françois recanati (1988) rigidity and direct reference.pdf

16
FRANCOIS RECANATI RIGIDITY AND DIRECT REFERENCE (Received in revised form 18 November, 1986) What is it for a singular term, or for a use of a singular term, to be referential in the strong sense, i.e. purely or directly referential? This is the question I will try to answer in this paper. The intuitive (and largely metaphorical) notion of referentiality that is current in the philosophical literature emerges fr om the following set o f statements: A referential term is a term that serves simply to refer. It is devoid of descriptive content, in the sense at least that what it contributes to the proposition expressed by the sentence where it occurs is not a concept, but an object. Such a sentence is used to assert of the object referred to that it falls under the concept expressed by the predicate expression in the sentence. Proper names and demonstrative expressions are supposed to be referential in this sense; and although definite descriptions are not intrinsically referential, they have a referential use. That such a notion exists in contemporary philosophy is beyond question. But many philosophers do not like it. I suspect that there are two reasons why this is so. First, it is thought that the intuitive notion of referentiality is too vague and metaphorical to be of any use; and second, assuming that a definite view does emerge from the set of statements above, it is thought that there are serious objections to this view. I do not share this pessimism. I think that the notion of referen- tiality can be satisfactorily defined, and that the objections raised to the referentiality theory can be met. In this paper, however, I will be mainly concerned with defining referentiality. Limitations of space will not allow me to pr esent a thorough defense of the doctrine of referentiality. My starting point will be the related but less disreputable notion of rigidity, introduced by Saul Kripke in the philosophical literature. It is show that there are, under that name, three different notions on the market, all stemming fro m Kripke's characterization of a rigid designator as a designator that denotes the same object in all possible worlds, The PhilosophicalStudies 53 (1988) 103--117. 9 1988 by D Reidel Publishing Company

Upload: armando-lavalle

Post on 03-Jun-2018

222 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 1/15

F R A N C O I S R E C A N A T I

R I G I D I T Y AN D D I R E C T R E F E R E N C E

( R e c e iv e d in r e v is e d f o r m 1 8 N o v e m b e r , 1 9 8 6 )

What is it for a singular term, or for a use of a singular term, to be

referential in the strong sense, i.e. purely or directly referential?

This is the question I will try to answer in this paper. The intuitive (and

largely metaphorical) notion of referentiality that is current in the

philosophical literature emerges from the following set of statements:

A r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m i s a t e r m t h a t s e r v e s s i m p l y t o r e f e r . I t i s d e v o i d o f d e s c r i p t i v e

c o n t e n t , i n t h e s e n s e a t l e a s t t h a t w h a t i t c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d b y t h e

s e n t e n c e w h e r e i t o c c u r s i s n o t a c o n c e p t , b u t a n o b j e c t . S u c h a s e n t e n c e i s u s e d t o

a s s e r t of the o b j e c t r e f e r r e d t o t h a t i t f a ll s u n d e r t h e c o n c e p t e x p r e s s e d b y t h e p r e d i c a t e

e x p r e s s io n i n t h e s e n t e n ce . P r o p e r n a m e s a n d d e m o n s t r a t iv e e x p r e s si o n s a r e s u p p o s e d

t o b e r e f e r e n t i a l i n t h i s s e n s e ; a n d a l t h o u g h d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e n o t i n t r i n s i c a l l y

r e f e r e n t i a l , t h e y h a v e a r e f e r e n t i a l u s e.

That such a notion exists in contemporary philosophy is beyond

question. But many philosophers do not like it. I suspect that there are

two reasons why this is so. First, it is thought that the intuitive notion of

referentiality is too vague and metaphorical to be of any use; and

second, assuming that a definite view does emerge from the set of

statements above, it is thought that there are serious objections to this

view. I do not share this pessimism. I think that the notion of referen-

tiality can be satisfactorily defined, and that the objections raised to the

referentiality theory can be met. In this paper, however, I will be mainly

concerned with defining referentiality. Limitations of space will not

allow me to present a thorough defense of the doctrine of referentiality.

My starting point will be the related but less disreputable notion of

rigidity, introduced by Saul Kripke in the philosophical literature. It is

perhaps a bit misleading to speak of the notion of rigidity, since I will

show that there are, under that name, three different notions on the

market, all stemming from Kripke's characterization of a rigid designator

as a designator that denotes the same object in all possible worlds, The

PhilosophicalStudies

5 3 ( 1 9 8 8 ) 1 0 3 - - 1 1 7 .

9 1 9 8 8

by D Reidel Publishing Com pany

Page 2: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 2/15

1 4 F R A N C O I S R E C A N A T I

t h r e e d i f f e r e n t n o t i o n s a r e : r i g i d i t y a s a m a t t e r o f s c o p e , r i g i d it y as a

m a t t e r o f t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s , a n d r ig i d it y a s ( p u r e o r d i r e c t) r e f e r e n t ia l i ty .

T h i s l a s t n o t i o n , w h i c h I s h a l l c o n c e n t r a t e U p o n , i s t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g ,

b u t i t i s e s p e c i a l l y h a r d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e i n n o n - m e t a p h o r i c a l t e r m s . T o

p r o v i d e s u c h a c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n is t h e t a s k o f th i s p a p e r .

R I G I D I T Y A N D S C O P E

L e t ' s s t a rt , t h e n , w i t h t h e f ir s t s e n s e o f r ig i d it y . M a n y p e o p l e h a v e s a i d

t h a t a r i g i d d e s i g n a t o r i s s i m p l y a d e s i g n a t o r t h a t ( a l w a y s ) t a k e s w i d e

s c o p e i n m o d a l c o n t e x t s . W h y h a v e t h e y s a i d s o ? B e c a u s e K r i p k e

c h a r a c t e r i z e s a r i g i d d e s i g n a t o r a s a d e s i g n a t o r t h a t d e n o t e s t h e s a m e

o b j e c t i n a l l p o s s i b l e w o r l d s , t h i s i d e a b e i n g s o m e t i m e s e x p r e s s e d , i n

K r i p k e ' s w r i t in g s , b y s a y i n g t h a t a r ig i d d e s i g n a t o r r e f e r s t o t h e s a m e

t h i n g w h e t h e r w e u s e i t t o t a l k a b o u t w h a t i s a c t u a l l y t h e c a s e o r a b o u t

s o m e c o u n t e rf a c t u a l s i tu a t io n ( K r i p k e 1 9 7 1 : 1 4 5 a n d 1 9 7 2: 2 8 9 ). N o w

w h e n a d e s i g n a t o r - - s a y , a d e f i n it e d e s c r i p t i o n - - t a k e s w i d e s c o p e i n a

m o d a l s e n t e n c e , i . e . i n a s e n t e n c e u s e d t o t a l k a b o u t s o m e p o s s i b l e

w o r l d , i t d o e s r e f e r t o t h e s a m e o b j e c t a s w h e n i t o c c u r s i n a s e n t e n c e

u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e a c t u a l w o r l d . I n s e n t e n c e ( 1 ) b e l o w , f o r e x a m p l e ,

t h e d e s c r i p t i o n t h e p r e s i d e n t o f F r a n c e , w h e n it is g i v e n w i d e s c o p e ,

r e f e r s to t h e p e r s o n w h o i s t h e p r e s i d e n t o f F r a n c e i n th e a c t u a l w o r l d ,

e v e n t h o u g h t h e s e n t e n c e a s a w h o l e d e s c r i b e s a c o u n t e r f a c t u a l s i t u a -

t io n . S o i t s e e m s t h a t a d e s c r i p t i o n d e s i g n a t e s r i g id l y w h e n i t t a k e s w i d e

s c o p e. T h e d i f fe r e n c e b e t w e e n p r o p e r n a m e s a n d d e f in i te d e sc r i p ti o n s ,

o n t h a t v i e w , i s s i m p l y t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n s , p r o p e r

n a m e s

lw ys

t a k e w i d e s c o p e i n m o d a l c o n t e x t s ( s e e e . g . B r o d y 1 9 7 7 :

6 9 ) . T h i s i s w h y , w h e r e a s ( 1 ) i s a m b i g u o u s , ( 2) is n o t :

( 1) T h e p r e s i d e n t o f F r a n c e m i g h t h a v e b e e n t al l

( 2) M i t t e r r a n d m i g h t h a v e b e e n t al l

( 1) m e a n s e i th e r t h a t F r a n c e m i g h t h a v e h a d ( in s te a d o f M i t te r r a n d ) a

t a ll m a n a s p r e s i d e n t , o r t h a t M i t t e r r a n d h i m s e l f m i g h t h a v e b e e n t al l.

