assassination attempt on the king in 1835, the freedom of the press was severely curtained. Important social changes took place in the period, through the increasing industrialization of the country (coal mines, foundries, textile factories, railways), a new working class emerged in the cities. Theorists such St Simon and Fourier laid the foundations of a critical appraisal of the capitalist order, and their writings would inspire generations of politicians to come.

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Second Revolution of 1848 and the Second Empire (1852-1870)

The abdication in 1848 of Louis-Philippe was

The new Republic,

he new Emperor started his reign by imposing a firm hand on the

precipitated by an economic crisis which started the year before, owing to bad harvests. Again, the people commanded the flow of events as demonstrators took to the streets of Paris to protest against unemployment, poor living conditions and to demand civil and political rights. This second revolution led to the declaration of the Second Republic by the Assembly. The blue, white and red flag was raised again, after nearly 35 years of being folded under the restoration of the monarchy. led by the Socialist Louis Blanc, had generous

intentions: the universal suffrage was adopted, although this measure excluded the women; the mandatory creation of “National Workshops”, meant to guarantee the availability of jobs and income for the working classes. However, the political inexperience of the revolutionaries of 1848, their poor political basis in the provinces among the peasantry, could not contain a conservative backlash at the next Assembly elections. Step by step, the new rights gained by the workers were eroded or cancelled. In 1851, Louis Napoleon, the popular president of the Republic and nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, took advantage of the weakness of the Republicans to stage a coup d’état and illegally dissolve the Assembly. The following year, he declared himself Emperor Napoleon III. The Second Republic had been short-lived. Tcountry and dissent. The press, the citizens were closely watched and opposition members were deported or, such as Victor Hugo, forced to exile. For nearly a decade, France lived under the rule of a dictator with zero tolerance. Things turned to the worse after an assassination attempt against the Emperor staged in 1858 by an Italian anarchist. As a result, a security law was issued to authorize the deportation of any suspect without trial. This tight political context however favored economic growth and prosperity, as capital holders and banks were more willing to invest for new projects. In the meantime, scientific progress helped the industrial and urban development of the country. Under Napoleon III, Paris underwent a radical change led by Baron Haussmann, who

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redesigned the crowded capital with large arteries and landmark buildings. The Second Empire was also a period of rapid colonial expansion for France, a process already initiated under Louis-Philippe. Competing with England, the French overseas colonies were both a source of raw materials to feed the domestic industry and consumption market and a convenient outlet for products made in the metropolis. Significant territorial gains were made in West and Central Africa, in Indochina (Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos) as well as in the South-Pacific. In 1869, the Suez Canal was finally opened after a decade of works conducted under the supervision of French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps. The canal dealt a significant blow in British domination of the region and opened a new route to the East that cut traveling time by half. In the 1860’s, amid an economic downturn, failed foreign policy and growing discontent towards his authoritarian regime, Napoleon III’s credibility and popularity started to dwindle, even among the bourgeoisie who would not forgive him the signing of a treaty that allowed British goods to be freely marketed in France. In response, the ageing and ailing Emperor eased his grip on the media and relaxed political rights, such as the freedom of strike and parliamentarian representation. These changes favored the massive return of Republicans to the Assembly in 1870. The same year, Napoleon III, in the hope of retaining power, agreed to a new constitution providing full parliamentary legislative regime to the country. However, the Franco-Prussian war broke out, and with the French armies mobilized in Western France and the Emperor captured by the Germans, the Republican deputies in Paris took advantage of the situation to topple the Second Empire and install a new provisional government. The Third Republic (1870-1940) Soon after their seizing of power, the new government proclaimed the Third Republic, a bicameral parliamentarian democracy that will resist many crises during the next 70 years, until the invasion of France by Germany at the onset of the Second World War. The new republic emerged while Paris was still under the siege of the German troops, ready to invade the capital. The siege was to last for four months, until a treaty was signed, by which France had to pay heavy war reparations and to abandon to Prussia its eastern

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provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. The loss of these provinces was to leave a deep scar into the French psyche, until their eventual recovery some 50 years later, after the First World War.

