french philosopher rené descartes rene descartes

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French philosopher René Descartes Known to have believed in more than the souls or mind of the person, and interested in the function of the human body as an integral part of psychology. Rene DesCartes Suggested that the human mind operates according to laws that are knowable, but are different from those that affect the body. DesCartes' interactive dualism. Mind and body are different, but they interact with each other. dualism Belief in the understanding of the inner workings of the mind, and how it works with the body. John Locke Englishman who brought philosophy to the threshold of psychology. John Locke's Enlightenment Belief in the middle class and its right to freedom of conscience and right to property, in his faith in science, and in his confidence in the goodness of humanity. Locke's British Empiricism Focused on the content of the mind and claimed that it is acquired through experience. Wilhelm Wundt German physiologist and psychologist who founded the first laboratory for experimental psychology and stressed the use of scientific methods in psychology, particularly through the use of introspection. structuralism Theory that uses culturally interconnected signs to reconstruct systems of relationships rather than studying isolated, material things in themselves. Englishman Edward Titchener Responsible for the refinement of introspection--to look within. Intro to Psychology - Review Flashcards

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Page 1: French philosopher René Descartes Rene DesCartes

French philosopher RenéDescartes

Known to have believed in more than the souls ormind of the person, and interested in the function ofthe human body as an integral part of psychology.

Rene DesCartesSuggested that the human mind operatesaccording to laws that are knowable, but aredifferent from those that affect the body.

DesCartes' interactive dualism. Mind and body are different, but theyinteract with each other.

dualismBelief in the understanding of the inner

workings of the mind, and how it works withthe body.

John Locke Englishman who brought philosophyto the threshold of psychology.

John Locke's EnlightenmentBelief in the middle class and its right to freedom ofconscience and right to property, in his faith inscience, and in his confidence in the goodness ofhumanity.

Locke's British EmpiricismFocused on the content of the mind and

claimed that it is acquired throughexperience.

Wilhelm WundtGerman physiologist and psychologist who foundedthe first laboratory for experimental psychology andstressed the use of scientific methods in psychology,particularly through the use of introspection.

structuralismTheory that uses culturally interconnected signs toreconstruct systems of relationships rather thanstudying isolated, material things in themselves.

Englishman Edward TitchenerResponsible for the refinementof introspection--to look within.

Intro to Psychology - Review Flashcards

Page 2: French philosopher René Descartes Rene DesCartes

American philosopher WilliamJames

First opened the formal study of psychologywithin the classroom at Harvard.

functionalism or functionalpsychology

New type of psychology that was largely American.It was well-established by the 1920's, and was mostpopular at the University of Chicago.

functionalism theoryTheory that stressed the importance ofinterdependence among all behavior patterns andinstitutions within a social system to its long-termsurvival.

structuralismInvolves the use of a technique

called introspection.

introspectionProcess of examining what is happening in

one's mind and what one is thinking andfeeling.

German psychologist MaxWertheimer

Developed Gestalt psychology, a departure from thegeneral intellectual climate, which emphasized ascientific approach characterized by a detachmentfrom basic human concerns.

Gestalt school of psychologyInterprets phenomena as organized wholes ratherthan as aggregates of distinct parts, maintainingthat the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

behaviorismSchool of psychology which seeks to explain animaland human behavior entirely in terms of observableand measurable responses to environmental stimuli.

American psychologist John B.Watson

Introduced behaviorism and insisted that behavior isa physiological reaction to environmental stimuli--rejected the exploration of mental processes asunscientific.

B.F. Skinner Epitomized the behaviorist approachmore than any other psychologist.

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humanism Type of psychology that was in manyways a reaction to behaviorism.

humanism leader Carl RogersHumanistic psychologist believed that the individualor self should be the central concern of psychology--argued to get the "person" back into psychology.

homeostasisTendency of the human body to maintain

internal equilibrium, or balance, by adjustingits physiological processes.

cognitive psychologySchool of psychology that examines internal mentalprocesses such as problem solving, memory, andlanguage--a shift away from behaviorism.

Sir Francis Galton, first cousinof Charles Darwin

Intrigued by the theory of evolution and by the possibilities ofimproving the human race. He reasoned that before one couldimprove the human condition, one first needed to measure andcatalog the range of human abilities and aptitudes as they exist atthe moment.

French psychologist AlfredBinet

Known for his research and innovation intesting human intelligence.

Binet and Théodore SimonDevised a series of tests that, with revisions,

came into wide use in schools, industries,and the army.

psychoanalysisPsychological approach given by Sigmund Freud toa system of interpretation and therapeutictreatment of psychological disorders.

