from beats to arcs: toward a poetics of television narrativemy.fit.edu/~lperdiga/hum...

From Beats to Arcs: Toward a Poetics of Television Narrative

Newman, Michael Z.

The Velvet Light Trap, Number 58, Fall 2006, pp. 16-28 (Article)

Published by University of Texas PressDOI: 10.1353/vlt.2006.0033

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16 FromBeatstoArcs

elevision is a story machine. Every day, thousandsofhoursofnarrativezipthrough theairwavesandcablesandintooursetsand minds.Televisiondoesmore than just tellstories,ofcourse,butitsfunctionasastorytellingmediumdemandsanalysis,andwiththisessayIofferaframeworkforanalyzingonekindoftelevisionnarrative.Unlikesomeaccountsoftelevisionasastorytellingmedium,however,thisonewillnotisolatethetextfromitsmakersandusers.1Mypurposehereistoinitiateapoeticsoftelevisionform,anaccountofstorytellers’strategiesincraftingnarrativesthatwillsolicitcertaineffectsinviewerssuchassuspenseandsurprise,hopeandfear,andaestheticappreciation.2Apoeticscanhelpexplainwhysomanypeopletakesomuchpleasureintelevision’sstories.3

InparticularIaminterestedinoneformofAmericantelevisiondrama,thecontemporaryscriptedprime-timeserial,orPTS.Forthepasttwenty-fiveyearstherehavebeentwomainformsofhour-longprime-timeprograms.SerialssuchasSt. Elsewhere(NBC,1982–88)dramatizelong-formstories inways similar todaytime soapop-eras.ShowssuchasLaw & Order(NBC,1990–)haveanepisodic format inwhichallof theproblemsraised inthebeginningofanepisodearesolvedbytheendandquestionsdonotdangleweekafterweek.EveningserialsbecameanimportantformofAmericantelevisionpro-gramminginthe1980saftertheratingssuccessofDallas(CBS,1978–91)andtheacclaimandawardsbestowedonHill Street Blues(NBC,1981–87).4Theybecameadomi-nantforminthe1990swithshowssuchasThe X-Files(Fox, 1993–2002) andER (NBC, 1994–) consistentlywinningbothhighratingsandcriticalpraise.Laterinthe1990sandintheearly2000stheserialsawitspresencediminishasepisodicprogramsandrealityshowsgrewinpopularity,butasIwriteitisenjoyingarevivalatthesame

FromBeatstoArcs:

TowardaPoeticsofTelevisionNarrative

michael z. newman

The Velvet light Trap, Number 58, Fall 2006 ©2006 by the University of Texas Press, P.O. Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819

Ttimethatmanysit-coms(e.g.,Arrested Development,Fox,2003–)andrealityshows(e.g.,Survivor, CBS,2000–)arealsothoroughlyserialized. Overthequarter-centurysincetheriseoftheserial,Americantelevisionhasundergoneenormouschangeswiththeintroductionofmorethanonehundrednewchannels,pervasivenewstructuresofmediaownershipandsynergy,andtransformationsinthetechnologiesofmedia production anddistribution.But in spite of allthesedevelopments,thepasttwenty-fiveyearshaveseenaremarkablystableconditionobtaininwhichthemostbasicnarrative conventionsof thePTShavenotbeensignificantly altered.5Throughout the period betweenHill StreetandLost(ABC,2004–),thegeneralproductionpracticesofprime-timetelevisionhaveremainedquiteconstant.Aprogramisoverseenbyashowrunnerwhoreviewsallofthescriptsandguidesthestorytelling;eachserialepisoderesolves somequestionsbut leavesmanyothersdangling;serialstendtofocusonensembles,witheachepisodeinterweavingseveralstrandsofnarrativeinalternation sceneby scene; a seasonhas approximatelytwenty-fourepisodes,beginsinfallandendsinspring,andofferssweepsperiodseveryNovember,February,andMay. AscriticshaveoftennotedofMTMProductions’semi-naldramasofthe1980s,Hill Street BluesandSt. Elsewhere,thePTSisreallyahybridofepisodicdramasandserialssuchassoapsandminiseries.6Althougheveningserialshavemuchincommonwiththeirdaytimecounterparts,prime-timeshowsstillhavefewerepisodes,smallercasts,and greater episodic closure.And although they sharemanyqualitieswithepisodics,PTSsofferadistinctmodeofinvestmentincharacter,aproductoftheirlong-formatstorytelling.BeginningwiththoseMTMdramassooftenfiguredas“qualityTV,”thePTShasfunctionedasadistinct