However, the young republic had not seen the end of its troubles: in March 1871, a civil insurrection, known as La Commune, broke out in the capital. Overwhelmed by the events, the government led by Thiers was forced to retreat to Versailles to prepare the counter-attack. The Communards, which will become a source of inspiration for many Communist revolutionaries worldwide, adopted the red flag, formed a freely elected

government and implemented radical measures in favor of the working class, among them free and laic education. By May 1871 however, the loyalist troops of Versailles stormed the capital and crushed the insurrection, leaving at least 25,000 men, women and children dead in one of the bloodiest repression in French history. Countless other citizens suspected of supporting the insurrection were deported or imprisoned. The short-lived Commune was the last gasp of the French Revolution that changed France’s history almost one century earlier. By 1875, the “Republic without Republicans” went through a range of constitutional reforms and appointed its first president, the general Mac-Mahon, a monarchist, who had led the repression against the Communards. The government adopted a strict policy based on moral values, while closely watching for a possible rebirth of the workers’ movement. In 1879 however, Mac-Mahon was forced to stand down, following parliamentary elections that returned a majority of Republicans to the legislative Assembly. From then on, a truly democratic regime was put into place, controlled by liberal members of parliament who only distinguished themselves by either their moderate or radical affiliation to democratic values. The moderate camp however dominated the Chamber and from 1881 onwards, Jules Ferry, one of the most revered politicians in French history pushed a package of long-awaited legislation: the free, mandatory and secular education for all children until the age of 13 and the complete freedom of the press. Further laws enshrined the right to belong to

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trade unions and helped to regulate the work of women and children. To celebrate the memory of the French Revolution as well as the industrial prowess of the country, it was decided to build a gigantic tower in the heart of Paris. The Tour Eiffel was unveiled in 1889 at the Exposition Universelle and would remain thereon as one of the universal icons of the French nation. Meanwhile, the colonial policy was actively pursued with further gains on the African continent and south-east Asia. The French colonial empire was then 16 times larger than France itself and second in size to the British empire. Beyond its commercial and strategic rationale, the French government justified colonialism as a way of bringing “civilization” to the “backward peoples” under its rule. As such, colonialism was seen as a duty performed by the Western industrial countries for the good of the rest of the world. The French were also present in China, in the Yunnan province in particular, contiguous to its possessions in Indochina, as well as through commercial concessions in Canton and Shanghai. In 1900, the French participated in an international military expedition that was sent to Tianjing and Peking to help crush the Boxers rebellion. In the late 1890s and early 1900s, in the wake of a bitter dispute over the Dreyfus affair that had uncovered the extent of anti-Semitism and political divisions in France, the radical Republicans progressively took the upper-hand over the moderate wing in what is called the “anti-clerical Republic”. The Catholic Church, seen as the main ally of the conservative forces, became the main target of the radical Republicans. In 1904, the French government severed its diplomatic ties with the Vatican and the following year, in 1905, a bill was issued to formally separate the Church from the affairs of the state. In practice, while Catholicism was still recognized as the national religion, the government was no longer required to subsidize the Church’s activities, including the salaries of its personnel. The significance of this legislation was symbolically far-reaching, inasmuch as it translated into law the secularism of a democratic nation that has been associated with Christianity since the Gallo-Roman period.

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5. The 20th century

During the first decade of the 20th century France enjoyed a period of upbeat mood and optimism to the point that this time is remembered as ”la Belle Epoque”. The country produced and benefitted from many of the scientific and technical innovations of the second industrial revolution: photography,

gramophone, electricity, automobile, bicycle and the prototypes of aerial machines on which Blériot realized the first 30-km flight across the channel (1909), from Calais to Dover. Marie Curie experienced the radioactivity in her laboratory and was awarded two Nobel prizes (1903 and 1911). In the capital Paris, the first metro line opened on 14 July 1900 and changed the face of urban transport for ever. France enjoyed considerable international prestige: it had the second-largest colonial empire in the world, played a leading role in international diplomacy and was at the forefront in the realms of art, culture and science. World War I (1914-1918) From 1910 onwards, the tension between France and Germany increased, the lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine remaining at the heart of the dispute. In spite of the opposition of French Socialists led by Jean Jaurès to an armed conflict with Germany, the preparations gained pace. Following the assassination in June 1914 at Sarajevo of Franz Ferdinand, archduke of Austria, Germany formed a alliance with Austria-Hungary (the Central Powers) while France responded by seeking an alliance with England and Russia (the Triple Alliance). When Germany declared

