fresh pasta quality as affected by enrichment of nonstarch polysaccharides

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JFS S: Sensory and Nutritive Qualities of Food

Fresh Pasta Quality as Affected by Enrichmentof Nonstarch PolysaccharidesC.S. BRENNAN AND C.M. TUDORICA

ABSTRACT: Nonstarch polysaccharides (NSPs), both soluble and insoluble, were added to pasta doughs at levels of2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% levels. The cooking and textural characteristics of the pastas were evaluated using a rangeof analytical techniques. Generally, NSP addition was found to increase the cooking losses, and reduce the proteinand starch contents of the pasta. This effect was dependent on the level of NSP added and also the type (soluble orinsoluble). Pasta firmness was generally reduced in relation to the level of NSP addition, although some gel-formingNSPs resulted in higher firmness values. Pasta stickiness, adhesiveness, and elasticity were also affected. The resultsindicate that careful selection of NSP addition is needed to ensure optimum textural and cooking characteristics inNSP enriched pasta products.

Keywords: dietary fiber, durum wheat, functional food, starch, texture

Introduction

Interest from both the food industry and among consumers hasfocused on the possibility of adding nonstarch polysaccharides

(dietary fiber components) into cereal products in order to increasethe level of dietary fiber intake and also reduce the potential gly-caemic index of carbohydrate rich foods (Brennan 2005). Whilethere is a significant amount of information available on the effectof these NSPs in reducing the potential glycaemic index of food sys-tems (Jenkins and others 1983; Tudorica and others 2002; Clearyand Brennan 2006), the inclusion of these NSPs can present a num-ber of challenges to the food industry in terms of the cooking qual-ity of pastas and their resulting textural characteristics.

NSPs have traditionally been broadly divided into soluble and in-soluble fractions, depending on their behavior in solutions. SolubleNSPs have been used in the food industry as thickeners and sta-bilizers, while insoluble NSPs tend to be used more as fillers. Bothtypes of NSPs have different functional properties from a food sci-ence and also human nutrition point of view. Many of the solubleNSPs (such as guar, xanthan, and locust bean gum) have the poten-tial to form a hydrated polysaccharide/gum system within a food,altering the internal structure of that food and forming complex as-sociations (matrixes) with protein and starch components. Insolu-ble NSPs generally lack this ability to form gel-like structures in as-sociation with other food components and can therefore cause lossof stability in food systems.

Pasta quality and cooking characteristics are dependent uponthe protein–starch matrix of the extruded pasta product (El-Khayatand others 2006). Characteristics such as firmness, cooking loss,and stickiness of pasta can be associated with the protein contentof the pasta (D’Edigio and others 1990; Oak and others 2006), glutenstrength (Sissons and others 2005), as well as the starch compo-sition (El-Khayat and others 2003; Samaan and others 2006). Theincorporation of NSP into pasta mix would have an effect on thetenacity of the protein–starch matrix binding and thus influence

MS 20070332 Submitted 5/4/2007, Accepted 8/24/2007. Author Brennan iswith Massey Univ., Inst. of Food Nutrition and Human Health, Palmer-ston North, New Zealand. Authors Brennan and Tudorica are with Ply-mouth Univ., School of Biological Sciences, Plymouth, U.K. Direct inquiriesto author Brennan (E-mail: [email protected]).

the cooking quality characteristics of pastas. Incorporation of braninto durum wheat semolina has been shown to have negative ef-fects on the quality of pasta products (Gauthier and others 2006),while Izydorczyk and others (2005) demonstrated the potential ofincorporating barley fractions into noodles.

The current study investigated the possibility of using variousNSPs (both soluble and insoluble) in pasta products, in relation totheir cooking properties and textural attributes, aiming to obtainfunctional foods of acceptable quality by the inclusion of differenttypes of NSPs.

Materials and Methods

Pasta makingDurum wheat pasta was made using as raw materials the same

commercial durum semolina (Allied Mills Ltd., Tilsbury, U.K.), wa-ter, and a range of NSPs: inulin (Frutafit HD, Suiker Unie & Sen-sus, Dinteloord, The Netherlands), guar gum (E412) (CalleblendGUA, Calleva Ltd., U.K.), pea fiber (Exafine, Cosucra, Belgium), lo-cust bean gum (E410) (Calleblend LBG, Calleva Ltd., UK), xanthangum (KelcoOF, CP Kelco, Liverpool, UK), bamboo fiber (Qualicel41B, CFF, Germany), and β-glucan enriched flour (HiSol, HiSol Ltd.,Berwick-upon-Tweed, U.K.). NSP characteristics, as provided bythe suppliers, are presented in Table 1.