Simund Freud with Frenchneurologist J.M. Charcot

Convinced that hysteria was caused not byorganic symptoms in the nervous system but

by emotional disturbance.

sensory adaptationOccurs when you are exposed to a stimulus that doesn't change overa period of time--when someone in the same room has a strongscent of perfume, you will smell it strongly at first, but eventuallyyou will not be able to smell the perfume.

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Austrian psychiatrist SigmundFreud

Father and founder ofpsychoanalysis.

developmental psychologyConcerned with the physical and

psychological development of the individualfrom conception through death.

developmental psychologistSearch for biological and environmental

influences on patterns of growth anddevelopment.

psychometricsDevelopment of psychological tests and thestatistical interpretation of data--measure

intelligence and ability.

experimental psychology such as underlyingsensation and perception, learning and

memory, motivation and emotion.

Branch of psychology that uses experimentalmethods to discover principles of behavior.

observational methods inpsychology

Designed primarily to help us discoverrelationships between responses.

R-R relationshipsDo not explain cause and effect but suchrelationships can provide predictions aboutrepetitive patterns in mood and behavior.

mnemonic deviceA trick one uses to help memorize

something--acronyms, rhymes, or any othertrick you use to remember something.

methodological approachAlso called naturalistic observation involvescarefully watching behaviors without anyoutside response or influence by the observer.

observer biasOccurs when an observer allows their ownmotives and expectations to interfere withthe objectivity of their observations.

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experimental methodsInvolve a set of operations used to investigaterelationships between manipulated events andmeasured events while other events are controlled.

independent variablesConditions that the

experimenter manipulates.

extraneous variablesUsually referred to as "control

variables" by psychologists.

clinical psychologyIncludes those psychologists whose concern is

with the psychological well-being of theindividual.

correlational method inpsychology

Utilized as a statistical procedure that cantell us if observations are related to each

other.

Psychology has a unique problem in thatethical issues often involve the accumulation

of knowledge.

In most sciences, ethical concerns center onthe application of knowledge.

psychologyScientific study of behavior and

mental processes.

psychologistsStudy processes of sense perception, thinking,learning, cognition, emotions and motivations,personality, abnormal behavior, interactions betweenindividuals, and interactions with the environment.

cognitionSensing, perceiving, knowing, judging, and problem-solving skills involved in the processing ofinformation about the world in which we live--thoughts, ideas, and beliefs.

neurons Individual nerve cells and are considered thebuilding blocks of the nervous system.

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cell bodyOne structure that all neurons have and containthe nucleus of the cell which contains the geneticinfo that keeps the cell functioning.

dendrites Number of tentacle-like structuresextending away from the cell body.

thyroid glandMain function is regulating the

body's metabolism.

thyroid hormonesRegulate body temperature, metabolic rate,reproduction, growth, blood cell production,and have a powerful effect on body weight.

myelin White, fatty substance that is found on abouthalf the neurons in an adult's nervous system.

activated receptor cells Impulses are relayed by sensory neuronstoward the brain or spinal cord.

motor neuronsNeurons that carry impulses away from thebrain or spinal cord toward our muscles and

glands.

interneurons Nerve cells that transmit impulses from onepart of the brain or spinal cord to another.

transmit neural impulses from one place inthe nervous system to another The function of a neuron.

development of new drug treatments--psychoactive drugs and other therapies

Played a big role in reducing the number ofpatients who have to be placed in institutions

for the mentally ill.

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neural threshold The minimum level of stimulationrequired to get a neuron to fire.

Freud's ErosRepresents the life instinctsourcing from the libido.

Freud's Thanatos Represents the death instinct.

synapseTransmission from neuron to

neuron.

vesiclesLarge number of terminals that contain smallpackets of chemical molecules at the very end

of the axon.

neurotransmitters Chemicals released by vesicles whena neural impulse reaches the axon.

principle of proximity Predicts that we will perceive objects that areclose together as a group.

system of nervesThe most important, complex, and the mostintimately involved system in the control ofour behaviors and mental processes.

peripheral nervous systemIncludes all neurons outside of

the spinal cord and brain.

somatic nervous system (SNS)|autonomicnervous system (ANS)

The peripheral nervous system can besubdivided into two systems.

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somaticNervous system with some

voluntary control.

autonomicNervous system that serves

muscles--bladder, diaphragm, etc.

Gestalt's totality of a perceptionThe understanding of conscious experience anddoesn't rely on breaking the experience intocomponents--focuses on the sum of the parts.