O n t h i s s e c o n d , r i g id r e a d i n g , t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o s a ti sf ie s t h e d e s c r i p -

t i o n i n t h e a c t u a l w o r l d i s s a i d t o b e t a l l i n s o m e p o s s i b l e w o r l d ,

w h e r e a s i n t h e f ir s t r e a d i n g , th e p r o p e r t y o f b e i n g t a ll i n s o m e p o s s i b l e

Page 3: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 3/15

R I G I D I T Y A N D D I R E C T R E F E R E N C E 1 0 5

w o r l d - - s a y , W - - is a s c r ib e d t o t h e i n d i v id u a l w h o s a ti sf ie s t h e

d e s c r i p t i o n i n W ( n o t i n t h e a c t u a l w o r l d ) . D e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e

d e s c r i p t i o n d o e s o r d o e s n o t f a ll w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f t h e m o d a l

o p e r a t o r , i ts r e f e r e n t , i .e . th e i n d i v i d u a l s a t is f y i n g t h e d e s c r i p t i o n , i s

p i c k e d o u t e i t h e r in t h e a c tu a l w o r l d o r i n th e p o s s i b le w o r l d i n t r o d u c e d

b y t h e m o d a l o p e r a t o r . T h e r e is n o s u c h s c o p e a m b i g u i t y i n t h e c a s e o f

( 2) , w h i c h c o n t a i n s a p r o p e r n a m e i n s t e a d o f a d e s c r ip t i o n .

T h i s v i e w o f r i g i d i t y , h o w e v e r , i s m i s g u i d e d . K r i p k e h a s r e c e n t l y

s h o w n , i n h is r e p l y to D u m m e t t ( K r i p k e 1 9 8 0 ) , t h a t r i g id i ty i s n o t

s i m p l y , a n d c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d t o , a m a t t e r o f s c o p e . Y o u c a n ' t sa y t h a t

a d e s i g n a t o r i s r ig i d if a n d o n l y i f i t (a l w a y s ) t a k e s w i d e s c o p e i n m o d a l

c o n t e x t s : t h i s w o u l d m a k e t h e n o t i o n o f r i g i d i t y r e l e v a n t o n l y t o m o d a l

c o n t e x t s , w h e r e a s t h e r i g i d / n o n r i g i d d i s t i n c t i o n a p p l i e s t o d e s i g n a t o r s

i n g e n e r a l , e v e n w h e n t h e y o c c u r i n s i m p l e s e n t e n c e s l ik e ( 3 ) a n d ( 4) :

( 3 ) M i t t e r r a n d i s s m a l l

( 4) T h e p r e s i d e n t o f F r a n c e i s s m a l l

( 3 ) a n d ( 4 ) , n o l e s s t h a n ( 1 ) a n d ( 2 ) , p r o v i d e g o o d e v i d e n c e t h a t

M i t t e r r a n d , c o n t r a r y t o t h e p r e s id e n t o f F r a n c e , ri g id l y d e s i g n a t e s

i ts r e f e r e n t . T o s e e th a t , c o m p a r e t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e s e t w o

s e n t e n c e s . ( 3 ) i s t r u e w i t h r e s p e c t t o a w o r l d W if a n d o n l y if , i n W ,

i t t e r rand

i s s m a l l . I n t h a t c a s e , t h e r e i s a u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l x s u c h

t h a t , f o r a n y w o r l d W , t h e s e n t e n c e is t r u e w i t h r e s p e c t t o W if a n d o n l y

i f x i s s m a l l i n W . B u t t h e r e i s n o s i n g le in d i v i d u a l s u c h t h a t , f o r a n y

w o r l d W , ( 4 ) is t r u e w i t h re s p e c t t o W i f a n d o n l y i f t h a t i n d i v i d u a l i s

s m a l l i n W ; i n a w o r l d w h e r e G i s c a r d is t h e p r e s i d e n t o f F r a n c e ,

G i s c a r d ' s b e i n g s m a l l m a k e s ( 4 ) t r u e , w h e r e a s i n a w o r l d w i t h C h i r a c

a s p r e s i d e n t , t h e t r u t h o f ( 4 ) d e p e n d s o n C h i r a c ' s b e i n g s m a l l . N o

p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l i s i n v o l v e d i n t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n o f ( 4 ) : ( 4 ) i s t r u e

w i t h r e s p e c t t o a w o r l d i f a n d o n l y if , i n th a t w o r l d , th e r e is a n

i n d i v i d u a l x s u c h t h a t x i s b o t h t h e p r e s i d e n t o f F r a n c e a n d s m a l l, b u t

t h is i n d i v id u a l n e e d n o t b e t h e s a m e w i t h r e s p e c t t o a l l p o s s i b l e w o r l d s .

I n t h e c a s e o f ( 3 ), o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o s e b e i n g s m a l l

w o u l d m a k e t h e s e n t e n c e t r u e

is

t h e s a m e i n a l l p o s s i b l e w o r l d s . W e

t h u s f i n d t h e r i g i d / n o n r i g i d d i s t i n c t i o n a g a i n , t h i s t i m e a t t h e l e v e l o f

s im p l e s e n t e n ce s , w h e r e n o s c o p e a m b i g u i t y c a n o c c u r . A s K r i p k e p u t s

Page 4: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 4/15

1 0 6 F R A N C O I S R E C A N A T I

i t, t h e ri g i d it y t h e o r y i s a d o c t r i n e a b o u t th e t ru t h - c o n d i t i o n s , w i t h

r e s p e c t to c o u n t e r f a c t u a l s i tu a t io n s , o f ( th e p r o p o s i t i o n s e x p r e s s e d b y )

all

s e n t e n c e s , i n c l u d i n g

simple

s e n t e n c e s ( K r ip k e 1 9 8 0 : 1 2 ) .

H e r e K r i p k e ' s r e p l y e n d s . B u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o g o f u rt h e r a n d

c o n c l u d e f r o m w h a t h a s j u s t b e e n s a i d t h a t th e d e s c r i p t i o n i n ( 1 )

d e s i g n a t e s n o n - r i g id l y n o t o n l y w h e n i t t a k e s n a r r o w s c o p e , b u t also

w h e n i t fa ll s o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f t h e m o d a l o p e r a t o r . W h e n i t d o e s , ( 1 )

s a y s t h a t t h e m a n w h o i s p r e s i d e n t o f F r a n c e i n t h e a c t u a l w o r l d i s t al l

i n s o m e o t h e r p o s s i b l e w o r l d . 1 ( F r o m n o w o n , I 'l l c a ll th i s r e a d i n g o f (1 )

( l a ) . ) T h i s m a n , h o w e v e r , i s n o t s p e c i f i e d , a n d i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y

M i t t e rr a n d . T h e s e n t e n c e , a f t e r all , d o e s n o t t e ll u s which w o r l d i s

s u p p o s e d t o p l a y t h e r o l e o f t h e a c t u a l w o r l d : w i t h r e s p e c t t o a n y

w o r l d W , t h e a c t u a l w o r l d w i ll b e t h a t v e r y w o r l d W .2 N o w s u p p o s e

a w o r l d W 1 w h e r e G i s c a rd h a s b e e n e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t i n s t ea d o f

M i t t e rr a n d . W i t h r e s p e c t t o W 1 , ( l a ) is t r u e i f a n d o n l y if G i s c a r d i s t al l

i n s o m e p o s s i b l e w o r l d o t h e r t h a n W 1 . B y t h e s a m e t o k e n , w it h r e sp e c t

t o a w o r l d W 2 w h e r e hirac h a s b e e n e l e c t e d , ( l a ) i s t r u e i f a n d o n l y i f

C h i r a c i s t al l i n s o m e p o s s i b l e w o r l d o t h e r t h a n W 2 . A n d , o f c o u r s e ,

w i t h r e s p e c t t o

our

a c t u a l w o r l d , w h e r e M i t t e r r a n d i s p r e s i d e n t , ( l a ) i s

t r u e i f a n d o n l y if M i t t e r r a n d i s t al l i n s o m e o t h e r p o s s i b l e w o r l d . S o w e

s e e th a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n i n (1 ) d e s i g n a t e s n o n - r ig i d l y e v e n w h e n i t t a k e s

w i d e s c o p e ; f o r th e r e i s n o u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l x s u c h t h a t, w i t h r e s p e c t

t o a n y w o r l d W , ( l a ) i s t r u e i f a n d o n l y i f x i s t al l i n s o m e p o s s i b l e

w o r l d o t h e r t h a n W . O f c o u r s e , ( 1 ) p r e s e n t s u s w i t h t w o d i f f e r e n t

w o r l d s , o n e o f t h e m p l a y i n g t h e r o l e o f t h e a c t u a l w o r l d ; a n d t h e

d e s c r i p t i o n ' s t a k i n g w i d e s c o p e m e a n s t h a t it s r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d b e

p i c k e d o u t i n t h is a c t u a l w o r l d , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

s e n t e n c e i s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e w o r l d . B u t th i s i s n o t

e n o u g h t o m a k e t h e d e s i g n a t i o n r ig id ; f o r e v e r y w o r l d i s t h e a c t u a l

w o r l d w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s e l f , s o t h a t i t w i l l s t i l l b e p o s s i b l e t o c h a n g e t h e

d e s c r i p t i o n ' s r e f e r e n c e s i m p l y b y c h a n g i n g t h e w o r l d w i t h r e s p e c t t o

w h i c h t h e s e n t e n c e i s e v a l u a t e d . I t f o l l o w s t h a t, e v e n i f i t w a s s t i p u l a te d

t h a t a c e r t a in d e f i n i te d e s c r i p t i o n a l w a y s t a k e s m a x i m a l s c o p e i n m o d a l

c o n t e x t s , t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n w o u l d s t il l n o t c o u n t a s a r ig i d d e s i g n a t o r . 3

Page 5: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 5/15

R I G I D IT Y A N D D I R E C T R E F E R E N C E 1 0 7

R I G I D IT Y A N D R E F E R E N T I A L I T Y

O n K r i p k e ' s v i e w , r ig i d i ty is a m a t t e r o f tr u t h - c o n d i t i o n s : t o s a y t h a t a

d e s i g n a t o r i s r i g i d i s t o s a y t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n d i v i d u a l s u c h t h a t , w i t h

r e s p e c t t o e v e r y c o u n t e r f a c t u a l s i tu a ti o n, t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n o f a n y

s e n t e n c e c o n t a i n i n g t h e d e s i g n a t o r i n v o l v e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n q u e s t i o n .