Control pasta was made from a blend of 1.5 kg of semolina to 510mL of water. NSP was incorporated into recipes at replacement lev-els for durum wheat semolina at 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% (w/w).The replacement level of HiSol was based on obtaining a level ofβ-glucan in the pasta at the 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% (w/w) levels.This meant that the actual level of HiSol used (a flour based productwith approximately 12% β-glucan) was higher than the other NSPsused. A control pasta of 100% durum wheat semolina was also pre-pared. The blend was mixed for 12 min to allow for hydration of thesemolina, formed, and extruded as spaghetti (1.5-mm dia) using acommercial shop sized pasta maker (La Monferrina, Model P6, Asti,Italy) adopting a 1.5 kg dry mix formula. Samples were wrappedfresh in cling film and stored in airtight containers and frozen at–40 ◦C until needed for analysis. Duplicate batches of pasta weremade.

C© 2007 Institute of Food Technologists Vol. 72, Nr. 9, 2007—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE S659doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00541.xFurther reproduction without permission is prohibited

S:Sensory&NutritiveQualitiesofFood

NSP-enriched pasta quality . . .

Cooking procedureOptimum cooking time (the time necessary to obtain complete

gelatinization of starch shown by the disappearance of the whitecentral core of the spaghetti strand) was determined as 7 min fol-lowing standard guidelines (AFNOR 1989). Fifty grams of each pastasample were then cooked for 7 min in 500 mL of boiling distilledwater.

After cooking and draining, the pasta samples were analyzedfor the swelling index, dry matter, water absorption, starch con-tent, textural properties, and microstructure. Aliquots of cook-ing water were used further for the determination of cookinglosses.

Cooking characteristics of pastaSwelling index of cooked pasta (SI, g water/g dry pasta) was eval-

uated in triplicate by drying the pasta samples to constant weight(Fardet and others 1999) at 105 ◦C, and expressed as (weight ofcooked product, W1 – weight after drying, W2)/(weight after drying,W2) (Mestres and others 1988).

Dry matter of raw and cooked pasta was determined in triplicateaccording to the standard methods (AACC 2005).

Cooking loss in the cooking water collected from each samplewas determined in triplicate by evaporating to the constant weightin an air oven at 105 ◦C. The residue was weighed and reportedas percentage of the original pasta sample (Debbouz and Doetkott1996).

Chemical analysis of pastaThe dietary fiber content of pasta samples was evaluated in du-

plicate using the Megazyme assay kit (Megazyme Intl. Ireland Ltd.,Ireland) under the AACC official method (AACC 2005). The Du-mas combustion method (AOAC 1998) on a LECO� FP-2000 ni-trogen/protein combustion analyzer (LECO Corp., Mich., U.S.A.)(AOAC 1998) was used to evaluate pasta protein contents in trip-licate. Moisture content of pasta samples was determined in tripli-

Table 1 --- Nonstarch polysaccharide (NSP) characteristics as provided by the suppliers.

Guar Locust Xanthan Bamboo HiSolPea fiber Inulin gum bean gum gum fiber (β- glucan)

Chemical compositionDry matter

content (%)min. 90.0 min. 95.0 min. 90.0 min. 90.0 min. 90.0 min. 90.0 min. 88.0

Carbohydrates% db of which:

min. 89.0 min. 99.0 min. 99.0 min. 99.0 min. 99.0 min. 95.0 min. 93.75

Total NSP (%db) min. 88.0 (of whichcellulose 50%,hemicellulose20%, pectin10%, lignin 5%)

95.0 (inulin) 99.0 (guargum)

99.0 (locustbean gum)

99.0 (xanthangum)

95.0 (cellulose) 17.04 (of whichβ-glucan13.64%)

Protein (%) < 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6Ash (%) 2.0 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.3 ---

Physicochemical aspectsParticle size < 250 µm 10 < 80%

< 85 µm--- --- --- 80% < 32 µm

98% < 75µm

100% < 180µm

Dispersability --- Good --- --- --- --- ---

pH --- Neutral 5.0 to 7.0 5.0 to 7.0 6.0 to 8.0 4.0 to 6.0 ---

Color Light beige White Light cream Light cream Light cream White White, slightlyspeckled

Taste Neutral Neutral, slightlysweet

Neutral Neutral Neutral Neutral Neutral

cate according to the AACC standard method 45-15A (AACC 2005).Total starch was determined in triplicate using the Megazyme kitaccording to AOAC method 996.11 (AOAC 1998).