Max WertheimerA big name associated with

Gestalt psychology.

somatic--also known as the sensory-somatic nervous system

Nervous system includes neurons outside the CNSthat serve the skeletal muscles and that pick upimpulses from the major receptors--the eyes, ears.

sympatheticdivision|parasympathetic division

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is madeup of two parts--work in opposition to each

other.

sympathetic becomes activeWhen a person is in a state of

emotional excitement.

parasympathetic is activatedWhen the body is relaxed and

quiet.

galvanic skin response (GSR)Used to measure of a subject's

level of anxiety.

endocrine systemInterconnected network of glands that affectbehavior through the secretion of hormones

into the bloodstream.

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endocrine system's glands andhormones

Controlled by both the brain and theautonomic nervous system.

hormonesVariety of chemical compounds, which are

secreted by the endocrine glands, and carriedthrough the bloodstream.

spinal cordMassive collection of neurons within the

spine that looks rather like a section of ropeor a thick cord.

spinal cord Surrounded and protected by the hard boneand cartilage of the vertebrae.

rapidly transmit neural impulses to the brain||spinalreflexes--very simple automatic behaviors that occurwithout the conscious voluntary actions of the brain

Spinal cord's two majorfunctions.

pituitary glandThe most important of our

endocrine glands.

pituitary glandOften referred to as the master gland,reflecting the fact that it directly controls theactivity of many other glands in the system.

primary reinforcer A substance or situation that is universallyrewarding or punishing--food or shelter.

secondary reinforcer An acquired reward or punishment value butare not universal--a pat on the back.

Thyroid Produces the hormone thyroxin and is anendocrine gland located in the neck.

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thyroxinRegulates the pace of the body's functioning-the rate at which oxygen is used and the rate

of body function and growth.

adrenal glands Located on the kidneys and secrete a varietyof hormones into the bloodstream.

adrenalinHormone is very useful in times of stress or

threat, and its effects are felt throughout thebody.

development of the electrodes for stimulatingand/or recording the activity of individual

cells

One of the most significant advances intechnology that has aided the study of the

brain.

brain|spinal cordTwo components of the central

nervous system.

medulla|nucleiThe brain stem is made of two

important structures.

bystander intervention You are more likely to go tosomeone's aid if that person is alone.

medullaThe very lowest structure in the

brain stem.

medulla Acts like the spinal cord in that its majorfunctions involve involuntary reflexes.

nucleiCollections of neural cell bodies that controlsuch functions as reflexive eye and tongue

movements.

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psychophysicsStudy of the relationships between the physicalattributes of stimuli and the psychologicalexperiences that they produce--oldest subfield inpsychology.

psychophysicsAssess sensitivity of one's senses and on a theoreticallevel provides a means relating to the physicaloutside world to that of the inner psychologicalworld.

absolute thresholdPhysical intensity of a stimulus that a subject reportsdetecting 50 percent of the time, and the intensitiesabove the threshold are detected more than 50percent of the time.

signal detection theoryStimulus detection involving a decision-

making process of separating a signal frombackground noise.

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchyof Needs

Needs towards the bottom of the hierarchymust be fulfilled before needs towards the top

become a motivator.

brightnessThe psychological experience of

intensity of light.

difference in wave amplitudeThe difference between a dim

light and a bright light.

monochromatic Pure light is made up of light wavesof all one length or hue.

olfaction Sense of smell.

gustation Sense of taste.

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sweet, salt, sour, and bitter--all other flavorsare odors produced as food is crushed by the

teeth.Four basic sensations of taste.

vestibular systemDesigned to detect the position and motion(acceleration) of the head in space--sensory

system we are hardly aware of.

maximum perceptualdevelopment

Takes place between the ages of three and ahalf and seven years of age.

general adaptation syndromeConsists of a series of reactions a person's

body progresses through in response tostress.

alarm reaction|resistance|finallyexhaustion

Three stages of generaladaptation syndrome.

Piaget's Theory of CognitiveDevelopment

The approach children take to organizing the world intoan interrelated network of schemas by which they cancategorize and identify people and things for recognitionand further understanding--development of schemas.

schemasOrganized mental

representations of the world.

accommodationInvolves changing and revising existing

schemas in the face of new experiences ornew information.

sensorimotor stage|preoperationalstage|concrete operations stage|formal

operations stage

Piaget's four stages of cognitivedevelopment.

sensorimotor stage Causality is the relationshipbetween an event (the cause) and a second event (theeffect), where the second event is understood as aconsequence of the first.