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war to Russia and France in August, a “sacred union” of the French political class favored the warmongers. France entered the conflict assuming that the war would be short and limited in scope. However, this war would last four years and for the first time in history, would take a global dimension. Even though the conflict involved countries as far as the US and Japan, the main battlefield took place in eastern France. The German troops stationed on French soil attempted several times to seize Paris while the French troops resisted and tried hard to push the Germans back behind the border. In February 1916, the Battle de Verdun started and for nearly one year, French and German troops fought each other from the entrenched positions in appalling conditions. Amid diseases, food shortages, artillery and chemical warfare, hundreds of thousands soldiers from each side lost their lives, and many more were seriously wounded. The trenches of Verdun would soon become a symbol of the “Great War”. By 1917, the United States who had adopted so far an isolationist stand entered the conflict to reinforce the triple Alliance, in the wake of the destruction of American ships by the Germans. However, in December 1917, as the Bolshevik Revolution broke out, the Russians left the Triple Alliance, a move that allowed the Germans to redeploy on the Western front in France.

In March 1918, the German troops were within 30 km of Paris and bombarded the capital with long-distance canons. But the arrival of fresh American troops in August gave a new twist to the battle. The Germans were finally forced to retreat and with the capitulation of Turkey and Austria-Hungary in November, the Germans have no choice but to face defeat. The armistice is signed on November 11, 1918, near Paris. The war has caused the death of 8 millions people across Europe. One year later, Germany will pay a heavy price : according to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany would surrender Alsace and

Lorraine back to France; pay war reparations for up to 132 billions of marks; the bordering provinces of Rhenania and Sarre would remain occupied and demilitarized; the country would also be

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prevented to develop weaponry and an army of more than 100,000 men. Finally, all the German colonies in the Pacific and Africa are distributed among Australia, Japan, Belgium, England and France. This treaty will have a profound psychological, social and economical impact on Germany, it will also change drastically the political map of Europe, exacerbating nationalist feelings in many regions. The Interwar (1918-1939) Right after the war, the conservative Republicans are back in control in France, with Raymond Poincaré heading the government. Poincaré advocated a tough policy against Germany and in 1923, the French troops are sent to occupy the Ruhr region. This decision sent waves of panic across financial markets. In order to protect the French currency against heavy speculation, Poincaré took the step of increasing taxes by 20%, a very unpopular decision that cost the Republicans the general elections of 1924, won by the Radicals and Socialists. The first decision of the new left-wing government led by the Radical Herriot was to design a new tax capital tax, which resulted in a fresh monetary crisis as a massive flow of capital left the country. Herriot was then forced to step down and Poincaré was called again to form a coalition government. Thanks to a firm economic policy, the finances were soon back on track, which allowed the Republicans to win the next general elections in 1928.

The period right after the war was not only about financial crises however. The 20s were also a period of deep cultural changes amidst a society which slowly recovered from the great damages of the First World War. After the Belle Epoque of the first decade, the 20s were named the “Années Folles” (the Mad Years). Women played an essential role in these years: during the war, they replaced men in many sectors of economic and social activities. In many instances, they also acquired the status of “head of family” creating for themselves much room for independence. The birth rate was also in sharp decrease, allowing more freedom to women, who were no longer confined to motherhood role.