Texture characteristics of pastaTextural characteristics of cooked pasta were determined using a

Texture Analyser TA.XT2 (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, U.K.),calibrated for a load cell of 25 kg.

Elasticity (or tensile strength) was determined by tension test,using the A/SPR- Spaghetti/Noodle Rig (settings: pretest speed: 3mm/s, test speed: 3 mm/s, posttest speed: 5 mm/s, distance: 120mm at a rate for data acquisition of 200 pps). Maximum forcerecorded when the elastic limit is exceeded and the pasta strandsnaps gives an indication of pasta elasticity; the test was performedon 15 replicates per sample.

Adhesiveness and stickiness were determined by the adhesivetest using P35 - 35-mm dia cylinder probe (settings: pretest speed:1 mm/s, test speed: 0.5 mm/s, posttest speed: 10 mm/s, distance:100 mm, time: 2 sec., trigger type: auto 20 g, and a rate for data ac-quisition of 500 pps). The test was performed on 15 replicates persample.

Firmness of pasta samples was evaluated using a 1-mm flat per-spex knife blade (A/LKB-F) and the following settings: pre-testspeed: 0.5 mm/s, test speed: 0.17 mm/s, posttest speed: 10.0 mm/s;distance: 4 mm). Each test was performed on 5 strands of pasta and15 replicate tests were performed for each type of pasta.

Statistical analysisResults from all the tests were calculated as means ± SD. Analysis

of variance (GLM) followed by Tukey’s test of Minitab 13.1 software(Minitab Inc., U.S.A.) were used for statistical analysis to investi-gate the effect of 2 factors: type of NSP and the level of NSP used.Data expressed in percentages were arcsin transformed prior to sta-tistical analysis. The results for the control were not included inthe GLM model for the statistical analysis. Duplicate pasta batches

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were made, from which replicates (as directed in the text) weretaken.

Results and Discussion

The NSP-enriched pasta products were compared against a con-trol (no added NSP) in terms of cooking qualities and texture

properties.

Cooking qualities of NSP-enriched pastaThe results obtained for cooking properties of pasta and for

chemical composition of the cooked product are summarized inthe ANOVA table (Table 2). Dry matter values presented in Table2 indicate that the dry matters of cooked pasta were significantlyaffected by the type of NSP used in the formulation (P < 0.01). Theuse of xanthan gum resulted in pasta products with dry matter val-ues significantly lower than the control pasta and those of pastascontaining pea fiber, bamboo fiber, locust bean gum, or inulin. Thelevel of NSP used in the formulation appeared to have no significanteffect on the dry matter of the final product (P > 0.05); although theresults suggest there was a trend toward a decrease in the dry mat-ter of the final product with increasing levels of NSP addition. Thisis not surprising since many NSPs are known to be able to retainhigh amounts of water within their structure.

Swelling index of pasta was significantly affected by both typesof NSP used in the formulation and the level of usage. The highestswelling index was obtained for pastas containing xanthan, whilethe other values were similar to that of control pasta. Increasingfiber levels resulted in increased swelling index of the pasta. Againa trend to expected if the water holding capacity of NSP is consid-ered.

The type of NSP used in pasta formulation had a significant ef-fect on the cooking characteristics (dry matter in the cooking waterand the cooking loss—P < 0.05 in both cases—Table 2). Althoughno significant difference could be observed between the means ofthe pasta samples, it can be observed that the highest percent-age of solids in the cooking water was found for pastas contain-

Table 2 --- ANOVA table summarizing the cooking characteristics of pasta and chemical composition of cookedpasta.