Children discover by sensing and bydoing--includes causality.

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object permanenceChildren have established that although physicalobjects may not be present, they still exist, and will attimes await their reappearance.

preoperational stageA time where the child'sthinking is self-centered.

concrete operational stageChildren begin to develop many concepts and

show that they can manipulate thoseconcepts--rule-governed behavior begins.

behaviorismEmerged as a reaction against functionalismand states that psychology should focus only

on observable behavior.

behavioristsFocus on objective observable behavior andreject internal events such as states of mind,

feelings, etc.

conservationInvolves the cognitive awareness that changing theform or the appearance of something does notnecessarily change what it is.

formal operationsThe logical manipulation of abstract,

symbolic concepts does not appear until thelast of Piaget's stages.

lightFirst enters the eye through the

cornea.

pupilThen light travels through this

opening in the iris.

irisPart of the eye which ispigmented or colored.

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visual cliff experiment Showed that infants are capable of depthperception at an age as early as six months.

hearing or auditionThe process by which we transduce air

pressure waves into neural messages thebrain interprets as meaningful sound.

wave amplitude Depicts intensity or the force withwhich air strikes the ear.

loudnessPsychological characteristic which is measured bypeople not instruments--decibel scale reflectsperceived measurement in humans.

wave frequencyMeasure of the number of times a wave

repeats itself within a given period of time,usually one second.

consciousnessDefined as the awareness, or perception, of theenvironment and of one's own mental processes--astate of mind, as well as a state of awareness.

sleepAlters the consciousness of people bygradually reducing alertness, awareness, andperception of events occurring around us.

insomnia The chronic inability to sleep.

kinesthetic sense Allows us to locate parts of our bodieswithout having to see them

sleep spindlesBrief but high amplitude bursts of electricalenergy/activity that occur with regularity--occurswhen a person is falling asleep.

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rapid eye movement (REM) Discovered in the early 1950's by NathanielKleitman and Eugene Aserinsky.

hypnosisAltered state of consciousness that one entersvoluntarily--unquestioning acceptance of the

distortion of reality.

meditationSelf-induced state of altered consciousness

characterized by an extreme focusing ofattention and relaxation.

extremely difficult to test in the laboratory--making it a theory that no one can prove or

disprove

A major criticism of Freud'spsychoanalytic perspective.

Freud's psychoanalysis Emphasizes the existence andinfluence of the unconscious mind.

psychoactive drugsChemicals that alter the consciousness of aperson by inducing changes in perception,

mood, and/or behavior.

highly focused attention|suggestibility/willingnessto do what the hypnotist tells him/her todo|willingness to accept illogical situations

Three basic characteristics ofhypnosis.

chemical stimulantsStimulate/activate the nervous system and known toproduce a heightened sense of arousal, an increase inactivity, and the elevation of one's mood.

depressantsReduce one's awareness of external stimuli,slow normal bodily functions, and decrease

the level of overt behavior.

hallucinogensHave the most predictable effects onconsciousness--formation of visual

hallucinations.

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synesthesiaStimulus of one modality is perceived in a differentmodality, a crossing-over of sensory processing--anindividual may hear colored lights.

locus of controlPersonality construct referring to an individual'sperception of events as determined internally byhis/her own behavior vs. fate, luck, or externalcircumstances.

marijuanaConsciousness-altering drug that often acts

as a depressant but in high doses can act as ahallucinogen.

sleep deprivationCan result in altered states of consciousness,including hallucinations, mood alterations,

and bodily changes.

stimulant drugsCocaine, caffeine, nicotine, and

amphetamines--legal for consumerconsumption.

learningDemonstrated by a relatively permanent

change in behavior that occurs as the resultof practice or experience.

conditioning and learningSynonymous terms and can be

used interchangeably.

Ivan PavlovUsed his physiologist skills to try to understand thebasic processes of digestion--he discovered a basicprinciple of conditioning known as a reflex.

reflex Unlearned, automatic response that occurs inthe presence of specific stimuli.

In Pavlov's experiment, the dog's reflex--salivating,became a conditioned response to the bell. Salivatingis an unconditioned response to food, but aconditioned response to the sound of a bell.

Pavlov's study is now known asclassical conditioning.

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unconditioned stimulus Stimulus that produces a response, even inthe absence of conditioning.

conditioned stimulus--technicallyreferred to as habituation

Neutral stimulus and initially produces aminimal response or a response of no

particular interest.

conditioned response Recurring result of action that indicates abehavior is learned or conditioned.

operant (Skinner)Behavior that an organism may use to

operate on its environment--controlled bytheir consequences.

aversion therapyPerformed by linking behavior

with immediate discomfort.

shapingReinforcing successive approximations of the

response that one ultimately wants tocondition.