Coco Chanel, the first female designer, revolutionized the way

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women dressed and thought about themselves. The writer Colette, provocative and carefree, sketched the profile of a new emancipated woman in her immensely popular novels. On the other hand, André Breton and a group of young intellectuals and artists brought about the Surrealist Revolution in a Manifesto published in 1924. In this new vision of the arts (literature, painting, sculpture), freedom, invention and spontaneity were the keys to approach new creative forms, more attuned to the inner impulses of the Unconscious, just recently uncovered by Sigmund Freud. In 1930, in a relatively healthy economic context, the conservative government led by André Tardieu introduced welfare measures directed to the less wealthy which would thereafter become a landmark of France’s social State: public works, social insurance, and free secondary schooling. His government also undertook the construction of the Maginot line, a series of concrete fortifications and bunkers along its borders to Germany and Italy, in order to foil a surprise attack from the enemy, as it had happened in 1914. By 1932 however, France started to feel the pinch of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, with an increasing number of unemployed and disgruntled people. In the meantime, Adolf Hitler had ascended to power in Germany with a tough propaganda around the theme of revenge, in particular against France. The fascist treat across Europe (Germany, Spain, Italy) contributed to unite left-wing parties in France who managed to win the general elections of 1936 under a broad coalition, the Front Populaire (Popular Front). The government led by Leon Blum, which for the first time included women ministers, immediately passed spectacular social measures: workers’ right to strike; mandatory 12 days (2 weeks) of paid vacations; workweek limited to 40 hours; wages raises. Blum also dissolved the fascist leagues who had become very active in France. Blum’s government however was short-lived. Budgetary deficit, disputes among the coalition on the question of the civil war in Spain, opposition of the Senate forced Blum to step down after only one year at the helm of the government. The new president of the Council, Edouard Daladier, initially believed, as the British did, that by making concessions to Hitler at Munich in 1938 over the eastern part Czechoslovakia would make it possible to avoid hostilities. However, on 3 September 1939, shortly after the

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German’s invasion of Poland, the Head of government committed France to the Second World War, alongside the British. World War II (1939-1945)

The German’s armies, backed by powerful tanks and air forces cut across French borders north of the Maginot line, where they were not expected and after a long period of waiting, in May 1940. They quickly reached Normandy and in six weeks the French armies are crushed. The Germans entered Paris on June 14 and a week later the armistice was signed at Rethondes, in the very place Germany conceded defeat on

November 1918. On June 18, the General de Gaulle speaking on radio from London, launched his historic appeal to the French to resist to the invaders. According to the terms of the armistice, the Germans annexed again the Alsace and Lorraine, the northern part of the country and the Atlantic coast were put under German control, while the south was declared “free zone” and administered from the city of Vichy by a “French State” led by the Marechal Petain who pledged allegiance to the occupant. The « government of collaboration » as it will be called, took immediate measures to reform the Constitution and to silence the opposition: the President was given full authority, political parties and trade unions were suspended, the right to strike was annulled and the nation’s policy articulated after three principles: work, family and fatherland. This new order represented in fact a complete negation of all democratic and social progress made in France since the Revolution. The former political leaders (including Blum and Daladier) were arrested and prosecuted. The French government also assisted and organized the arrest and deportation of resident Jews to Germany’s concentration camps. By 1943, the Vichy government urged the youth and workers to go to Germany to help in the industries and farm estates. The greatest ambition of Petain’s government was to become the second economic and industrial power in Europe after Germany. Between the Nazi occupant and the Vichy government, the Resistance managed to organize itself, notably with Jean Moulin, a young civil servant who escaped France to join de Gaulle in

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London. Soon back to France, Moulin organized the resistant networks to help the passages of resistants into the Free Zone, perform sabotage operations, provide help to persecuted Jews. In November 1942, the Germans, worried by the growing threat of a new war front in North Africa, decided to deploy their troops in the Free Zone. The general de Gaulle had set up in Algeria a provisional government of France and organized resistance from there. When Moulin was arrested in June 1943, tortured and died from his wounds, the Resistance was already a powerful organization that would play a major role in the preparation of the gigantic Allied landing of Normandy the year after, in June 1944. In spite of enormous human loss, the landing was successful and on August 25, the French and allied troops marched victorious into the streets of the capital Paris. The country was free at last, and the General de Gaulle took the lead of the provisional government. The French Resistance may not have been a key factor in the Allied victory over Nazism, but its role was crucial for France in that it convinced the British, American and Soviet politicians that France should be considered one of the victorious Allies, rather than an enemy whose territory should be occupied. France was thus able to participate fully in the victory and was present at the signing of Germany’s capitulation on 8 May 1945 in Reims. In this sense, it is fair to say that it was the Resistance, personified by de Gaulle, which allowed France to hold on to its international position despite having suffered a military defeat. The post-war era (1945-1958) In the months following the liberation of the country, the level of euphoria was high and proportionate to the degree of trauma and hardship endured by the French during the 4-year Nazi occupation. This euphoria translated into a cultural Renaissance of which the Saint-Germain district on the left bank in Paris was the main focus. There in the jazz clubs, the trendy cafés, the Parisian youth celebrated their newly found freedom. A new generation of artists and intellectuals emerged, such as Boris Vian and Juliette Greco, and on the literary scene, Jean-Paul Sartre, thinker of Existentialism and Simone de Beauvoir, prominent feminist and author of the celebrated “Second Sex”. Meanwhile, a climate of revenge – known as l’épuration - settled in, with spontaneous settling of scores and summary executions of