Dry matter SwellingDry of the cooking index (g Cooking Protein Starch Carbohydrate

Sample matter (%) water (%) water/g DM) losses (%) content (%) content (%) content (%) TNSP (%)

Control 32.5 ± 1.03 0.93 ± 0.06 2.18 ± 0.24 8.8 ± 1.2 4.9 ± 0.04 25.7 ± 1.37 25.7 ± 1.39 1.5 ± 0.08Effect of the type of NSP

Pea fiber 31.8a 0.96a,b 2.15b 10.2a, 4.7a,b 23.4a,b 23.6a,b 2.6c

Inulin 32.4a 0.90a,b 2.13b 9.7a 4.7a,b,c 24.1a 24.3a 3.1a,b,c

Guar gum 29.6a,b 0.88a,b 2.39a,b 9.3a 4.5b,c,d 21.8b,c 21.9b,c 3.0a,b,c

Bamboo fiber 31.5a 0.93a,b 2.21b 9.9a 4.5a,b,c 22.4a,b,c 22.5a,b,c 3.1a,b

β-glucan (as Hi Sol) 31.4a,b 1.08a 2.19b 11.5a 4.3c,d 21.2b,c 21.5c 3.4a

Xanthan gum 28.4b 0.75b 2.72a 7.6b 4.1d 20.8c 20.9c 2.7b,c

Locust bean gum 32.2a 0.84a,b 2.11b 9.3a 4.9a 23.5a,b 23.6a,b 3.4a

Significance ∗∗ ∗ ∗∗∗ ∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗SEM 0.70 0.06 0.08 0.63 0.09 0.04 0.43 0.11

Effect of the level of NSP addition2.5% 31.8 0.88 2.18B 9.6 4.8A 23.6A 23.8A 1.8A

5.0% 31.6 0.87 2.18B 9.7 4.7A,B 23.1A,B 23.3A,B 2.8B

7.5% 30.8 0.92 2.30A,B 10.6 4.4B,C 22.2B 22.4B 3.4C

10.0% 30.1 0.96 2.44A 10.7 4.2C 20.8C 21.0C 4.2D

Significance NS NS ∗∗ NS ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗SEM 0.53 0.04 0.06 0.48 0.07 0.32 0.32 0.08

Effect of the interactionType of NSP∗level NS NS NS NS NS NS NS ∗

of addition

Within the same column, the values with the same letter are not significantly different.TNSP = total nonstarch polysaccharide content.∗∗∗P < 0.001; ∗∗P < 0.01; ∗P < 0.05; NS = not significant.

ing HiSol and pea fiber, while the lowest value was found for pas-tas containing xanthan and guar gum. A similar pattern was ob-served for the cooking losses of the pastas, in that HiSol and Bam-boo fiber inclusion led to higher cooking loss compared to the con-trol, while xanthan gum yielded a reduced level of cooking losses.In all cases, cooking losses tended to increase as the level of fiberincreased.

Results from a study by Edwards and others (1995) using pastacontaining xanthan gum (at 1% or 2%) to investigate the iodinebinding capacity of the cooking water suggested that xanthan gumcan form a network around the starch granules, trapping them inplace during cooking and restricting excessive swelling and diffu-sion of amylose. This may explain the results for xanthan, locustbean, and guar gum in these studies.

The chemical composition of cooked pasta (protein content,starch content, carbohydrate content, and total NSP) was sig-nificantly affected by both type of NSP used in the formulation(P < 0.001) and the level of usage (P < 0.001). This was to be ex-pected since various NSPs lead to differences in the moisture con-tent of the final product, and the initial formulation was based inthe replacement of semolina with various levels of NSP. Thus, thehigher the level of NSP in the initial formulation, the lower the pro-tein, starch, and carbohydrate content and the higher the level ofNSP determined in the final product (P < 0.001, Table 2).

Textural characteristics of NSP-enriched pastaThe main criteria generally accepted to assess the overall qual-

ity of cooked pasta are based on the textural evaluation. Instru-mental methods have been proved to successfully estimate thetextural characteristics of pasta which are recognized as beingimportant for the consumers and thus dictating product accept-ability: firmness, stickiness/adhesiveness, and elasticity/breakingstrength. The mean values of these parameters for cooked pastaas evaluated using the Texture Analyser are summarized in Ta-ble 3. Statistical analysis indicates that all textural parameterscharacterizing the cooked product were significantly affected by

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the type of NSP used and also by the level of their usage (P < 0.001in all cases).