VLT 58 3-Newman.indd 16 9/28/06 3:21:32 PM

Michael Z. Newman 17

groupstylewhosenormsofartisticproductionaresharedamongitsmakers.BycallingitagroupstyleImeantoas-sertabasiccommonalityamongmanydifferentprogramsonthelevelofform.Thiscommonalityisindependentofanyprogram’s“quality”andalsoofitsgenrestatusascop,doc,legal,sci-fi,family,teen,orspydrama.7Programsthatseemquitedifferentfromoneanothermaystillsharetheirbasicstorytellingprinciples. WhatnarrativestructuresdoesthePTSadopt?Whatfunctionsdoitsstorytellingconventionsserveinrelationtotelevision’scommerciallogic,andhowdothesecon-ventionsappealtoviewers?Toanswerthesequestionswemustconsidertheinterplayofcommerceandartinthetelevisionindustry.Fromthenetworks’perspective,pro-grammingisameansofsellingaudiencestoadvertisers.Producersfollowacommercialimperative:onaweeklybasis,deliverthelargestandmostdesirableaudiencetothenetwork’sclients.Programsattempttohookviewersandmakethemwanttowatch.ThePTS’snarrativedesignisaproductofthisbasicindustrialcondition,theperpetualgoalofgettingmillionsofpeople to tune in andkeeptuningin.Thisconditionandthestrategiesitencourageshavenotchangedoverthepastseveraldecades. Contrary towhat somecriticsclaim,Icontend thatwithinthisindustrialcontextnetworktelevisionflourishesartistically, that it rewards its audience and its advertis-ersatthesametime.Anditisnotinspiteoftelevision’scommerciallogicbutbecauseofitthatthePTSachievesitseffects.Giventheincentivetoproducenarrativesthatengageaudiencesweekafterweek,televisionhasdevel-opedapowerfulmodeofstorytelling.Narrativepracticesthatoriginateinmaximizingthenetworks’profits,suchasrepetitivedialoguetoremindviewersofdetailstheymighthavemissedandregularbreaksinthestoryforadvertisingspots,mightseemtoinhibitartisticexpression.ButinthePTS,theseandotherconstraintsdesignedtoboostadvertis-ingrevenueshavebeenadaptedtonarrativefunctionsthatcandeepenandenrichtheexperiencesofviewers.LookingatthePTS’snarrativeform,wemayconsiderittohavethreestorytellinglevelsforanalysis:amicrolevelofthesceneor“beat,”amiddleleveloftheepisode,andamacrolevelofgreaterthanoneepisode,suchasamulti-episodearc.Onallthreelevelsthecommercialandaestheticgoalsoftelevision’sstorytellersareheldinamutuallyreinforcingbalance.(Television’spoliticalorideologicalgoals,overtorimplicit,areanothermatter;insuchareastheeffectsofthenetworks’commercialgoalsareratherlesssalutary.)

Americantelevision’smissionofsellingviewerscon-sumerproductsandservicesdoesnotnegateitspossibilitiesforcreativeexpression.Onthecontrary,ifonefunctionofartistopleaseitsaudience,acommercialincentiveforspreadingandintensifyingpleasuredovetailswiththegoalsoftheartist.Thisisassuming,ofcourse,thattheartistisinterestedingratifyingratherthanchallengingtheaudi-ence,whichintellectualsoftenthinkartshoulddo.Butasaformofmassarttelevisionfostersnosuchavant-gardeintentions.Mass art strives for accessibility and ease ofcomprehension.Oneway itdoes so isbyappealing toemotionssuchasfear,anger,joy,andsurprise.8ThePTSaimstoaccomplishthesegoalsbydevelopingclear,on-goingstoriesaboutcompellingcharactersfacingdifficultobstacles.Itappealstoviewersbysatisfyingtheirdesiresforknowledgeaboutthesecharactersandforforginganemotionalconnectionwiththem.Howtelevisionachievessucheffectsisthetopicofthisessay.