T h i s v i e w w a s f ir st e x p li c it ly p u t f o r w a r d b y C h r i s t o p h e r P e a c o c k e , w h o

g iv e s t h e f o l lo w i n g d e fi n i ti o n ( P e a c o c k e 1 9 7 5 : 1 1 0 ) :

( R ) t i s a r i g i d d e s i g n a t o r ( in a l a n g u a g e L f r e e o f b o t h

a m b i g u i t y a n d i n d e x i c a ls ) i f a n d o n l y i f:

t h e r e i s a n o b j e c t x s u c h t h a t f o r a n y s e n t e n c e

G t )

i n w h i c h

t o c c u r s , t h e t r u t h ( fa ls it y ) c o n d i t i o n f o r

G t )

i s t h a t ( x )

sa t i s f y ( r e sp e c t iv e ly , fa i l t o s a t i s f y ) G ( ).4

C r i t e r i o n ( R ) , P e a c o c k e c l a i m e d , c a p t u r e s R u s s e l l ' s i d e a t h a t s o m e -

t i m e s t h e r e f e r e n c e o f a s i n g u la r t e r m i s a c o n s t i t u e n t o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n

e x p r e s s e d b y t h e s e n t e n c e w h e r e i t o c c u r s . F o r i f a t e r m t d e n o t i n g a n

o b j e c t x i s a r i g i d d e s i g n a t o r b y c r i t e r i o n ( R ) , t h e n a n y s e n t e n c e

G t )

w i ll b e t r u e i f a n d o n l y i f x s a ti sf ie s G ( ) . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e o b j e c t x ,

a l o n g w i t h th e p r o p e r t y G ( ) , is a c o n s t i t u e n t o f t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n o f

t h e s e n t e n c e . W h a t a r i g i d d e s i g n a t o r c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n

o f t h e s e n t e n c e t h u s is t h e o b j e c t i t s el f w h i c h i t r e fe r s t o , n o t a n

a t t ri b u t e w h i c h a n o b j e c t w o u l d h a v e t o p o s s e s s i n o r d e r t o b e r e f e r r e d

to .

R u s s e l l' s i d e a i s t h e i d e a o f a p u r e l y r e f e r e n t i a l te r m , a t e r m t h a t

s e r v e s o n l y t o r e f e r. P e a c o c k e , i n e f fe c t , e q u a t e s r ig i d it y , i n t h e s e n s e o f

( R ) , w i t h r e f e r e n t i a l i t y , as t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e s h o w s :

This criterion o f rigid designation can be seen ( .. .) as m erely a m ore explicit formula-

tion o f an idea variously expressed as that of a term's se rv ing .. . simply to refer to its

object (Quine), tagging an individual (Marcus), or in general of an expression's being

used to enable .. . individuals to be m ade subjects of discourse (Mill); and the view

that p rop er nam es are rigid designators in o ur sen se seems a natural elucidation of Miss

Ansco mb e's remark that the prop er nam e contributes to the meaning of the sentence

precisely by standing for its bearer . (Peacocke 1975:111)

T h i s e q u a t i o n o f r i g id i t y w i t h r e f e r e n t i a l i ty i s c o n s o n a n t w i t h K r i p k e ' s

i n s is t a n ce o n t h e M i l li an c h a r a c t e r o f p r o p e r n a m e s , w h i c h h e ta k e s

a s p a r a d i g m e x a m p l e s o f ri g id d e s i g n a ti o n . P r o p e r n a m e s , M i l l s a ys ,

Page 6: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 6/15

1 8 FRANCOIS RECANA TI

a r e a t ta c h e d t o t h e o b je c ts t h e m s e l v e s, a n d a r e n o t d e p e n d e n t o n ( . . . )

a n y a t t r i b u t e o f t h e o b j e c t ( M i ll 1 9 4 7 : 2 0 ) . I t is th e f u n c t i o n o f p r o p e r

n a m e s , a c c o r d i n g t o K r i p k e , t o r e f e r t o a n o b j e c t i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e

p r o p e r t i e s i t m a y h a v e , s o a s t o e n a b l e o n e t o r e f e r to

this o ject

e v e n

w i t h r e s p e c t t o p o s s i b l e w o r l d s w h e r e i t n o l o n g e r h a s t h e m . T h e l i n k

b e t w e e n a n a m e a n d it s r e f e r e n c e is , f o r K r i p k e , s t ip u l a ti v e r a t h e r

t h a n q u a l i t a t iv e .

N o l es s th a n t h e w i d e s c o p e v i e w o f r ig i d it y , h o w e v e r , t h e v i e w

w h i c h e q u a t e s r i g i d i ty ( in t h e s e n s e o f (R ) ) w i t h M i l l ia n r e f e r e n t i a l i t y i s

c o n f u s e d . R e f e r e n t i a li ty is s u p p o s e d t o d i s t in g u i sh p r o p e r n a m e s f r o m

d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t io n s , a t l e a s t i n t h e i r n o n - r e f e r e n t i a l u s e s. N o w s o m e

d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p ti o n s a r e r i g id a n d s a t is f y c r i t e r io n ( R ). F o r e x a m p l e , a

m a t h e m a t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n l ik e t h e c u b e r o o t o f 2 7 d e n o t e s 3 i n a ll

p o s s i b l e w o r l d s , s i n c e 3 i s t h e c u b e r o o t o f 2 7 is a n e c e s s a r y t r u t h .

T h e r ig i d it y o f t h e c u b e r o o t o f 2 7 c a n b e c h e c k e d , u s i n g c r i t e r io n

( R ), a t t h e le v e l o f t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s : f o r a n y s e n t e n c e S o f t h e f o r m T h e

c u b e r o o t o f 2 7 is F ( w h e r e F s t a n d s f o r a p r e d i c a t e ) , t h e r e is a n

o b j e c t x , n a m e l y t h e n u m b e r 3 , s u c h t h a t , w i t h r e s p e c t t o a n y p o s s i b l e

w o r l d , S i s tr u e i f a n d o n l y i f x s a t is f ie s t h e p r e d i c a t e . I t i s n o u s e s a y i n g

e i t h e r th a t , f o r S t o b e t r u e , x m u s t a ls o b e t h e c u b e r o o t o f 27 , o r t h a t

s o m e o t h e r n u m b e r ' s b e in g b o t h t h e c u b e r o o t o f 2 7 a n d F w o u l d

v e r i f y t h e s e n t e n c e a s w e ll , f o r t h e r e i s n o w o r l d w h e r e 3 is n o t , o r

w h e r e a n u m b e r o t h e r t h a n 3 is , t h e c u b e r o o t o f 2 7 .

L i k e a n y d e s c r ip t io n , t h e d e s c r i p ti o n t h e c u b e r o o t o f 2 7 d e n o t e s

t h e o b j e c t w h i c h h a s t h e p r o p e r t y i t c o n n o t e s , v iz . t h e p r o p e r t y o f

b e i n g a n u m b e r x s u c h t h a t x 3 = 2 7 . T h e l i n k b e t w e e n t h e d e s c r i p ti o n

a n d i t s r e f e r e n c e i s t y p i c a l ly q u a l i ta t i v e i n K r i p k e ' s s e n se . I t w o u l d b e

d e f i n i te l y o d d t o s a y t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e o b j e c t it se l f,

a n d d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n a n y a t t ri b u t e o f t h e o b j e ct . T h e r e f e r e n c e o f

t h e d e s c r i p t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t i t e x p r e s s e s , a n d t h i s c o n -

c e p t i s w h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d b y

t h e s e n t e n c e w h e r e i t o c c u r s . T o d r a m a t i z e t h i s p o i n t , c o n s i d e r a n

a t t r i b u t i v e u s e O f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n : T h e c u b e r o o t o f 2 7 , w h a t e v e r i t i s, i s

F . T h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d b y th i s s e n t e n c e is c l e a r ly n o t a s i n g u la r

p r o p o s i t io n c o n s is ti n g o f a n o b je c t a n d t h e p r o p e r t y F . N o b o d y w o u l d

b e w i ll in g t o s a y th a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n h e r e is r e fe r e n t i a l, e v e n t h o u g h i t

is r igid.