The firmness of cooked pasta generally decreased with increas-ing levels of NSP in the formulation (Table 3 and Figure 1); thistrend is in accordance with the results obtained for the dry mat-ter, swelling indexes, and protein content of cooked pasta. Highermoisture contents and swelling indexes associated with higher lev-els of NSP in the formulation will result in lower firmness of the

Table 3 --- ANOVA table summarizing the textural attributes of cooked pasta.

Firmness (N) Stickiness (N) Adhesiveness (N∗s) Elasticity (N)

Control 1.60 ± 0.10 3.0 ± 0.28 0.22 ± 0.03 0.17 ± 0.00Effect of the type of NSP

Pea fiber 1.23c,d 2.9c,d 0.17d 0.16b,c

Inulin 1.17c,d 3.3c 0.31c,d 0.14c

Guar gum 1.32c 4.2b 0.38b,c 0.15b,c

Bamboo fiber 1.31c 2.6d 0.19d 0.16b,c

β-glucan (as Hi Sol) 1.10d 10.9a 1.35a 0.10d

Xanthan gum 2.09b 2.4d 0.22d 0.22a

Locust bean gum 2.38a 4.0b 0.53b 0.18b

Significance ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗SEM 0.046 0.14 0.015 0.008

Effect of the level of NSP addition2.5% 1.71A 3.6A 0.4B 0.18A

5.0% 1.62A 4.1B 0.45B 0.16A,B

7.5% 1.47B 4.1B 0.37B 0.15B

10.0% 1.25C 5.5C 0.59A 0.14B

Significance ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗SEM 0.035 0.11 0.012 0.006

Effect of the interactionType of NSP∗level of addition ∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ND

Within the same column, the values with the same letter are not significantly different.NSP = nonstarch polysaccharide.∗∗∗P < 0.001; ∗∗P < 0.01; ∗P < 0.05; ND = not determined.

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Figure 1 --- Firmness of pasta samples as determined using the Texture Analyser.

end product. In the majority of cases, the firmness of NSP-enrichedpastas was lower than of the control (except for pastas contain-ing locust bean gum or xanthan gum); these results could againbe related to the relatively increased moisture contents and in-creased swelling indexes of these products in comparison to thecontrol (Table 2). However, this assumption does not necessarilyapply in all the cases; for example, pastas containing locust beangum or xanthan gum had moisture values similar to, or higher than,


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the control pasta, and at the same time their firmness showed in-creased values (Table 3 and Figure 1). This would suggest that locustbean gum and xanthan gum contribute to the structure strength. Inthe case of xanthan gum, this hypothesis could be also related tothe low values obtained for cooking losses, indicating a well-formedstructure from which little amounts of solids are released duringcooking.

Similar results have been reported by Edwards and others (1995)showing an improvement in pasta firmness without the alterationof cooking qualities when xanthan gum was added at levels of 1%or 2%. Additionally, the results of Fardet and others (1999) for pastamade from freeze-dried semolina fractions in which soluble fibersaccounted for 7% indicate that the firmness of pasta increased(and cooking loss decreased) with inclusion. The proposed expla-nation is the formation of a network by the soluble fiber around thestarch granules, leading to a stronger cohesiveness between starchand protein within pasta structure. The average firmness values forpastas containing pea fiber, inulin, guar gum, bamboo fiber, or β-glucan (as HiSol) were lower than that of control pasta, indicatingweaker structures, possibly due to interference of these NSP withthe gluten matrix. However, low levels of addition (2.5%) did notproduce significant changes in the firmness when compared to thecontrol.

Pasta elasticity, as determined using the tensile test, offers a sim-ilar picture on the effect of NSPs on product structure. Increasinglevels of NSP lead to decreased elasticity (Table 3 and Figure 2),indicating a weakening effect on the structure. Moreover, differenttypes of NSPs exhibited variations in pasta structure and integrity.

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For example, while the majority of NSP used caused a slight de-crease in pasta elasticity in comparison to the control, xanthan gumgave extra strength to the structure, shown by increased elasticityvalues in comparison to the control (Figure 2), while locust beangum addition yielded pasta with varying elastic properties. Theseresults complement those obtained for pasta firmness/strength fol-lowing a different type of test (compression test rather than exten-sion test).