MicroLevel:Beats

Followinganarrativeisaprocessofaccumulatinginforma-tion.Televisionwritersstrivetoparceloutthisinforma-tioninsuchawaythatitwillseemurgent,surprising,andemotionallyresonant.Thewaythestoryisunfoldedbitbybitencouragesviewerstotakeaninterestinit,andastheunfoldingprogressesthestorytellerseekstointensifythisinterest.Thustelevision’smostbasicaestheticandeconomicgoalsoverlap:engagingtheviewer’sattention.Thisbeginsonthemicrolevel,thesmallestnodeofnarrative. Onthislevelofstorytellingmosttelevisionnarrativeslookquitesimilar.Situationcomedies,episodics,andserialdramasallorganizetheirstoriesintorathershortsegments,oftenlessthantwominutesinlength.Viewersmightcallthesescenes,butwriterscallthem“beats,”andtheyaretelevision’smostbasicstorytellingunit.Thelengthofin-dividualbeatsandconsequentlythenumberoftheminanepisodearevariabletoadegree,butitisexceedinglyraretoseelong,drawn-outbeatsonprime-timetelevision.Thenetworksbristleatscenesthattakeupmorethantwoandahalfscriptpages,withapageofscriptroughlyequivalenttoaminuteofscreentime.9Theybelievethattheaudience’sattentionisunlikelytobesustainedformuchlongerthanthat.Inafast-pacedstoryalongscenecanderailthesenseofforwardprogress.Giventhecommercialimperativeofkeepingtheaudienceinterested,mostformsoftelevisionpresentarapidsuccessionofshortsegments.


18 FromBeatstoArcs

Thinkinginshortsegmentsisaconstraintonwriters,demandingthat their storytellingbeclearandefficient.Nomoment iswithout a dramatic function, no sceneis redundantwith other scenes or digressive from thenarrative’s forwardprogress.This isn’t to say that everybeatadvancestheplotinthetraditionalsense.Manybeatsconsistofreactionsratherthanactions,especiallyonshowscentered principally around interpersonal relationships.Butareactionisanewbitofnarrativeinformationandisoftenthepointofabeat.Eachbeattellsussomethingnew,somethingwewant—need—toknow,andamplifiesourdesiretoknowmore.10Eachonesolicitsfeelingsinrelationtothisinformation,suchassatisfaction,excitement,worry,puzzlement,orfrustrationonacharacter’sbehalf.Eachbeatalsousuallyremindsusaboutseveraloldbitsofinformationbeforeofferingusthenewbit.Withthesemissionsaccomplishedonebeatgiveswaytothenext. Whenwriters approach the creationof a televisionscript,theirfirsttaskisto“break”thestoryintoamoment-by-moment outline, or“beat-sheet,” a task often donecollaborativelybyawritingstaff.11Thewritersknowinthemostbasictermswhattheepisodehastoaccomplishbeforetheybeatoutthestory,butthestoryonlytakesshapewhentheybegintothinkofitasaseriesofmoments.Eachepisodehasatotalofbetweentwentyandfortybeats;theaveragemightbetwenty-five.12Thismeansthateachofthefouractsinanhour-longshowhasaroundsixbeats.13PTSs are typically ensemble dramas, and each episodehasmultiple,intertwinedplots.Majorplots(“Aplots”inteleplayjargon)involvingamaincharacterhaveatleastsixbeats,oftenmore.AnepisodeusuallyhastwoormoreAplotsandseveralBorCplotswithasmallernumberofbeatseach.Eachactideallyincludesatleastonebeatfromalloftheepisode’splots. In breaking stories for Judging Amy (1999–2005) itsshowrunnerswoulddemandthataplotlinesetinAmy’scourtroomhavesixtoeightbeatstomakeitdramaticandengaging—athree-beatsituationwouldnotsuffice.Theytold an interviewer that freelancers would sometimespitchdramaticideasthatwerenotsuitableforthePTS’sformat:“Forexample,akidgoesmissing.Thebeatsare:(1)akidgoesmissing,(2)callthecopsand(3)thecopsfindhimortheydon’tfindhim.That’snotenough.That’sa[dead-end]idea.”14Tomaketheideasuitableforanhourshowitwouldneedtounfoldwithmoreintricacy,withameasuredpatternofrevelationsanddevelopmentstakingusthroughthisseriesofeightmomentsandholdingour