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thousands of “collabos”. Formal trials were also held to press charges against and prosecute the collaborators, among them Pierre Laval, former associate of Marechal Pétain, the writer and intellectual Robert Brasillach, and Louis Renault, head of the car maker company. However, economic collaborators were largely spared, as the country needed its entrepreneurs and captains of industry for the postwar reconstruction. In August 1945, Pétain was sentenced to death but on the ground of his old age, the sentence was commuted to life-long imprisonment. Overall, the French were torn between the glorification of the Resistance and the desire to bury the shameful collaborationist State which helped the deportation of 76,000 Jews from France to Germany’s extermination camps.

As soon as 1945, the provisional government, while working on a new Constitution which would soon give birth to the Fourth Republic, engaged into radical reforms, such as the nationalization of banks and large companies (energy, transport, insurances), the creation of the Social Security, the right of vote for women. However, de Gaulle stepped down in 1946, dissociating himself with the reforms of the government, in particular those regarding constitutional amendments. De Gaulle, who advocated a presidential regime and strong executive leadership, could not be satisfied with a

new constitution which basically prolonged the former parliamentary regime. Despite the Communist opposition, France soon became a member of the Atlantic Alliance (NATO) in April 1949. In addition, after Germany was divided, France opted for a policy of entente with West Germany which was to lay the foundations of the European Community. Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman and Chancellor Konrad Adenauer were instrumental in bringing the two countries closer together - a strategy which resulted, in 1951, in the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), a first milestone on the road to a united Europe. But the troubles envisioned by de Gaulle for the new Republic inaugurated in 1947 didn’t come only from inner struggles on the

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French political scene: the French Empire was also on the brink of collapsing and the colonies abroad were actively seeking their independence, following the global trend after the war, which greatly weakened the colonial powers. Indochina thus became the central focus of foreign policy for the new Republic: Vietnam, in the wake of its liberation from Japanese occupation, had declared its independence in 1945, a move that France was not ready to accept. Hô Chi Minh, leader of the Vietnam Liberation Front, backed by the Soviet Union and Communist China, organized the resistance from the North against the French troops. After many years of a “dirty war” where 100,000 French troops were killed, the French defeat at Diên Biên Phu in May 1954 precipitated the capitulation of France as well as the fall of the government. Pierre Mendes France, head of the new socialist government, signed in July 1954 the Geneva Accords, which recognized the independence of Laos and Cambodia, as well as the split of Vietnam into two zones. As peace was gained on the Indochina front, war erupted in Algeria, the oldest French colony, conquered in 1830. While other French colonies like Tunisia and Morocco, as well as most territories in sub-Saharan Africa won their independence in the late 50s and early 60s without armed conflict, the case of Algeria was different. The ties linking France with this country were deep and complex, economic and emotional, and many French settlers had been living on this land for generations. France was reluctant to make this ultimate concession on her lost empire. In 1954, the first insurrections by the National Liberation Front are harshly suppressed. Pierre Mendes-France, who favored conciliation, was forced to step down in 1955 after only seven months in power. Under the various governments which followed, the Algerian war became the focus of French politics, the conflict became more and more unpopular among public opinion. In 1958, the French residents of Algeria, backed by the Army of General Massu and the local authorities, threatened to stage a coup and form an insurgent government unless the Constitution was amended and the General de Gaulle installed into power. The pressure succeeded. De Gaulle was called by President René Coty to lead the government. He initiated the drafting of a new Constitution, which was to lay down the future modus operandi of the French institutions. On 28 September 1958, the Constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted by referendum. It gave the President of the Republic much broader authority. On 21 December 1958, de