The elasticity values for xanthan gum and locust bean gum en-riched pastas indicated a consolidation of the strength/structureof pasta (shown by increased firmness and elasticity values) whichmay be an important advantage as a selling point; for consumersthis would mean that the NSP-enriched product would still have anal dente texture. On the other hand, from a technological point ofview, slight overcooking would be expected to not change dramat-ically the final quality of the product; the texture will probably stillbe similar to the control.

The inclusion of β-glucan (Hi-Sol) in the formulation altered thetextural attributes of the final product considerably. At levels ofβ-glucan exceeding 2.5% (on db), cooked pasta became signifi-cantly less firm and stickier, the values indicating very poor qual-ity for the final product from texture point of view. These weredue to the method of incorporation of β-glucan into pasta—in theform of HiSol (barley flour containing 13.64% β-glucan). Hence, forβ-glucan containing pasta semolina to obtain β-glucan additionsof 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10% on db, significant amounts of HiSol wereused in the formulations to replace semolina (ranging from 18.32%to 73.3%). The low protein content of Hi-Sol and the inability of




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Figure 3 --- Stickiness of pasta samples as determined using the Texture Analyser.

the proteins of barley to form a gluten gel (Eliasson and Larsson1993) would explain these physical characteristics. Similar findingswere mentioned by Marconi and others (2000) and Knuckles andothers (1997). Indeed, Knuckles and others (1997) reported that a40% replacement of semolina with a barley enriched flour (18.9%β-glucan) made the quality characteristics for pasta to fall belowthe acceptability range.

Stickiness and adhesiveness of cooked pasta were also af-fected with increasing levels of NSP included in the formulation(P < 0.001, Table 3). These outcomes are in concordance with thefirmness results if the structure–texture relationship is taken intoaccount. Thus, the higher the level of NSP in the formulation, themore pronounced the disruption of the gluten matrix would be ex-pected, which causes changes not only in firmness (reduced firm-ness), but also on surface characteristics (becoming stickier, moreadhesive). Interestingly, the type of NSP used appears to be of greatsignificance with regard to the overall stickiness of the pasta as il-lustrated in Figure 3. Pea fiber, inulin, and bamboo fiber appearednot to affect stickiness greatly (compared to the control sample)whereas addition of guar and locust bean gum (HiSol) increased thepasta stickiness.

Conclusions

The results illustrate that the use of NSPs to replace durumwheat semolina may be possible in order to obtain pastas that

have high dietary fiber contents and increased nutritional benefitsin terms of reduction in glycaemic loading. However, there may betechnological limits to both the type and the level of NSP, whichcan be used in such processes, in order to ensure acceptable pasta

products. Inclusion levels of 2.5% generate pasta products that havetextural characteristics (and cooking properties) similar to those ofthe control pasta. However, NSP levels higher than 5% appear tocreate pasta products that exhibit textural attributes dissimilar tothe control pasta.

A possibility exists that the dietary fiber content of pasta couldbe increased by combining different NSP types that will act syn-ergistically to improve pasta quality. Further work is required toidentify these possibilities. Additionally, the next stage of this re-search would be to use the data generated in this article and con-duct sensory analysis in order to determine the relationship be-tween analytical textural measurements, human sensory aware-ness, and the contribution of NSPs to pasta structure. In the mean-time, there needs to be a careful selection of the type and the levelof NSP used in enriching pasta in order to maintain pasta qualitycharacteristics.

References[AACC] American Assn. of Cereal Chemists. 2005. Approved methods. Method num-

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ing quality of spaghetti by sensory analysis. Available from: http://normesonline.afnor.fr/cgi-bin/normesonline.storefront. Accessed May 18 2001.

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Brennan CS. 2005. Dietary fibre, glycaemic response, and diabetes. Mol Nutr Food Res49:560–70.

Cleary LJ, Brennan CS. 2006. Effect of beta-glucan on pasta quality. Int J Food Sci Tech-nol 41:910–8.

Debbouz A, Doetkott C. 1996. Effect of process variables on spaghetti quality. CerealChem 73:672–6.

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fresh pasta quality as affected by enrichment of nonstarch polysaccharides

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