Harry HarlowLearning set was developed with the study ofhis monkeys which is a prepared, expected

approach to solving problems.

latent learningHidden learning that is not demonstrated in

performance until that performance isreinforced.

humanistic psychologyView behaviorism and psychoanalysis as excessivelymechanistic in that they view behavior as primarilycontrolled by the environment--greater importance isplaced the individual's own will.

EC Tolman's cognitive map Mental representation of the learningsituation or physical environment.

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Albert Bandura's social theoryApproach to learning is also cognitive innature but he added a decidedly social aspectto the process--we learn from others.

punisher Stimulus that decreases the rate orprobability of a response that precedes it.

operant conditioningGeneralization occurs when a response reinforced inthe presence of one stimulus also occurs in thepresence of another similar stimulus--respondsequally to both stimuli.

instinctive driftBrelands' term to note that some behaviors are moredifficult to condition than others--an organism willdrift toward doing something that comes naturally.

For men, suicide is the eighth leading causeof death and more than four times the rate in

women.

Men have a higher suicidecompletion rate than women.

positive reinforcerStimulus presented to an organism that

increases the rate of a response that precedesit--rewards.

negative reinforcerStimulus that increases the rate of response thatprecedes its removal--exists to increase the rate ofresponse to a certain stimuli. .

escape conditioningPart of operant conditioning and demonstratesnegative reinforcement--negative reinforcement isremoved upon the correct response.

avoidance conditioning Organism learns to avoid unpleasant andpainful situations before it occurs.

avoidance conditioning An organism learns to avoid unpleasant andpainful situations before it occurs.

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learned helplessnessCondition in which a subject does not attempt toescape from a painful or noxious situation afterlearning in a previous, similar situation that escape isnot possible.

primary reinforcersStimuli (usually biologically or physically based) thatincrease the rate of a response with no previousexperience required--food, water, and sex.

secondary reinforcer--also calledconditioned/learned reinforcers

Contains stimuli that increase the rate of a responsebecause of their being associated with otherreinforcers--money, praise, attention, approval,success, affection and grades.

dominant or recessiveWhen determining traits in a new child (haircolor or eye color), each parent contributes a

gene for that trait.

continuous reinforcementschedule

Reinforcement schedule in which each andevery response is followed by a reinforcer--the reinforcer eventually loses effectiveness.

intermittent reinforcementschedules

Alternatives to reinforcing each and everyresponse--reinforcing a desired behavior lessfrequently than each and every time it occurs.

discriminationProcess of differential reinforcement whereinone (positive) stimulus is reinforced whileanother (negative) stimulus is not.

memoryCognitive ability to encode,

store, and retrieve information.

encodingActive process of putting information into

memory--gathering and sorting thatmemories are related.

storage Process of holding the encoded informationin the memory until the time of retrieval.

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retrievalThe process of locating, removing, and usinginformation stored in one's memory--allows a personto use past experiences to make new decisions.

levels of processing model ofmemory

A view that states that there is but one memory butthat information can be processed within thatmemory at different degrees, levels, or depths.

sensory memoryMemory that holds large amounts of

information registered at the senses for verybrief periods of time--only seconds.

iconic memoryMemories are stored in the sensory register

which includes the visual system and theauditory system.

iconThe visual copy stored in the

sensory store.

echoic memorySensory memory linked to auditory

perception--plays a key role in languageprocessing.

short-term memory Memory that has a limited capacityand typically a brief duration.

long-term memoryStorage of an abundance of memory, and is heldfor long periods of time--almost limitless in itscapacity to hold information.

elaborative rehearsalMechanism for processing information into long-termmemory that involves the meaningful manipulation ofthe information to be remembered.

procedural memoryStored in the long-term memory, and iswhere associations/skilled patterns of

responses are stored--how to ride a bike.

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semantic memoryA more complex memory which is where vocabulary,simple concepts, and rules are stored--info aboutourselves, our world, and the way in which we live.

compulsionsRepetitive behavior or mental activity thatone feels compelled to do, even against one'swill--constantly checking door locks.

obsessions Involves unsolicited reoccurrence ofdisturbing thoughts.

obsessive-compulsive disorder Obsessions and compulsions both fallunder this disorder.

episodic memoryStores our life events and experiences--

specific time-related memory andautobiographical.

metamemoryLong-term memory responsible for storingknowledge of how our own memory systemswork--directs all long-term memory searches.

category clusteringThe recall one experiences through the process ofgrouping words together into categories even if theyare presented in a random order--done throughconceptual processes.