Page 7: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 7/15

R I G I D I T Y A N D D I R E C T R E F E R E N C E 1 0 9

T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n r i g id i ty a n d r e f e r e n t ia l i ty w a s p o i n t e d o u t b y

K r i p k e h i m s e l f i n ' N a m i n g a n d n e c e s s it y '. T h e r e i s, h e s a ys , a d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n a r i g id d e f in i t e d e s c r i p t i o n a n d a p r o p e r n a m e , e v e n w h e n t h e

d e s c r i p t i o n in q u e s t i o n is u s e d t o f ix t h e r e f e r e n c e o f t h e n a m e :

~r is s u p p o s e d t o b e t h e r a t i o o f t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f a c i r c l e t o i t s d i a m e t e r . N o w , i t s

s o m e t h i n g th a t I h a v e n o t h i n g b u t a v a g u e i n t u i ti v e f e e l in g to a r g u e fo r : I t s e e m s t o m e

t h a t h e r e t h i s ( 9 r ee k l e t t e r is n o t b e i n g u s e d a s s h o rt f o r t h e p h r a s e t h e ra t io o f t h e

c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f a c i rc l e t o i ts d i a m e t e r . . . I t i s u s e d a s a

n m e

f o r a re a l n u m b e r . . .

N o t e t h a t h e r e b o t h : ~ a n d t h e ra t i o o f t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f a c i rc l e t o i ts d i a m e t e r

a r e r ig i d d e s i g n a t o r s . . . ( K r i p k e 1 9 7 2 : 2 7 8 )

T h e i n tu i ti v e d i f f e r e n c e K r i p k e h a s i n m i n d is t h a t ' z ~ ', a s a n a m e ,

i s p u r e l y r e f e r e n t i a l , w h i l e t h e r i g i d d e s c r i p t i o n ' t h e r a t i o o f t h e

c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f a c ir c l e t o it s d i a m e t e r ' i s n o t .

T h e r e i s, o f c o u r s e , a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n r e f e r e n t ia l i ty a n d r ig id i ty :

r e f e r e n t i a l i t y

impl ies

r i gk t i t y . A re fe ren t i a l t e rm i s r i g id

de jure ;

i t is,

i n M i ll 's t e r m i n o l o g y , a t t a c ti e d t o t h e o b j e c t i ts e l f , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f

i t s p r o p e r t i e s , a n d s o c a n n o t f a i l t o d e n o t e t h e s a m e o b j e c t i n a l l

p o s s i b l e w o r l d s , s i n c e w h a t c h a n g e s f r o m w o r l d t o w o r l d i s n o t t h e

o b j e c t i t s e l f , i ts i d e n t i t y , b u t o n l y i ts ( c o n t i n g e n t ) p r o p e r t i e s . B y c o n t r a s t ,

a m a t h e m a t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n - - o r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , a n y e s s e n t i a l

d e s c r i p t i o n - - i s r i g i d o n l y

de facto :

l i k e a n y d e s c r i p t i o n , i t d e n o t e s

t h e o b j e c t t h a t f al ls u n d e r a c e r t a i n c o n c e p t , b u t i n th i s c a se t h e c o n c e p t

h a p p e n s t o f i t t h e s a m e o b j e c t i n a l l p o s s i b l e w o r l d s . 5

T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t , w h e r e a s r i g i d i t y i n t h e s e n s e o f (R ) i s a w e l l-

d e f i n e d n o t i o n , r e f e r e n t i a li t y is n o t . W h a t d o e s i t m e a n t o s a y th a t a

r e f e r e n t ia l t e r m r e f e r s t o t h e o b j e c t i ts e l f ? O n e w a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g

t h i s i s t o s a y t h a t a r e f e r e n t i a l te r m i s a t e r m w h o l l y d e v o i d o f

d e s c r i p t i v e c o n t e n t , a t e r m w h o s e l i n k t o i t s r e f e r e n c e i s p u r e l y

s t i p u l a t i v e , a s K r i p k e s a y s . B u t t h i s i s f a r t o o s t r o n g , f o r n o t a l l

r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m s a r e l i k e p r o p e r n a m e s i n t h i s r e s p e c t : d e m o n s t r a t i v e

e x p r e s s i o n s l ik e t h is t a b l e o r p r o n o u n s l ik e ' T ' o r y o u c l e a r ly h a v e

s o m e s o r t o f d e s c r ip t iv e c o n t e n t . R a t h e r t h a n w h o l l y d e v o i d o f d e s cr ip -

t i v e c o n t e n t , a r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m i s s u c h t h a t w h a t i t c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e

p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d i s t h e o b j e c t i t r e f e r s t o r a t h e r t h a n a c o n c e p t

u n d e r w h i c h t h i s o b j e c t f a l l s ( e v e n i f , a t s o m e l e v e l , t h e t e r m d o e s

e x p r e s s s u c h a c o n c e p t ) . B u t t h i s c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d , a s P e a c o c k e

t h o u g h t , i n t e r m s o f c r i t e r i o n ( R ) : i t i s t r u e t h a t , w h e n a t e r m i s

Page 8: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 8/15

1 1 0 F R A N C O I S R E C A N A T I

r e f e r e n t ia l , t h e r e i s a n o b j e c t s u c h t h a t t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n o f a n y

s e n t e n c e c o n t a i n i n g t h e t e r m i n v o l v e s t h i s o b j e c t . B u t t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s

t o o w e a k , s i n c e i t c h a r a c t e r i z e s a l l r i g i d e x p r e s s i o n s , i n c l u d i n g r i g i d

d e s c r i p t i o n s , w h i c h n o b o d y w o u l d w a n t t o c l as s if y a s r e fe r e n t i a l ( a t

l e a s t i n t h e i r a t t r i b u t i v e u s e s ) .

L O C K W O O D ' S C R I T E R I O N

A n o b v i o u s s o l u t io n t o t h e p r o b l e m a t h a n d is th e f o ll o w in g . L e t ' s

d i s t i n g u i s h t h e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s r e p r e s e n t e d b y a n u t t e r a n c e , i . e . i t s

t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n , a n d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d b y t h e u t t e ra n c e . A r ig id

e x p r e s s i o n i s a n e x p r e s s i o n s u c h t h a t t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n o f a n y

s e n t e n c e c o n t a i n i n g i t i n v o l v e s a c e r t a i n o b j e c t , i n c o n f o r m i t y t o

c r i t e r i o n ( R ) . W h e n a n e x p r e s s i o n i s r e f e r e n t ia l , t h e r e i s a n o b j e c t s u c h

t h a t n o t o n l y t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n b u t a l s o the proposi t ion expresse

i n v o l v e s t h a t o b j e c t .

V a r i o u s p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e i n s i s t e d t h a t , t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r o p o s i -

t i o n e x p r e s s e d b y a n u t t e r a n c e w h e r e a r e f e re n t i a l t e r m o c c u r s , it is

n e c e s s a r y t o k n o w w h i c h o b j e c t h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o ; it is n e c e s s a r y t o

i d e n t i f y t h e r e f e r e n c e , ( S e e e . g . E v a n s 1 9 8 2 . ) T h i s g i v e s a s e n s e i n

w h i c h t h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d i n c l u d e s t h e v e r y o b j e c t t h a t is

r e f e r r e d t o , r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l y a c o n c e p t u n d e r w h i c h t h a t o b j e c t f a l l s .

W h e n a t e r m is n o n - r e f e r e n t i a l, th e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d i n v o lv e s o n l y

a c e r t a i n c o n c e p t ; i f t h e t e r m is ri g id d e f a c t o , th i s c o n c e p t h a p p e n s t o

f i t t h e s a m e o b j e c t i n a l l p o s s i b l e w o r l d s , b u t i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y f o r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t o i d e n t i f y t h e o b j e c t in q u e s ti o n . A s

L o c k w o o d ( 1 9 7 5 : 4 8 8 ) p u t s it:

A hearer may be said fully to g rasp wh at statement is being expressed (by the cube of

408 has m ore factors thar~ there are planets ) qu ite irrespective of wh ether he k now s

what the cub e o f 408 is, or even if he falsely believes it to b e, say, 48,914,012. Yet, in

the ca se of a term that is functioning referentially, bei ng able correctly to identify its

reference wou ld seem to be a prerequisite o f knowing what is being asserted by its aid.