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Gaulle was elected President by a college of deputies, senators and local elected representatives. The Fifth Republic (1958-present)

The new constitution didn’t stop the war, but serious disturbances both in mainland France and in Algeria, and a putsch by generals in Algiers on 22 April 1961, led to an acceleration of the negotiations with the provisional government of the Algerian Republic which culminated in the Evian agreements, overwhelmingly approved by referendum on 8 April 1962. Algeria gained independence and a million French inhabitants had to return to mainland France and a new life. The General de Gaulle, seen

as the liberator of France in 1944, had again freed his country, but this time from its own colonial past. At the same time, the new regime conceived by de Gaulle could now be tested in a period of stability, after 22 years of continuous conflicts since the beginning of WW2. On 28 October 1962, de Gaulle called a referendum which approved election of the head of State by direct universal suffrage. He would be elected president on 19 December 1965. As soon as the following year, de Gaulle undertook to demonstrate what he had in mind for France: based on a thriving economy boosted by post-war reconstruction and a booming demography, de Gaulle wanted a France which would affirm its independence from the two superpowers of the Cold War and strongly anchored in Europe. In January 1963, de Gaulle opposed the entry of Great Britain into EEC, as he judged that the British entertained too strong ties with the US. However, a week later, de Gaulle and Adenauer laid the foundations of a deeper partnership with Germany with the signature of the Franco-German Treaty of Friendship. A few months later, France – which had developed a nuclear arsenal, declared its military independence, thus preparing its actual withdrawal from NATO which would eventually materialize in 1966. Finally, in January 1964, just as though he wanted to seal his huge unpopularity among the US and British leaders, de Gaulle became the first Western Head of State to initiate diplomatic links with the Popular Republic of China, then led by Mao Tse Tung.

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However, the first signs of a crisis of confidence towards Gaullist politics became manifest as the younger generation, who hadn’t known the war and its immediate aftermath grew disillusioned of the consumerist society in which France had engaged during the « Thirty Glorious Years » since the end of the war. The youth of the late 60s wanted a society based on different values than those of their parents and the politicians that had led the country in the reconstruction phase and the colonial wars. The 1968 uprising started in March in a Parisian university, and quickly spread throughout the country in the following weeks. The students on strike at first demanded reforms of the education system, but soon their demands concerned a large spectrum of aspects of the society, such as workers’ rights, freedom of expression, political censorship. In May, the students confronted the police in the streets, elevating barricades in violent clashes. The workers joined the movement and by May 24, 10 millions people across France were on strike, bringing the country to a halt. Faced with this unprecedented unrest and with France on the brink of anarchy, de Gaulle called for general elections to take place by June end. The ballot boxes returned a large majority in favor of the Gaullist government. The upheaval died down as quickly as it started, de Gaulle emerged victorious, and the “National Hero” had won another battle, on the social front this time.

The protesters of May '68 may not have achieved the ideal society they wanted to promote in the course of their revolt, but the events would have a deep social impact on the country in the longer term. The conservative values of the “old state”, based on morality, religion, patriotism, respect of authority had been seriously challenged and a clear shift towards more liberal views, such as equality, sexual liberation, human rights, defiance towards capitalism, concerns for the environment would from now on dominate

French society. De Gaulle stepped down in 1969 as he suffered a rebuke in a referendum on constitutional affairs. Georges Pompidou, a former Prime Minister, was elected soon afterwards. Pompidou adopted a more pragmatic economic policy and distanced himself from

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Gaullism. Under his presidency, France lifted its veto on Britain’s entry into the European Economic Community (EEC). The EEC was also subsequently opened to Ireland and Denmark, taking the number of members to nine in 1973. But Pompidou’s mandate was interrupted by his death from illness in 1974. In the presidential elections that followed, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, a former Finance Minister under de Gaulle and Pompidou, was elected. Under the backdrop of the first oil crisis that threatened the global economy, the young president was keen to present himself as a promoter of a new style of government with a “centrist” approach. Giscard introduced bold reforms, such as the lowering of the age of majority to 18, the legalization of abortion, and the end of censorship of films and TV broadcasting. He also initiated meetings of the G7 (“Group of Seven” most industrialized countries) and, together with the German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt, was instrumental in setting up the European Monetary System (EMS) and the election of Members of the European Parliament by universal suffrage. However, with the second oil crisis that struck France in 1979, the economic situation worsened, with notably a sharp increase of the number of jobless people, which would remain the main issue in French politics for the decades to come.