Karen HorneyProposed that many adult characteristics areproduced by attempts to deal with basic anxietyand is known for her Ten Neurotic Needs.

recallA measure of retrieval in which an individual isprovided with the fewest possible cues to aidretrieval--quickly pulling info from a database.

recognitionMeasure of retrieval in which an individual isrequired to identify material previously learned asbeing familiar--aids in the association/comparisonbetween old/new info.

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relearningMeasure of memory in which one notes theimprovement in performance when learningmaterial for a second time--prior knowledge

concept Mental event used to represent a category orclass of events or objects.

psycholinguisticsHybrid discipline of psychologists trained inpsychology and linguistics--underlying knowledge andabilities which people must have in order to uselanguage and to learn language in childhood.

language Large collection of arbitrary symbols thathave significance for a community.

wordsSymbols that make up language and are theexpressions that relay information from one

person to another.

naturalistic observationResearch approach in which people oranimals are observed in their everyday

behaviors.

phoneme The smallest unit of sound in the spokenlanguage and have no meaning.

one word|twowords|telegraphic speech

Children learn language inthree stages.

telegraphic speechCombining of two or three words into simplesentences and begins at 18 to 24 months of

age.

semanticsThe study of the meaning of

words and sentences.

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morpheme The smallest unit of meaning in a languageand a word may contain more than one.

syntaxUnits larger than morphemes, such as phrases andsentences, that are isolated in a manner that reflects ahierarchical structure--grammatical sequences withinthe phrase.

pragmaticsThe study of how context affects the meaningof linguistic events--going beyond the literal

meaning.

prototype The best or most typical member of acategory or concept and define the concept.

strategy in problem solvingSystematic plan for generating possible

solutions that can be tested to see if they arecorrect--provide control.

algorithmProblem solving strategy that guarantees that youwill eventually arrive at a correct solution--systematically exploring and evaluating all possiblesolutions.

heuristic strategiesProblem solving in nature, and allow for a hypothesisabout a problem's solutions to be generated and tested ina time-saving and systematic way, but does not guaranteean acceptable solution--a rule of thumb.

brainstorming One of the most popular techniques used tostimulate divergent thinking.

divergent thinking Creation of many ideas or potentialproblem solutions from one idea

mental set Tendency to perceive or respond tosomething in a predetermined or set way.

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phenomenon of functionalfixedness

Inability to discover new and appropriate uses in anew function because of experiences of using the sameobject in some other function-similar to mental set.

convergent thinking Reduction or focusing of many different ideasinto one possible problem solution.

initial stateThe first component of any

problem.

Carl JungCreated a variation of psychoanalytic theory,

called analytical psychology--broke awayfrom Freud.

intelligenceCapacity to understand the world and the resourcefulnessto cope with its challenges. Also defined as the ability tolearn and generate new concepts on one's own andsuccessfully implement or express those new ideas.

G-Score Measure of one's overall, general intellectualabilities--commonly thought of as "IQ".

X and Y chromosomes--genetically female resultsfrom receiving an X chromosome from each parentand male is determined by having one X chromosomeand one Y chromosome

Chromosomes that determine aperson's sex.

gonads Sex glands (testes) in males.

ovaries Sex glands in females.

androgenMale sex hormones that are

produced by the testes.

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testosteroneMost important of the male sex

hormones.

estrogenFemale sex hormone produced

by the ovaries.

menopauseAs women age and go througha period of decreased estrogen.

progesteroneMost important sex hormone

for women.

puberty Stage of physical development at which onebecomes capable of sexual reproduction.

arousalIndicative of one's level of

activation/excitement and will representtheir motivational state.

neurotransmitters Special chemicals that enable neurons topass messages to one another.

instincts Unlearned, complex patterns of behavior thatoccur in the presence of particular stimuli.

driveState of tension resulting from a need thatarouses and directs an organism's behavior--response to a need or desire for something.

Abraham MaslowAssociated with the humanism movement in psychology andcombined his concerns for the person with Hull's drive-reductiontheory--proposed that human behavior does in fact respond toneeds, yet not all are physiological needs.

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physiological needs|needs of safety|love andbelonging|esteem|self-actualization Maslow's stage theory.