T h e c u b e o f 4 0 8 b e i n g a r i g id d e s c r i p t i o n , t h e r e is a n o b j e c t , v i z.

n u m b e r 6 7 , 9 1 7 , 3 0 2 , s u c h t h at t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t io n o f an y s e n te n c e

c o n t a i n i n g it i n v o l v e s t h a t o b je c t : t h e c u b e o f 4 0 8 i s F is t r u e , w i t h

r e s p e c t t o a n y p o s s i b l e w o r l d , if f 6 7 , 9 1 7 , 3 0 2 is F . B u t t h e n u m b e r i n

Page 9: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 9/15

R I G I D I T Y N D D I R E C T R E F E R E N C E

q u e s t i o n i s n o p a r t o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d b y t h e s e n t e n c e , i n th e

s e n s e t h a t o n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d w h a t is sa i d b y a n u t t e r a n c e o f th i s

s e n t e n c e w i t h o u t id e n t i f y i n g t h e n u m b e r t h a t is r e f e r r e d t o - - a n d

t h e r e f o r e w i t h o u t k n o w i n g t h a t t h e s e n t e n c e i s tr u e i f f t h a t n u m b e r i s F .

W h a t is p a r t o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d i s t h e c o n c e p t c u b e o f 4 0 8 ,

n o t t h e n u m b e r t h a t fa lls u n d e r t h a t c o n c e p t.

T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t w e d o n ' t k n o w e x a c t l y , a t t h i s s t a g e , w h a t i s

m e a n t b y t h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e ss e d , a s o p p o s e d t o th e t r u t h - c o n d i t io n

o f t h e u t t e r a n c e . T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s n o t v e r y i m p o r t a n t . T h e n o t i o n o f

p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d is e s s e n t ia l ly t ie d t o t h a t o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d

w h a t c o u n t s i s p r e c i s e l y t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n r e f e r e n t i a l it y a n d

u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e c u b e r o o t o f 2 7 r i g id l y d e s i g n a t e s t h e n u m b e r 3 ,

b u t w e c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e d e s c r i p ti o n e v e n i f w e d o n ' t n o w w h a t

n u m b e r i t d e si g n a te s ; a r e f e r e n t ia l t e rm , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s s u c h t h a t

t o u n d e r s t a n d a n u t t e r a n c e w h e r e i t o c c u r s o n e h a s t o k n o w w h i c h

o b j e c t i t d e s i g n a t e s .

M i c h a e l L o c k w o o d h a s p u t f o r w a r d a d e f i n i t i o n o f r e f e re n t ia l it y i n

t e r m s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h i c h is in t e n d e d t o c a p t u r e t h e c o n n e c t i o n a s

w e l l a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n r e f e r e n t ia l i ty a n d r ig i d it y . A c c o r d i n g t o

( a s i m p l if ie d v e r s i o n o f ) L o c k w o o d ' s c r i te r i o n , 6

( R R ) A t e r m t i s r e f e r e n t i a l i f a n d o n l y i f t h e r e is a n o b j e c t x s u c h

t h a t

(i) a n u t t e r a n c e

S t )

i s t r u e i f f x s a ti s fi e s S ( ) , a n d

(ii) t o u n d e r s t a n d th e u t t e r a n c e , o n e m u s t k n o w t h a t i t is t r u e i f f

x s a t is f ie s S ( ) .

I n t h i s f r a m e w o r k , a r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m i s a r i g i d d e s i g n a t o r ( t h i s i s w h a t

c l a u s e ( i ) a m o u n t s t o ) , b u t a r i g i d d e s i g n a t o r o f a v e r y s p e c i a l s o r t : i t i s

a r ig i d d e s i g n a t o r s u c h t h a t, to u n d e r s t a n d a n u t t e r a n c e w h e r e i t o c c u r s ,

o n e h a s t o k n o w t h a t it d e s ig n a t e s a n o b j e c t r i g id l y a n d w h i c h o b j e c t i t

s o d e s i g n a t e s ( t h i s i s w h a t c l a u s e ( i i ) a m o u n t s t o ) . M o r e p r e c i s e l y ,

u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e u t t e r a n c e i n v o l v e s , a c c o r d i n g t o ( R R ) ,

de re

k n o w l -

e d g e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e : i t i n v o l v e s k n o w i n g

o f

a c e r t a i n o b j e c t t h a t t h e

u t t e r a n c e i s t r u e i f a n d o n l y i f t h i s o b j e c t s a t i s f i e s t h e p r e d i c a t e . ( T h i s

m e a n s t ha t , t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e u t te r a n c e , o n e m u s t f o r m a n i n f o rm a -

t i o n - b a s e d t h o u g h t , i n E v a n s ' s te r m i n o l o g y . )

Page 10: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 10/15

1 1 2 F R A N C O I S R E C A N A T I

I w i s h t o r e t a i n L o c k w o o d ' s i n s i g h t a b o u t t h e b a s i c n a t u r e o f

r e f e r e n t i a l i t y . ( R R ) , h o w e v e r , i s n o t s a t i s f a c t o r y a s i t s t a n d s . A c c o r d i n g

t o ( R R ) , u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n u t t e r a n c e w i t h a r e fe r e n t ia l t e r m i n v o lv e s

i d e n t i f y i n g t h e r e f e r e n c e o f t h e t e r m , a n d t h is im p l i e s t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e

a c tu a l ly e x is ts . I n d e e d , m a n y p h i l o s o p h e r s t h in k t h a t w h e n t h e r e f e r e n c e

o f a r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m d o e s n o t e x i st , t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d ,

s i n c e n o p r o p o s i t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d . T h i s I d o n o t w i s h t o d i s p u t e . W h a t I

t h i n k , h o w e v e r , i s t h a t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e r e f e r e n c e is n o t a n e c e s s a r y

c o n d i t i o n o f

re ferent ia l i t y

a t e r m m a y w e l l b e r e f e r e n t i a l , a n d u n d e r -

s t o o d b y t h e h e a r e r a s re f e r e n t i a l , w i t h o u t i ts r e f e r e n c e b e i n g id e n t i f ie d .

T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e

u t t e r a n c e

R a l p h B a n i l la is a m i d g e t i n v o l v e s

k n o w i n g w h o R a l p h B a n i ll a is , b u t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e n t e n c e o n l y

i n v o l v e s k n o w i n g t h a t t h e t e r m i s r e f e r e n t i a l, t h a t t h e r e i s an i n d i v i d u a l

t h a t m u s t b e i d e n t i f i e d f o r a n u t t e r a n c e o f t h i s s e n t e n c e t o b e u n d e r -

s t o o d . T o b e s u re , ( R R ) d o e s n o t i m p l y t h a t t h e i d e n ti f ic a t io n o f t h e

r e f e r e n c e is a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n o f r e f e re n t i a l it y ; b u t i t d o e s i m p l y

t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e , w h i c h is a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n u t t e r a n c e w i t h a r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m , i s a l s o a n e c e s s a r y

c o n d i t i o n f o r a t e r m t o

b e

r e f e r e n t ia l . A t e r m is r e f e re n t i a l , a c c o r d i n g

t o ( R R ) , o n l y i f t h e r e i s a n o b j e c t s u c h t h a t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e u t t e r a n c e

i n v o l v e s i d e n t i fy i n g th i s o b j e c t . B u t t h i s is w r o n g : a t e r m c a n b e

r e f e r e n t i a l e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e a c t u a l l y i s n o s u c h o b j e c t . T h e t e r m

R a l p h B a n i ll a is r e f er e n t ia l , a n d u n d e r s t o o d a s s u c h, e v e n if f o r s o m e

r e a s o n i t fa il s t o r e f e r - - e v e n i f R a l p h B a n i l l a d o e s n o t e x i st . T h e

c a t e g o r y r e f er e n t ia l t e r m is n o t d i f f e re n t f r o m t h e c a t e g o r y p r o p e r

n a m e i n t h a t r e s p e c t : R a i p h B a n i l l a i s l in g u i s ti c a ll y a p r o p e r n a m e

e v e n i f, f o r s o m e r e a s o n , i t h a s n o b e a r e r . ( T h e v e r y i d e a t h a t n o

p r o p o s i t i o n is e x p r e s s e d w h e n t h e r e f e r e n c e o f a r e f e re n t i a l t e r m d o e s

n o t e x i s t i m p l i e s t h a t a t e r m c a n b e r e f e r e n t i a l e v e n i f i ts r e f e r e n c e d o e s

n o t e x is t; o t h er w i s e , t h e n o t i o n o f a r e f e re n t i a l t e r m w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e

w o u l d b e s e l f -c o n t r a d ic t o r y .)