attention across four commercial breaks. SinceAplotsinvolvethecharactersportrayedbyashow’sstars,givingthemeight beats per episode keeps themon screen atregularintervals.Veryconvolutedstoriesandverysimplisticonesareunsuitabletotheformula.Thustherelianceontwistsandturnsintheplot;onewayofaddingbeatstoastraightforwardstoryistointroducecomplicationsandreversals.Bydemandingthatscenesbeshort,thenetworkscreatetheconditionsforasophisticatedmodeofensemblestorytelling. Ingeneral, then, thepatterningof two-minutebeatsaimstoholdtheaudience’sattentionandmakethestorylinescleverlyunpredictable.Outofindustrialconstraintscomeaestheticstrategies.Givenasetamountofweeklyprogrammingtime,acastofactorsundercontract,andaneedtoshowtheaudiencesomethingnewatleasteverytwominutes,writersworkoutasystemofparcelingthenarrativeintosmallpiecesinregularalternation,eachofwhichmakesanewclaimontheaudience’sinterestandaimstointensifyitsemotionalresponse. In addition to new information many scenes alsocontainwhatwemightcalloldinformation,expositorymaterialthatregularviewersalreadywellknow.Recap-pingisaubiquitousfeatureoftelevisioninallgenres.15Televisionassumesthatwedon’twatcheverythingandcanalwaysuseabitofremindingwhenitcomestothemostimportantthingstoknow.Inserializednarrativesrecap-pingisespeciallyimportantbecauseofthelargequantityofdataaboutthestoryworldthatformsthebackgroundofanynewdevelopments. It takesmany forms,oneofwhichistheperpetualnamingofcharacters:ineverybeat,charactersaddresseachotherbyname,oftenseveraltimesinatwo-minutesegment.Alongwithnamingcomesrolereiteration:Alias(ABC,2001–)constantlyremindsusthatJackandIrinaareSydney’sparents;Gilesisalwaysremind-ingBuffy(Buffy the Vampire Slayer,WB,1997–2001;UPN,2001–03)thatheisherwatcher;JoelonNorthern Exposure(CBS,1990–95)isoftencalled“Dr.Fleishman,”evenawayfromhispractice,andhisfavoriteleisureactivity,golfing,reinforceshisrolestereotype. Amoreelaborateformofrecappingrestatestheshow’sbasicpremiseinepisodeafterepisode.Veronica Mars’s(UPN,2004–)voice-oversinitsfirstseasonreiteratetheknowndetails of theLilyKanemurder and investigation andVeronica’sostracismfromthepopularcrowdatNeptuneHigh.BuffycharactersremindusthatSunnydalesitsaboveaHellmouth.EpisodeafterepisodeofNorthern Exposure