Stanley Schachter's two-factortheory

Emotions have two components: physical arousal anda cognitive label. He believed that emotions werephysiologically similar and therefore requiredconscious interpretation.

incentivesExternal stimuli that an organism may be

motivated to approach or avoid--oftendictate future behavior.

homeostasisState of balance among internal,

physiological conditions.

Walter Cannon's homeostasisFirst references to a need to maintain abalanced state and conncerned with our

internal physiological reactions.

set pointNormal, optimum level of equilibrium or

balance among physiological or psychologicalreactions.

cognitive dissonanceMotivating discomfort or tension caused by a lack ofbalance or consonance among one's cognitions--person's attitudes, thoughts, or beliefs (cognitions)conflict.

opponent-process theoryAnother approach to motivation that relies on the notion of balanceand equilibrium--one's emotional reactions to affect-arousingstimuli naturally produce opposite emotional reactions in order tomaintain a balanced level of affect or emotion.

hypothalamusSmall brain structure involved in many

drives, including thirst, hunger, sex, andtemperature regulation.

internal physiological cuesSignals from the (inside) physiological aspect of anindividual that indicate something is desired as aresult of a physical need.

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external psychological cuesTriggered when a person desires a thing that is notdriven at a biological level and there is no physicalneed for such a desire, yet the person still craves thething psychologically.

third year of lifeAge a child has a unique

personality.

intrinsic control Internal, personal process that controls ormotivates an individual's behavior.

external controlExternal, environmental process that exercisescontrol over an individual's behavior or motivations--influences a person's behavior by giving rewards andpunishments.

emotionReaction involving subjective feelings,

physiological response, cognitiveinterpretation, and behavioral expression.

epinephrine also known asadrenalin

Hormone produced by the adrenal glandsthat is involved in emotional activity, mostly

affecting heart activity.

norepinephrineHormone that is secreted by the adrenalglands and is involved in emotional arousal--released directly into the bloodstream.

adrenal glandsLocated on the kidneys and are part of theAutonomic Nervous System (ANS)--very

involved in emotional reactions.

limbic systemSet of small structures located low in the brain andare involved in motivational and emotional stress--associated with the emotional response to the threatof attack.

conflict Source of stress in which some goals can besatisfied only at the expense of others.

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anxietyGeneral feeling of tension or apprehensionaccompanied by a perceived threat to well-

being.

defense mechanismsTechniques, beyond one's conscious control,employed to protect against the feelings of

stress.

repressionMotivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously--allmemory of an event or experience is blocked fromconscious awareness.

denialVery basic mechanism of defense against stress--aperson simply refuses to acknowledge the realitiesof a stressful situation.

projectionAct of seeing in others those very characteristicsand/or motives that cause stress for an individual--allows an individual to see their own undesirableattitudes and behaviors in others.

regressionReturn to earlier, childish levels of previously

productive behaviors as an escape fromstress.

emotional intelligenceAbility to recognize and manage emotionsrepresents a type of behavior--recognizing

the emotions of others or empathy.

cross-sectional methodMost of the data gathered on age differences in IQscores--IQ tests given at roughly the same time to alarge number of subjects of different ages.

cross-sequential study Subjects who were born at the same time buttested at different times are compared.

fluid intelligenceProvides the ability to relate to speed, adaptation,flexibility, and abstract reasoning--includes the sortsof skills that show the greatest decline with age.

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crystallized intelligenceProvides the abilities that depend on acquired knowledge,accumulated experience, and general information toinclude the sorts of skills that remain quite constant oreven increase throughout one's lifetime.

mentally giftedDemonstrate outstanding ability or aptitudein a number of possible areas-- typically high

performers on most tests.

mental retardationCondition indicated by an IQ below 70 that beganduring the developmental period and is associatedwith impairment in adaptive functioning.

sublimationAccording to the psychoanalytic theory, this is an adaptivedefense mechanism that permits the psychological energyassociated with unconscious desires and impulses to betranslated into socially accepted activities.

down's syndromeCondition of many symptoms including mentalretardation, stunted physical growth, & Mongoloid-like features and caused by an extra 47thchromosome.

gender identity Basic sense of self-awareness of one'sown maleness or femaleness.

gender rolesAttitudes and expectations about how a personshould act, think, and/or feel solely on the basis ofbeing male or female.

expert powerOccurs when subordinates see the leader as havingsuperior knowledge and technical expertise relevantto the task at hand--perception is important.

Solomon AschKnown for his study in which he tested conformity,the extent to which social groups exert pressure onour perceptions, emotions, and behaviors.

androgynous person Possesses a combination of traits that areboth masculine and feminine.