S o m e t h i n g li k e ( R R ) w a s i n t e n d e d b y L o c k w o o d a s a d e f i n i ti o n n o t

o f r e f e r e n t i a l i ty f o r a t e r m b u t o f r e f e r e n t i a l it y f o r a u s e o f a te r m . I t

m a y i n d e e d b e u s e f u l to h a v e a n o t i o n o f r e f e re n t i a l u s e s u c h t h a t a

t e r m i s r e f e r e n t i a l l y u s e d o n l y i f t h e r e i s a n o b j e c t i t r e f e r s t o . B u t if

w h a t w e a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n i s t h e s e m a n t i c d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p r o p e r

n a m e s a n d d e m o n s t r a t i v e e x p r e ss i o n s o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d d e f in i te

Page 11: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 11/15

R I G I D I T Y A N D D I R E C T R E F E R E N C E 3

d e s c r i p t i o n s o n t h e o t h e r , th e f o r m e r b e i n g r e f e r e n t i a l a n d t h e l a tt e r

n o n - r e f e r e n t i a l , w e n e e d a n o t i o n o f r e f e r e n t ia l i ty ( ca ll i t t y p e - r e f e r e n -

t i a li t y ) t h a t i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f e x t r a - li n g u i s ti c m a t t e r s s u c h a s t h e

e x i s te n c e o r n o n - e x i s t e n c e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e o f t h e t e r m . W e m u s t ,

t h e r e f o r e , m o d i f y t h e d e f i n i t io n a c c o r d i n g ly .7

T Y P E R E F E R E N T I A L I T Y

W h e n t h e t e r m t i n a s e n t e n c e

S t )

i s a r i g id des igna to r , t he re i s an

o b j e c t s u c h t h a t a n u t t e r a n c e o f t h i s s e n t e n c e i s t r u e i f a n d o n l y i f t h i s

o b j e c t s a t i s f i e s t h e p r e d i c a t e S ( ) . I n s u c h a c a s e , I w i l l s a y t h a t t h e

t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n o f t h e u t t e r a n c e i s a s ingular tru th-condi t ion . I wi l l a l so

s p e a k o f a n o n - s i n g u l a r t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f a n u t t e r a n c e S t )

w h e r e t i s n o n - r i g i d . A t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n is s i n g u l a r i n t h e s a m e s e n s e t h a t

a p r o p o s i t i o n i s s a id t o b e s i n g u l a r (s e e K a p l a n 1 9 7 7 ) , b u t o f c o u r s e

o n e m u s t d i s t i n g u i s h a s i n g u l a r t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n f r o m a s i n g u l a r p r o -

p o s i t i o n . T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

r i g id i t y a n d r e f e r e n t i a l it y .

A l t h o u g h t h i s w i l l p e r h a p s s o u n d p a r a d o x i c a l , I w a n t t o d e f i n e

( t y p e - ) re f e r e n t ia l i ty in t e r m s o f s i n g u la r t r u t h - c o n d i t io n s . F i r s t , h o w e v e r ,

I m u s t s a y a f e w w o r d s a b o u t s e n t e n c e - m e a n i n g . T y p e - r e f e r e n t i a l i t y is a

f e a t u r e o f t h e li n g ui s ti c m e a n i n g o f s o m e e x p r e s s i o n s - - t h e r e f e r e n t i a l

t e r m s - - a n d s i n c e t h e l i n g u i s t i c m e a n i n g o f a n e x p r e s s i o n i s i t s

c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e l in g u is ti c m e a n i n g o f th e s e n t e n c e s w h e r e i t o c c u r s ,

i t m a y h e l p t o s a y a f e w th i n g s a b o u t s e n t e n c e - m e a n i n g i n g e n e r a l.

F r o m a p r a g m a t i c p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e m e a n i n g o f a s e n t e n c e i s

e s s e n t i a l l y i ts i l l o c u t i o n a r y a c t p o t e n t i a l ; i t c o n s i s t s i n i n d i c a t i o n s

c o n c e r n i n g t h e s p e e c h a c t t h e s e n t e n c e c a n b e u s e d t o p e r f o r m . A

s p e e c h a c t is c o m m o n l y s a id t o h a v e t w o c o m p o n e n t s : a t y p e o f

s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d a s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n . T h e m e a n i n g o f a

s e n t e n c e , t h e r e f o r e , c o n s i st s i n in d i c a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g b o t h t h e t y p e a n d

t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e s p e e c h a c t . ( O f c o u r s e , s e n t e n c e -

m e a n i n g is r e l a t e d o n l y t o t h e s p e e c h a c t th e s p e a k e r i s s u p p o s e d t o

p e r f o r m d i re c tl y , n o t t o t h e s p e e c h a ct s t h a t t h e sp e a k e r m a y p e r f o r m

i n d i r e c t l y . ) N e e d l e s s t o s a y , t h o s e s e n t e n t i a l i n d i c a t i o n s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t

a n d t h e c o n t e x t s u p p l ie s f u r t h e r c l u es a b o u t t h e s p e e c h a c t b e i n g

Page 12: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 12/15

1 1 4 F R A N ~ O IS R E C A N A T I

p e r f o r m e d . T h i s a c c o u n t i s, I a d m i t , o v e r s i m p l i f i e d , b u t i t w i ll d o f o r

o u r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s .

S o m e p a r t s o f th e s e n t e n c e - - t h e s o - c a l le d i n d i c a t o r s o f i l lo c u t i o n a r y

f o r c e , f o r e x a m p l e t h e i m p e r a t i v e m o o d - - i n d i c a te t h e t y p e o f sa ti s-

f a c t io n o f t h e s p e e c h a ct : t h e y i n d i c a t e t h a t th e u t t e r a n c e i s s u p p o s e d t o

b e t r u e o r o b e y e d o r w h a t e v e r . S o m e o t h e r e l e m e n t s c o n t r i b u t e t o

i n d i c a t in g t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n - c o n d i t i o n s o f th e u t t e r a n c e ; t h e y p a r t i a l ly

d e s c r i b e a s t a t e o f a f fa ir s s u c h t h a t t h e u t t e r a n c e i s s a ti s fi e d i f a n d o n l y

i f t h is s t a t e o f a ff a ir s o b t a in s . N o w m y s u g g e s t i o n is th a t s o m e t e r m s - -

t h o s e t h a t a r e t y p e - r e f e r e n t i a l - - s p e c i fi c a ll y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t r u t h -

c o n d i t i o n o r , m o r e g e n e r al l y , t h e s a t i s f a c ti o n - c o n d i t io n o f t h e u t t e r a n c e

is s in gu la r , s

H e r e is m y d e f i n i ti o n o f t y p e - r ef e r en t i a li t y :

( T R ) A t e r m i s ( t y p e - ) r e f e r e n t i a l i f a n d o n l y i f i ts l i n g u is t ic

m e a n i n g i n c l u d e s a f e a t u r e , c a ll i t R E F , b y v i r t u e o f w h i c h

i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n - c o n d i t i o n o f t h e u t t e r a n c e

w h e r e i t o c c u r s i s s i n g u l a rl

T h e t r u t h -c o n d i t i o n o f a n u t t e ra n c e

S t )

i s s in g u l a r i f a n d o n l y i f t h e r e

i s a n o b j e c t x s u c h t h a t t h e u t t e r a n c e i s t r u e i f a n d o n l y i f x s a t is f ie s

S ( ) . I f, t h e r e f o r e , t h e t e r m t is r e fe r e n t i a l , i ts m e a n i n g i n c l u d e s a

f e a t u r e b y v i r t u e o f w h i c h i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s a n o b j e c t x s u c h t h a t

a n u t t e r a n c e o f S t ) i s t ru e o r m o r e g e n e r a l l y s a ti s fi e d i f a n d o n l y i f x

s a t i s f i e s S ( ) .

T h e f e a t u r e R E F d o e s n o t e x h a u s t t h e m e a n i n g o f a r e f e re n t i a l

t e r m . A s I sa id a b o v e , s o m e r e f e r e n ti a l t e r m s a r e n o t w h o l l y d e v o i d o f

d e s c r i p t i v e c o n t e n t ; t h e y h a v e w h a t E v a n s c a l ls a r e f e r e n t i a l q u a l i f ie r

a n d w h a t K a p l a n c a ll s a c h a r a c t e r . A r e f e r e n t i a l e x p r e s s i o n s u c h as

th is t a b le o r t h e p r o n o u n y o u s o m e h o w c h a ra c t er i ze s t h e r e f e r e n c e

i n s u c h a w a y t h a t i t c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d i n c o n t e x t ( a s a t a b l e p r o m i n e n t

i n t h e v i c i n i t y , o r a s t h e h e a r e r ) . R e c a l l t h a t , w h e n a t e r m i s r e f e r e n t i a l ,

u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e u t t e r a n c e i n v o l v es i d e n ti f y in g th e r e f e r e n c e o f th e

t e r m . I n h i s id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e r e f e r e n c e , t h e h e a r e r i s h e l p e d b y t h e

m e a n i n g o f t h e r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m . I n s o m e c a s e s a t le a s t, a r e fe r e n t i a l

t e r m i n d i c a te s n o t o n l y (v ia t h e f e a t u r e R E F )

t h a t t h e r e i s a n

o b j e c t

s u c h t h a t t h e u t t e r a n c e i s tr u e i f a n d o n l y i f t h is o b j e c t h a s a c e r t a i n

p r o p e r t y ; i t a l s o i n d i c a t e s h o w t h i s o b j e c t c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d . I n o t h e r

w o r d s , a r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m i n c l u d e s a s p a r t o f i ts m e a n i n g , b e s i d e s t h e

Page 13: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 13/15

R I G I D I T Y N D D I R E C T R E F E R E N C E 5

f e a t u r e R E F , a m o d e o f p r e s e n ta t io n o f t h e r e f e r e n c e . O w i n g b o t h t o

t h e f e a t u r e R E F a n d to t h e m o d e o f p r e s e n ta t io n , a s e n t e n c e S t ) - -

w h e r e t i s a r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m - - i n d i c a t e s t h a t:

t h e r e i s a n o b j e c t x w h i c h is F ( = m o d e o f p r e s e n t a t io n ) ,

s u c h t h a t t h e u t t e r a n c e i s s a t is f i e d i f a n d o n l y i f x s a t is f ie s

s ) .