worksinreferencestoNewYorkCity,Joel’shometown.Manyalso reiterate thedealhemadewith the stateofAlaskathatinexchangeforfundinghismedicaleducationitwouldgethisservicesasadoctor. Dialoguealsorecapsrecentevents,oftenredundantlywiththe“previously”segmentthatprecedesmostshowsbutinawaythatcontextualizestheinformationandclari-fiesitsrelevancetothepresentsituation.ItisanormofPTSstorytellingthateventsshouldberecapped,and,giventhisconstraint,writershavetofindwaysofaccomplishingthisredundancywithoutirritatingtheaudience.Indeed,thisnormseemstohavetheoppositeeffect,rivetingtheaudiencetothescreen.Oftenthisredundancyisaccom-plishedwithremarkableeleganceandeconomywithoutseemingatalllikeclunkyexposition.Thisisamatterofmotivatingthedialoguethatconveystheredundantex-positorymaterial. Onewayofaccomplishingthisisbystructuringsto-rytellingasaseriesofrevelationsfromonecharactertothenext,astandardnarrationalstrategyofmelodramainfilm and television,making action less significant thanreactionandinteraction.16IntheMaysweepsepisodesofGilmore Girls’s(WB,2000–)fifthseason,Roryhasaseriesofencounterswiththefamilyofherblue-bloodedYaleboyfriend,LoganHuntzberger.17AfterbeinginsultedbytheHuntzbergersoverdinnerwhentheyopenlydisap-proveofRoryasamatchforLogan,RoryisofferedapluminternshipatLogan’sfather’snewspaper.AttheendofherstintatthepapertheelderHuntzbergertellsRoryquitebluntlythatsheisnotsuitedtoacareerinjournalism,whichhasbeenherlifelongaspiration,andsheiscrushed.TheseeventsarerecappedbyRoryinconversationswithhermother,Lorelai,andbyLorelaiinconversationswithherparents,RichardandEmily. Butthesebitsofdialoguearenotonlyrepeatingwhatwealreadyknow;themomentsofrecappingareimportantbitsofplottingbecausetheyarerevelations,andwehavebeenprimedtonoticetheinterlocutors’reactions.Formanyviewers,oneofserialnarrative’sgreatestpleasurescomesfromthetension-resolutionpatternofanticipatinghowacharacterwillrespondtoanarrativedetailtheyalreadyknowandwitnessingthemomentofrevelation.RoryishesitanttotellLorelaiabouttheinternshipbecauseshethinkshermotherdisapprovesofLogan.WhenRoryslipsinthenews,itisamomentoftentativenessbetweenthemomanddaughter,whooftenactmorelikebestfriendsthanlikefamily,andweareinvitedtowonderifLorelai’s

breezinessinresponsetoRory’snewsisfeigned.ThustherecappingofRory’snewsaboutinterningwithLogan’sfather’spaperisturnedintoabeatinthemother-daughterplotline and anopportunity to consider the characters’emotions.Itisalsoadeviceaimedatengagingouremotions,encouragingourfearfortheGilmoregirlsthatLoganwillcausearifttoformbetweenthemandourhopeforthemthatitwillnot. Anevenbiggerplotpointcomesintheseasonfinale,afterRory is devastated by her conversationwithMr.Huntzberger.LorelaireportstoherparentsnotonlyaboutRorybeingtoldsheisunsuitabletobeareporterbutalsoabouthowtheHuntzbergersinsultedRoryoverdinner,recappingeventsofseveralepisodesearlierthatareessentialtounderstandingtheconflict.ThisisthefirstthatRichardandEmilyhaveheardofthis,anditmakesthembothfuri-ouswithLogan’sfamily,affrontedbytheirbehavior,andsympatheticwithRory,reversingtheireagernesstoseethetwoyoungstersgetengaged.Again,thisrecappingsolicitsanemotionalconnection:regularviewerswerelikelyalreadyangryattheHuntzbergersandfrustratedanddisappointedonRory’sbehalf,butinthissceneweareinvitedtoshareRichardandEmily’sangerandsympathyevenaswemightgetasuperiorsenseofsatisfaction—whichwelikelysharewithLorelai—from seeing them realize that theyweremistaken about Logan’s family.Because the characters’relationshipsaremultipleandcomplex,consideringoldinformationinanewcontextisdesignedtogenerateafreshchargeoffeeling. The repetitiveness of PTS storytelling originates ina commercial function of making the narrative easilycomprehendedevenbyviewerswhowatchsporadically,whopayonlypartialattention,orwhomisspartofanepisodewhenthephoneringsorthebabycries.Thesamecontextualfactorsresultinsimilarkindsofrepetitioninmanykindsoftelevisionstorytelling,fromsoapsandnewsmagazinestorealityprogramsandsit-coms.Consider,forexample,thenumberoftimesinanepisodeofSurvivorthatweareremindedofthecontestants’names:duringthecreditsequence,whencontestantsareaddressedbythehost,whentheyarereferencedinothercontestants’interviews,whentheyareaddresseddirectlybyothercontestants,andwhentheirnames(andoccupations)areprintedonscreenduringtheirowninterviews.Redundancyinmanyformsoftelevisionisaimedatmaximizingaccessibility.Butthisadaptationhas anadditionalbenefit.Television’s redun-dancyhasitscausesinmakingnarrativesintelligible,but