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social behaviors of peopleShow significant differences between the twogenders--areas with the biggest differencesare aggression and communication.

Level 1 Pre-Conventional|1. Obedience and punishmentorientation|2. Self-interest orientation|Level 2 Conventional|1.Interpersonal accord and conformity|2. Authority and social-ordermaintaining orientation |Level 3 Post-Conventional|1. Socialcontract orientation|2. Universal ethical principles

Kohlberg's Theory of MoralDevelopment.

Critics claim Kohlberg's ideas on morality wereinfluenced by his western intellectual background andtherefore not valid among all cultures and ethnicities.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development hasbeen criticized specifically with regard to

culture and gender.

attachmentStrong, two-way, emotional/social

relationship, usually between a child and itsmother or caregiver.

epigenetic modelInteractionist position that suggests that psychologicalcharacteristics are the result of neither heredity nor theenvironment working alone--organisms develop through theinteraction of one's genetic programming and one's experiences inthe environment.

corpus callosum Bundle of fibers that links the twohemispheres, or halves, of the brain.

mother's diet Has a profound impact on the baby'sdevelopment and subsequent health at birth.

reliability Refers to the consistency of the results fromtaking the test repeatedly.

Neonate is a term for a newborninfant less than four weeks old.

Some reflexes have obvious survival value for theneonate; the rooting reflex in which the newbornturns toward a slight pressure on its cheek, thesucking reflex or even the grasping reflex.

egocentrismOne of the most notable cognitive reactions during thepreoperational stage of cognitive development. The childbecomes very me and I oriented, unable to appreciate theworld from anyone else's perspective or point of view.

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essential nature of the formal operationsstage of cognitive development

Ability to think and reason and solveproblems symbolically or in abstract rather

than concrete, tangible form.

trust vs. mistrust|autonomy vs. shame anddoubt|initiative vs. guilt|industry vs.

inferiority

Erikson proposed that there were eightstages of psycho-social development, four of

which occur during childhood.

Elisabeth Kubler-RossRecognized as a pioneer in the study of griefmanagement and developed a theory that identifiedthe five stages of grief individuals experience whenthey suffer a loss.

denial|anger|bargaining|depression|acceptanceFive stages of grief as proposed

by Kubler-Ross.

schemas in Piaget's theoryOne's organized mental

representations of the world.

personalityConsists of the affects (feelings, moods, or emotions),behaviors and cognition that can characterize peoplein a number of situations over time.

psychoanalysisApproach to personality associated with Freud andhis followers that relies on instincts and theunconscious as explanatory concepts.

life instinctsThose inborn impulses proposed by Freud

that compels one toward survival, includingthirst, hunger, and sex.

libidoEnergy that activates the life--

sexual instincts.

reticular formationLocated in the core of the brain

stem and affects arousal.

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death instinctsInborn impulses proposed by Freud that

compels one toward destruction, includingaggression.

IdInstinctive aspect of one's personality that seeksimmediate gratification of impulses and operateson the pleasure principle.

pleasure principle Impulse of the id is to seek immediategratification to reduce tensions.

egoAspect of the personality that encompassesthe sense of "self" and operates in contactwith the real world on the reality principle.

hypothalamusLimbic system's most important

structure.

reality principleGoverns the ego and arbitrates between the

demands of the id, the superego, and the realworld.

superegoAspect of the personality that refers to ethical ormoral considerations, and operates on the idealisticprinciple--personality's control over a sense ofmorality .

idealistic principleGoverns the superego, is opposed to the idand seeks adherence to standards of ethics

and morality.

anal stage|genital stage|latencystage|oral stage|phallic stage

Sigmund Freud recognized five stages ofdevelopment, calling them psychosexual.

Neo-FreudiansSome psychoanalysts movedaway from Freud's theories.

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systematic desensitizationFound to be especially effective in dealing withphobias and involve having patients combinerelaxation with the visualization of anxiety-provokingstimuli or situations.

Carl JungStudent of Sigmund Freud and parted ways withFreud to seek a more mystical approach to thepersonality-- certainly more positive about one'sability to control his/her own destiny.

nomotheticsStudy that seeks to find thecommonality of all people.

actor-observer biasTendency of an individual to regard situations inwhich he or she is involved as caused by externalfactors, and to regard situations he or she observes ascaused by the actions of those involved.

self-serving biasPeople are very prone to take responsibility

for success and to blame others orcircumstances for failure.

self-conceptInvolves our thoughts and feelings about ourselves,and are formed from one's experiences, perceptions,feedback, and the culture in which he/she lives.