F o r e x a m p l e , t h is t a b l e is G i n d i c a te s t h a t t h e r e is a t a b l e p r o m i n e n t

i n t h e v i c in i t y , s u c h t h a t t h e u t t e r a n c e i s t r u e i f a n d o n l y if i t i s G ; y o u

a r e G i n d ic a t e s t h a t t h e r e is a p e r s o n t o w h o m t h e u t te r a n c e is

a d d r e s s e d , s u c h t h a t t h e u t t e r a n c e i s t r u e i f a n d o n l y if t h is p e r s o n is G ;

a n d s o on . I n all t h o s e ca s e s, t h e m o d e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

t h e r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m m a k e s a c e r t a i n o b j e c t c o n t e x t u a l ly i d e n ti f ia b l e , a n d

t h e u t t e r a n c e i s p r e s e n t e d a s s a t is f ie d i f a n d o n l y if t h is o b j e c t h a s t h e

p r o p e r t y e x p r e s s e d b y t h e p r e d i c a t e i n th e s e n t e n c e . 9

A l t h o u g h i t is p a r t o f t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e t e r m , a n d t h e r e f o r e a l so o f

t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e s e n t e n c e w h e r e i t o c c u r s, t h e m o d e o f p r e s e n t a t io n

o f t h e r e f e r e n c e i s n o p a r t o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d b y t h e u t t e r -

a n c e . T h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s se d b y t h e u t t e r a n c e , in m y f r a m e w o r k , is

t h e s a t is f a c ti o n c o n d i t i o n t h e u t t e r a n c e p r e s e n t s i ts e l f as h a v i n g , a~ N o w

c o n s i d e r a s e n t e n c e t is G , w h e r e t i s a r e fe r e n t i a l t e r m w h o s e

m e a n i n g i n c l u d e s a c e r t a i n m o d e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n o f it s r e f e r e n c e ; a n

u t t e r a n c e o f t h i s s e n t e n c e m e a n s t h a t t h e r e i s a n o b j e c t x , p o s s e s s i n g a

c e r t a i n p r o p e r t y F (---- m o d e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n ) , s u c h t h a t t h e u t t e r a n c e i s

s a ti s fi e d i f f x is G . T h e u t t e r a n c e t h e r e f o r e e x p r e s s e s t h e p r o p o s i t i o n

t h a t x is G , a s i n g u la r p r o p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e o b j e c t x ( a n d n o t t h e

c o n c e p t F ) a s a c o n st it u e n t. T h e m o d e d f p r e s e n t a t io n h e l p s th e h e a r e r

t o u n d e r s t a n d w h i c h o b j e c t i s s u c h t h a t t h e u t t e r a n c e is s a t is f ie d i f . an d

o n l y i f i t h a s a c e r t a i n p r o p e r t y , b u t t h is o b j e c t 's s a ti s fy i n g t h e m o d e o f

p r e s e n t a t i o n i s n o p a r t o f th e c o n d i t i o n s o f s a t is f a c t io n th e u t t e r a n c e

p r e s e n t s i t s e lf a s h a v in g , n o p a r t o f th e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d - - w h i c h

p r o p o s i t i o n c a n n o t b e g r a s p e d u n l e s s x is a c t u a l ly i d e n t if i e d . I n t h i s

w a y , w e c a p t u r e t h e i n t u it i v e n o t i o n o f ( p u r e o r d i r e c t) r e f e re n t ia l it y .

L e t m e n o w s u m m a r i ze . F o l l o w i n g P e a c o c k e a n d K r ip k e , I h a v e

d e f i n e d r i g i d i t y ( d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e p s e u d o - r i g i d i t y c o n n e c t e d w i t h

s c o p e ) i n t e r m s o f t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s : a r i g i d d e s i g n a t o r i s s u c h t h a t t h e

t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n o f th e u t t e r a n c e w h e r e i t o c c u r s i s s i ng u l ar . I h a v e t r i e d

t o g o f u r t h e r a n d d e f i n e r e f e r e n t i a li t y a s a s o r t o f m e t a - r ig i d i t y - - a s

Page 14: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 14/15

  6

F R A N ( ~ O I S

RECANATI

r i g id i ty r e f l e c t e d i n m e a n i n g . A r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m

i nd icates

t h a t t h e

t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n o f t h e u t t e r a n c e i s s i n g u l a r ; i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s a n

o b j e c t x s u c h t h a t t h e u t t e r a n c e S t ) w h e r e i t o c c u r s i s t r u e i f f x

s a t i s fi e s th e p r e d i c a t e S ) . A r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m , t h e r e f o r e , i s a d e s i g n a t o r

th at s ig n i f i e s i t s ow n r ig id ity .11

N O T E S

I say : " i n some

other

p o s s i b l e w o r l d " , b e c a u s e I a m a s s u m i n g t h a t u t t e r a n c e s o f t h e

t y p e " I t m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h e c a s e t h a t P " a r e c o u n t e r f a c t u a l a n d e n t a i l t h a t it is n o t t h e

c a s e t h a t P . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n i s , o f c o u r s e , c o n t r o v e r s i a l , b u t i t is n o t a t i s s u e h e r e , a n d

m y a r g u m e n t d o e s n o t r e s t u p o n it.

2 T h i s m a y s e e m r e m i n i s c e n t o f L e w i s ' I n d e x ic a l T h e o r y o f A c t u a li ty a n d t h e r e f o r e n o t

v e r y K r ip k e a n . B u t i n f a c t t h e c la i m I a m m a k i n g a m o u n t s t o n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n w h a t

P e t e r v a n I n w a g e n , i n h is p a p e r o n t h e I n d e x i c a l T h e o r y o f A c t u a l i ty , ca l ls t h e " W e a k

T h e o r y " , w h i c h h e s a y s i s t r iv i a ll y t r u e ( I n w a g e n 1 9 8 0 : 4 1 0 - - 4 1 2 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , I

t h i n k o n e c a n n o t r e j e c t t h e c l a i m a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h e v e n w i d e s c o p e d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e

n o n - r i g i d , w i t h o u t a c c e p t i n g t h e t h e s is t h a t a w o r l d i s a c i r c u m s t a n c e o f u t t e r a n c e , a n d

t h e r e f o r e w i t h o u t a c c e p t i n g s o m e t h i n g l ik e L e w i s ' C o u n t e r p a r t T h e o r y ( s e e In w a g e n

1 9 8 0 : 4 1 6 - - 4 1 7 ) . I c a n n o t e l ab O r a te th i s p o i n t h e r e .

3 S t e p h e n S c h i f fe r ( 1 9 7 7 : 3 1 ) m a k e s a s i m i l a r p o i n t . H e i n t r o d u c e s a n o p e r a t o r " * "

t h a t t r a n s f o r m s a d e f i n i te d e s c r i p t i o n i n t o o n e t h a t h a s m a x i m a l s c o p e i n e v e r y s e n t e n c e

i n w h i c h it o c cu r s , a n d n o t e s t h a t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d b y " I t m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h e

c a s e t h a t t h e * P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U S i n 1 9 7 6 w a s a l a p s e d Q u a k e r " i s t r u e i n a p o s s i b l e

w o r l d i f a n d o n l y i f

whoever in that world is President of the US in 1976

i s s u c h t h a t h e

o r s h e m i g h t h a v e b e e n a la p s e d Q u a k e r .

4 B e l i e f - co n t e x t s c o n s t i t u t e a n o b v i o u s o b j e c t i o n t o c r i t e r ia s u c h a s ( R ) o r ( R R ) b e l o w .

S i n c e I c a n n o t d i s c u s s t h e s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s r a i s e d b y b e l i e f - c o n t e x t s i n t h i s p a p e r , I

s h a l l s e t th i s o b j e c t i o n a s i d e a n d c o n s i d e r o n l y n o n - i n t e n s i o n a l c o n t e x ts .

s T h e d i s t i n c ti o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o s o r t s - - o r t h e t w o s o u r c e s - - o f r i g id i ty c a n b e

f o u n d i n v a r i o u s p l a c e s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , t h e locus classicus b e i n g K a p l a n 1 9 7 7 ; t h e

t e r m i n o l o g y

de facto

v s

de lure

i s K r i p k e ' s : se e K r i p k e 1 9 8 0 , f o o t n o t e 2 1 .