20 FromBeatstoArcs

itturnsoutthatitcanalsoallowevenregularviewerstobe gratifiedby being reminded constantly ofwho thecharactersare,whattheydo,whytheydoit,andwhatisatstakeintheirstory.Ourinterestandengagementcanbeincreasedwhenthenarrativemakesitsmostimportantelementsclearandrelevant,artfullyunderliningwhatweshouldpaymostattentiontoandcaremostabout.Redun-dancyfunctionsnotonlytomakestoriescomprehensiblebut,moreimportantly,tomakestoriesmoreinterestingandtodeepenourexperiencebyappealingtoouremotions. ToparaphraseChristianMetz,therearenotelevisionpolice.Nooneforcesustowatchtheseweeklydramas.

Butthestructureoftelevisionstorytellingonthemicrolevel—thewayastoryisbrokenintobeatsandthewayeachbeatworks—functionstocompelourattention.Tele-visionstorytellers,morethantheircounterpartsinliterary,dramatic,orcinematicstorytelling,areunderanobligationconstantlytoarouseandrearouseourinterest.Beatingoutthestoryastheydohasastrongrhetoricalforce,givingusreasonstocareaboutcharactersandtowanttoknowmore.

MiddleLevel:Episodes

Giventheongoingnatureofitsstories,onemightassumethatthePTSlacksclosureontheleveloftheepisode.Accordingtoonecritic,daytimeserialsdispensewithbeginningsandendingsinfavorof“anindefinitelyexpandablemiddle.”18Scholarsrefertoserialformas“open,”19andsomeproposethatthepleasureofwatchingserialsisheavilyinvestedinthisformalopenness.Soapoperaviewers,accordingtoJohnFiske,experience“pleasure asongoing andcyclical rather thanclimacticandfinal.”20InthissectionIargue,however,thatanemphasisonopennessmissesmuchofwhatisinterestingabouttelevision’seveningserials.EachepisodeofaPTSleavessomecausalchainsdangling,butseldomattheexpenseofsacrificingresolutionandcoherence,seldominawaythatpromotestextualinstabilityorradical,modernistaperture.TheserialsIamconsideringhavenotonlyclosureintheirstorylines,whichisalsotrueofsoapoperas,21butarigorousformalunityontheleveloftheepisode,aqualitydaytimedramasrarelydisplay.Thustherearetwokindsofclosureandaperturewecanconsider:theresolutionofnarrativecause-effectchains,asintheculminationofacourtshipinmarriage,andtheunificationofthemesandmotifsintoanorderly,integratedwhole.Bothofthesekindsofformalunityofferpleasuresthatunderlieotherappealsofthenarrative.