Weakened by poor economic result and a plunging popularity due to scandals that had cast doubts on his personal integrity, Giscard d’Estaing lost the presidential elections in May 1981 to the Socialist François Mitterrand, who had been the leading figure of the opposition since the inception of the Fifth Republic. The election of the first Socialist President was historical, in a country which had always been dominated by Conservative parties. In some respect, France

was ready to take this step and the revolt of May 68 had certainly played a major role in the maturation process. With a comfortable majority of left-wing MPs gained in the subsequent general elections, Mitterrand had an open field ahead of him to implement the policies of the Left he had promised to deliver. The first measures taken by the government represented just that: abolition of the death penalty; nationalization of major industrial groups and banks; a series of laws on decentralization, allowing greater autonomy to the regions and local governments. On the social and

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economic levels, in a spirit reminiscent of the Popular Front in 1936, the minimum wage was increased, the working week was lowered to 39 hours (from 40 hours), the amount of paid leave was brought to five weeks (from four), the retirement age was set at 60, and a solidarity tax on wealth was created to help the poorest, along with a range of various social measures in direction of the workers. The objective was to boost economic activity by creating more demand, but the plot failed. By 1983, the government had to adopt a set of austerity measures to combat inflation and ever rising unemployment. The euphoria of 1981 was overturned by disappointment and the general elections of 1986 showed that the generous Left of Mitterrand had not been more able to address the economic difficulties facing France than the Liberal Right of Giscard d’Estaing. As the ballots returned a Conservative majority to the National Assembly, Mitterrand was forced to “cohabit” with Jacques Chirac, a Gaullist Prime Minister, for the next remaining two years of his presidential mandate. In a sense, this unprecedented cohabitation of two political opponents at the helm of the State provided a perfect test for the institutions of the Fifth Republic and the French people seemed to be happy with this sharing of power. Under the Constitution of the Fifth Republic, the distribution of the roles was clear: the President led the Nation (Defense and Foreign policy) while the Prime Minister led the government. In 1988, François Mitterrand was reelected for a second 7-year mandate, and following the dissolution of the National Assembly, the left-wing parties managed to hold a narrow majority. Overall, the second mandate was no more successful in solving the economic problems of France, but it was in his second term that Mitterrand engaged in major architectural projects which would become the legacy of his presidency: the Louvre Pyramid, the Channel Tunnel linking France and Britain, the Grande Arche of the Defense, the Bastille Opera, the Finance Ministry in Bercy, the National Library of France, the Institute of the Arab World. In 1993, after the Socialists lost for a second time in the general elections, François Mitterrand was again forced to cohabit with a Conservative cabinet led by Edouard Balladur. Mitterrand’s second and last term ended in 1995, and Jacques Chirac was elected new President of France.

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History of France - A Chronology

1,200 BC – 500 BC

First settlements of Celtic populations in Gaul

600 BC Foundation of Marseille by the Greeks 500 BC Massive arrival of Celtic populations in Gaul 390 BC The Gauls besiege Rome 122 BC First Roman colonies in Southern Gaul 52 BC The Gauls are defeated by the Romans.

Foundation of Lutece (Paris). Beginning of Pax Romana.