6 O n L o c k w o o d ' s c r i te r i o n , s e e L o c k w o o d 1 9 7 5 : 4 8 5 . A s i m i l a r v i e w i s p u t f o r w a r d i n

R e c a n a t i 1 9 8 1 : 6 2 7 - - 6 2 8 .

7 T h e d e f i n it i o n , o f c o u r s e , m u s t a l s o b e m o d i f i e d s o a s t o t a k e i n d e x i c a li ty in t o

a c c o u n t . ( T R ) b e l o w , c o n t r a r y t o ( R ) a n d ( R R ) , w o r k s f o r i n d e x i c a l a s w e l l a s f o r

n o n - i n d e x i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s .

s W h e n a n o n - r e f e r e n t i a l e x p r e s s o n ( e.g . a d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n ) is u s e d r e f e r e n t i a l l y ,

t h e c o n t e x t , n o t t h e s e n t e n c e , i n d i c h t e s th a t t h e ( i n t e n d e d ) s a t i s f a c t i o n - c o n d i t i o n o f t h e

u t t e r a n c e i s s i n g u l a r . W e m a y s p e a k , i n t h i s c a se , o f " to k e n - r e f e r e n t i a l i ty " .

9 T h e q u e s t i o n a r is e s w h e t h e r a ll r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m s h a v e a n a s s o c i a t e d m o d e o f p r e s e n -

t a t i o n , o r w h e t h e r s o m e o f t h e m , n a m e l y p r o p e r n a m e s , d o n ' t . I t h i n k t h a t p r o p e r

n a m e s , l i k e o r d i n a r y i n d e x i c a l s , h a v e a n a s s o c i a t e d m o d e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n , b y v i r t u e o f

w h i c h a s e n t e n c e S (N N ) , w h e r e " N N " i s a p r o p e r n a m e , i n d i ca t e s t h a t

t h e r e i s a n o b j e c t

x, called NN ,

s u c h t h a t t h e u t t e r a n c e i s t r u e i f f x

s a t is f i e s S ( ) .

T h i s t h e o r y o f t h e m e a n i n g o f p r o p e r n a m e s h a s b e e n a t t a c k e d b y S a u l K r i p k e , w h o s e

a r g u m e n t s I d o n ' t f in d c o n v i n c i n g ; b u t I c a n n o t d e v e l o p m y v i e w s h e r e .

N o t i c e t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f " m o d e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n " t h a t i s u s e d h e r e i s l i n g u i s t i c a n d

n o t e p i s t e m i c . T h e l i n g u i s t i c m e a n i n g o f a r e f e r e n t i a l t e r m c o n v e y s a c e r t a i n m o d e o f

Page 15: François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

8/11/2019 François Recanati (1988) Rigidity and Direct Reference.pdf

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/francois-recanati-1988-rigidity-and-direct-referencepdf 15/15

R I G I D I T Y A N D D I R E C T R E F E R E N C E

7

p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e r e f e r e n c e , b u t t h i s m o d e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n i s n o t n e c e s s a ri l y i d e n ti c a l

w i th t h e m o d e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e o b je c t r e f e r r e d t o i n th e thought e x p r e s s e d b y t h e

u t t e ra n c e . (By t h o u g h t , I d o n o t m e a n th e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d - - s o o n t o b e

d e f in e d - - b u t t h e o b j e c t o f th e s o - c a l l ed p r o p o s i t i o n a l a tt i tu d e s . I n a n y t h e o r y o f

D i r e c t Re f e r e n c e , t h e p r o p o s i t i o n e x p r e s s e d m u s t b e c a r e f u l l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m th e

o b j e c t o f th e a t t i tu d e s - - h e r e c a l l e d t h e th o u g h t .) T h e r e a r e , fo r e x a m p le , tw o m o d e s o f

p r e s e n t a t i o n a s s o c i a te d w i th t h e p r o n o u n I ' : f r o m a l in g u i st ic p o in t o f vi e w , t h e

re fe ren ce is p rese n ted as the speak er (o r som eth ing like tha t) , bu t the con cep t tha t i s

re levan t to the though t be ing expresse d i s the con cep t o f se l f (o r someth ing l ike tha t) .

K a p l a n a n d P e r r y a r e b o th g u i lt y o f c o n fu s in g t h e tw o s o r t s o f m o d e o f p re s e n t a ti o n .

~0 In th is v~ay , we can d is t ingu ish be tw een the p rop os i t ions expressed by Th e cube

r o o t o f 2 7 i s

F

a n d b y 3 is F ' : b o th s e n t e n c e s h a v e t h e s a m e t r u th - c o n d i t i o n - - b o th

a re t rue i f f 3 i s F - - b u t o n ly the secon d p resen ts i t se l f a s t rue i f f 3 is F . On ly the

second sen tence conveys the ind ica t ion tha t the re i s an x such tha t the sen tence i s t rue

i f f x i s F . Th is i s the bas is fo r the d is t inc t ion be twe en the cube roo t o f 27 , wh ich i s

r ig id , and 3 , wh ich is re fe ren t ia l .

~ A n a n c e s to r o f th i s p a p e r w a s r e a d a t t h e fi r st m e e t i n g o f t h e P ar i s F r id a y G r o u p

( fa ll 1982) , the con fe ren ce 'Rece n t trends in sem ant ics ' (Urb ino , Ju ly 1983) , and

e l s e w h e r e . I w o u ld l i k e t o t h a n k Be n o i t d e Co r n u l i e r , P i e r r e J a c o b , D a n S p e r b e r ,

Ch a r l e s T r a v i s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y M ik e H a r n i s h , P a u l H o r w ic h a n d P a u l K a y , f o r t h e i r

c o m m e n t s o n t h e p e n u l t im a te v e r s io n o f t h e p a p e r .

R E F E R E N C E S

Br o d y , B . A . : 1 9 7 7 , ' K r ip k e o n p r o p e r n a m e s ' , M id w e s t S tu d i e s i n P h i l o s o p h y 2 : 6 4 - -

69 .

E v a n s , G . : 1 9 8 2 , T h e V a r i e t i e s o f Re f e r e n c e ( J. M c D o w e l l e d.) , O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n

Press .

v a n I n w a g e n , P .: 1 9 8 0 , ' I n d e x ic a l i ty a n d a c tu al i ty ' , T h e P h i l o s o p h i c a l Re v i e w 8 9 : 4 0 3 - -

4 2 6 .

K a p la n , D .: 1 9 7 7 , D e m o n s t r a t i v e s , d r a f t 2 , M im e o , U C L A .

Kr ipke , S . A. : 1971 , ' Iden t i ty and necess i ty ' , in M. Muni tz (ed . ) , Iden t i ty and Ind iv idua-

t io n , N e w Y o r k : N Y U P , 1 3 5 - - 16 4 .

Kr ipke , S . A. : 1972 , 'Nam ing and necess i ty ' , in D. Dav idso n and G . H arm an (eds .) ,

S e m a n t i c s o f N a tu r a l L a n g u a g e , D o r d r e c h t : D . Re id e l , 2 5 3 - - 3 5 5 .

K r ip k e , S . A . : 1 9 8 0 , P r e f a c e t o N a m in g a n d N e c e s s it y , O x f o r d : B la c k w e l l, 1 - - 2 1 .

L o c k w o o d , M . : 1 9 7 5 , ' O n p r e d i c a t i n g p r o p e r n a m e s ' , T h e P h i l o s o p h i c a l Re v i e w 8 4 :

4 7 1 - 4 9 8 .

Mi l l , J . S .: 1947 , A Sys tem of Log ic , Londo n : Lo ngm ans .

Peacocke , C. A. B. : 1975 , ' P roper names , re fe rence , and r ig id des igna t ion ' , in S .

B la c k b u r n ( ed .) , M e a n in g , Re f e r e n c e a n d N e c e s s i ty , Ca m b r id g e : CU P , 1 0 9 - - 1 3 2 .

Re c a n a t i , F .: 1 9 8 1 , ' O n K r ip k e o n D o n n e l l a n ' , i n H . P a r re t , M . S b i s a a n d J . V e r s c h u e r e n

(eds. ), P oss ib i l i ti e s and L im i ta t ions o f P ragmat ics , Am ste rd am : Joh n Ben jamins ,

5 9 5 - - 6 3 0 .

S c h i f fe r , S .: 1 9 7 7 , ' N a m in g a n d k n o w in g ' , M id w e s t S tu d i e s in P h i l o s o p h y 2 : 2 8 - - 4 1 .

Centre Na t ional de la Rec herch e Scienti fique,

15 Qu ai An ato le France ,

75700Paris,

France.