Whilesomecause-effectaperturesmayrunacrossmanymonthsofaPTS,themainactionofanygivenepisodetendstoberesolved.22Mosttypically,certainquestionsgounansweredforepisodeafterepisode,buttheyarenotthekindofquestions thatobstructnarrativeclarity.Highlyfocused questions that determine the outcomeof themaineventsofaparticularepisodemaybedeferredbyacliffhangerandpromptlyansweredinthebeginningofthenextepisode,asisoftendoneonthrillerssuchasAlias,butlessfocusedquestionscanbedeferredlong-term.Thiskindofbalancebetweenepisodicclosureandserialdefer-mentisstandardinmanyformsofserialstorytelling,fromVictorianfictiontocontemporaryHollywoodcyclessuchasStar Wars.Astrongdoseofepisodicunitymitigatesanytextualinstabilitycausedbyserializedaperture.Withoutthisunity,casualviewersarelesslikelytowatch.Andwhiletheregularaudiencemayrelishbeingstrungalongbytheongoingstorylines,italsomaydislikefeelingfrustratedattheendofanepisode.LikealloftheformaldevicesIconsiderhere,effectsofclosureareaimedatsatisfyingtheaudience,inthiscaseitsdesirenotonlyforresolutionbutalsoforcoherence. Thereisacommercialrationaleunderlyingtheseeffectsbeyondthevaluetoanetworkandproduceroftheirpro-gramstellinggoodstories.Prime-timeshows,incontrastto their daytime counterparts, dependonoff-networksyndicationcontractstoearnaprofit.PTSproducerswanttheirprogramstoplaywell inreruns.Accordingtotheindustry’sconventionalwisdom,heavilyserializedstory-tellingmakesrerunslesslikelytoattractviewers.23Inthe1990sandearly2000stheastonishingsuccessofLaw & Order repeatsonA&EandTNTdemonstratedthathour-longepisodicnarrativescanachieveimpressiveratingsinsyndication to thepoint that the audience fororiginalepisodesonthenetworkmightincrease.24Law & Orderisthemostprofitabledramaontelevisionandisalsoasuccessinforeignmarkets.25Episodicclosureisthusaproductofanindustrialcontextinwhichserialsareunderincreasingpressuretoofferepisodicpleasurestocasualviewersatthesametimethattheyofferadditional,serializedpleasuresto their faithful regulars.Episodicunitypaysoff to theviewer,casualorcommitted,butalsototheproducerandthenetwork. ThePTSthuspatternsitsweeklyepisodesintostruc-turesofproblemsandsolutionssothatthecentralconflictintroducedinthebeginningofanepisodehasoftenbeenovercomeby the end.The standard architectureof the



PTSorganizesthehourintofouractsofroughlyequallength,eachofwhichisfollowedbyacommercialbreak.26Thefirstandlastactsofafour-actepisodecorrespondtothefirstandlastactsofthethree-actHollywoodfilm. Inbothmediathefirstactistheset-upandthelastactistheresolution.Themiddletwoactsofatelevisionshowcor-respondtothesecondactofamovie:complicationanddevelopment.27Televisiondramasintroduceproblemsinthefirstactandenditwithasurprise.Charactersrespondto complications causedby this surprise in the secondact,seethestakesraisedinthethirdact,andresolvetheproblemsinthefourthact. Unlikemovies,televisionactshavestronglypunctuatedendings,oftenwithaclearlyfocusedquestion,sometimeswith a cliffhanger, typicallywith a fade toblack and acut to a commercial.28Differentwriters have differentnamesforactendings;followingtheaterusageIwillcallthem“curtains.”29Writersoftencomposebackwardfromthecurtains,beginningwiththefourth-actcurtainthatconcludestheepisode.30IntheFelicity (WB,1998–2002)episode“TheFugue”(2March1999),thefourth-actcur-tain,themostsignificantdramaticmomentintheepisode,comeswhenFelicitydecidestosleepwithanacquaintancefromherartclass,Eli.Thistentativelyanswersthemainquestionposedinthefirstact:willFelicityandherboy-friendNoelstaytogetherorbreakup?Atthefourth-actcurtainnotonlyaretheyapart,butFelicityhasmovedontosomeoneelse.Eachofthepreviouscurtainsfunctionstoposeaquestionorproblem.TheprecreditteaseraskswhatNoel’sex-girlfriend,Hannah,isreallydoinginNewYorkCity.Thefirst-actcurtainhasNoelandHannahkiss.Thesecond-actcurtainhasaconfrontationbetweenNoelandFelicity.Bythethird-actcurtainNoelhasleftFelicityforHannah,andattheact’sendFelicitygoesoffwithElitoretrievesomesketchesfromtheartstudio,focusingthequestionofwhethershewillgettogetherwithhim,whichisansweredatthefinalcurtain. Asinastagemelodrama,atelevisionprogram’scurtainscrystallizethedramaticdevelopmentsoftheactandsome-timesintroduceasurpriseorcoup de théâtre,asintheact1curtainof“TheFugue,”whenNoelandHannahkiss.LikethePTS’sbeatstructure,itscurtainsfunctiontorivettheaudiencetothescreen.31Oneteleplaymanualputsitlikethis:“Rememberyourgoal.It’stopull’embackfromtherefrigerator.”32Itisthusstandardthatwriterssavetheirstrongestbeatsforthecurtains.Itisalsotypicalforacurtaintofallonareactionshotofthemaincharacter,aclassic