253-275 AD First wave of Barbarian invaders 406 Second wave of Barbarian invaders

Antiquity 1,200 BC – 500 AD

476 End of Roman Empire 481 Clovis, King of the Franks, Merovingian Dynasty 496 Conversion of Clovis to Christianism 732 Charles Martel defeats Arab invasion in Poitiers 751 Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, Carolingian

Dynasty 768 Charlemagne, King of the Franks 800 Charlemagne, Emperor of the Franks 843 Charles the Bald, King of Francia Occidentalis 885 Vikings besiege Paris 911 Creation of the Duché of Normandy 987 Hugh Capet, first Capetian King

1066 William of Normandy, King of England 1095 First Crusade 1154 Henri II Plantagenet, King of England 1229 Saint Louis, King of France 1337 Beginning of the Anglo-French War 1420 Treaty of Troyes, the French crown goes to

England’s Henry II 1429 Joan of Arc defeats the English at Orleans 1429 Coronation of Charles VII 1453 End of the Anglo-French War

Middle Ages 500 - 1500

1477 Burgundy joins the French Crown 1495 Beginning of the Italian Wars 1515 Francis I, King of France 1572 Massacre of the Protestants on St Barthelemy

Day 1594 Henri IV, King of France 1598 Edict of Nantes

Renaissance 16th century

1610 Henri IV assassination

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1617 Louis XIII, King of France 1624-1642 Richelieu, Chief Minister

1636 Foundation of French Academy 1639-1699 Life of Jean Racine, playwright

1648 Treaty of Westphalia 1652 Louis XIV, King of France 1684 The King Sun moves into Versailles palace 1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

Classical Age 17th century

1715 Death of Louis XIV 1728 Louis XV, King of France 1748 Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws 1751 Publication of the first volume of Diderot’s

Encyclopaedia 1756 Voltaire, Essay on Manners and Spirit of

Nations 1762 Rousseau, The Social Contract 1763 Treaty of Paris: France concedes Canada and

India to England

Enlightenment 18th century

1774 Louis XVI, King of France 1789 Storming of the Bastille (July 14). Declaration

of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (Aug. 26) 1792-1795 National Convention. Proclamation of the

Republic (Sept. 11, 1792) 1793 Execution of Louis XVI (Jan. 21)

1793-1794 The Reign of Terror, Robespierre’s Committee of Public Safety

1795-1799 The Directory, first bicameral legislature

Revolution 1789-1799

1799 Coup d’Etat of Bonaparte; Consulate 1804 Napoléon I Bonaparte, Emperor. Civil Code.

Bank of France 1805-1814 Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon defeated at Leipzig

(1814) and deported at Elba Island 1814 Louis XVIII, King of France 1815 The Hundred Days of Napoleon. Defeat at

Waterloo. Napoleon is exiled at St Helene. 1815-1830 The Restoration

1824 Charles X, King of France 1830 The Three Glorious Days

1830-1848 Monarchy of July – Louis Philippe, King of France

1848 Second Republic 1852-1870 Second Empire - Napoleon III

1857 Algeria becomes French colony 1870-1871 Franco-German War

1870 Third Republic

19th century

1871 Insurrection of la Commune of Paris (Feb.).

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Treaty of Francfort (May): France surrenders eastern provinces Alsace and Lorraine to the Germans

1882 Decree Jules Ferry, free education for all 1887 Protectorate of France over Indochina 1900 France intervenes against the Boxers in China 1905 Separation of the Church and the State

1914-1918 First World War 1919 Treaty of Versailles; France recovers Alsace

and Lorraine 1931-1935 Economic recession

1936 Popular Front of Leon Blum 1939-1945 Second World War

1940 Nazis occupy northern France 1940-1944 Petain, Chief of Vichy Government; de Gaulle

leads Resistance 1942 Southern France occupied by the Nazis 1944 Allies land in Normandy (June); Liberation of

Paris (August) 1946-1948 Fourth Republic

1954 French defeated at Dien Bien Phû (Vietnam); Beginning of the Algerian War

1957 Creation of the European Economic Community 1958 Fifth Republic. De Gaulle elected president 1960 France’s first nuclear test 1962 End of Algeria War 1964 France establishes diplomatic ties with China 1966 France withdraws from NATO integrated

military command 1968 Social unrest and student movement (May) 1969 De Gaulle resigns

1969-1974 Georges Pompidou, president of the Republic 1973 First oil crisis

1974-1981 Giscard d’Estaing, president of the Republic 1981-1995 François Mitterrand, president of the Republic 1995-2007 Jacques Chirac, president of the Republic

20th century

2007 Nicolas Sarkozy elected president of the Republic

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