soapoperadevicethatintensifiesourinterestincharacterpsychology. Thisactstructureisanotherexampleofhowthein-terplayofcommercialandaestheticfunctionsstructurestelevisionstorytelling.Thereisnonaturalreasonforthesegmentationofthenarrativetobeinfourequalportionswithbreakseachquarter-hour,butthisformalarrangementservesavarietyofinterests,notleasttheeconomiconeofinterspersingadvertisementsatregularintervalsduringthebroadcast.Fromanaestheticperspectiveafour-actstruc-tureachievesasenseofproportionandsymmetry,ensuressteadilyrisingaction,andorganizespatternsofattentionandexpectation,withfirstactsopeningcausalchainsthatarecarriedacrossthesecondandthirdactstoberesolved(atleastpartially)inthefourth. On legal shows thefirst actmay introduce thecase,thefourthmaybringadecision.BuffyunveilsathreattoSunnydaleinact1andremovesitinact4.Dramaswithastrongerfocusonthedomesticstillraisefocusedquestionsinact1,asinthethirtysomething(ABC,1987–91)episode“PreludetoaBris”(29September1990).Whentheirson,Leo,isborn,HopeandMichaelmustdecideifhewillhaveabris,andMichaelmustdecidewhetherbeingJewishisanimportantpartofhisidentity.Act4:thebris,asymbolicmomentnotonlyofthechild’sentryintotheworldbutalsoofMichael’sembraceofhisheritage.Ofcourse,theseepisodesalsohavenarrativeelementsthatcontinueacrossthespanofaseasonorseries(thebirthofLeoisamo-mentintheSteadmanfamilyarc),buttheytendtoraiseandresolvesignificantplotproblemseachweek. Thistightdramaticactstructuresatisfiestheaudience’sdesire for resolution—not totally but adequately. It isgratifyingtodiscovernovelbutaptsolutionstowell-posedproblems,astelevisionnarrativesoftendoweekafterweek.Butthisisnottheonlymeansbywhichepisode-specificstructuresappealtotheaudience.Anotherperennialop-tionisthematicparallelism.Itwouldseemanobviousonewhendealingwithmultiplestorylines:havetheminflectandplayoffeachother,revealingcontrastsandsimilari-ties.33ThemoststraightforwardkindofparallelismhasapairofAplotsshareatheme.Thefinalactof“TheFugue”usescrosscuttingtoestablishparallelism.ShotsofNoelandHannaharealternatedwithshotsofFelicityandEli,whilesoundsofrainandofHannah’spianocompositionbleedoverfromonesceneintothenexttotiethemtogether.Congruentthematicmaterialisalsofrequentlyironicallyinverted,asintheLostepisode“DoNoHarm”(6April


22 FromBeatstoArcs

2005),inwhichonecharacterisbornatthesametimethatanotherdies. In a typical Judging Amy episode JudgeAmyGray’sjuvenilecourtcaseandhermother,Maxine’ssocialworkcase andthevariousfamilystorylinesarealltiedupinthe samesetof thematicconcerns,with inversionsandvariations running up against one another.“Spoil theChild”(11January2000)hasAmyandMaxinebothfaceinstancesconnectingchildrenandviolence.AsisoftenthecasenotonlywithJudging Amybutwithprogramsasdif-ferentasRescue Me(FX,2004–)andOnce and Again(ABC,1999–2002)theepisode’stitlekeysusintothetheme.InAmy’scaseafather’scustodyischallengedonthegroundsthathespankshischildren.InMaxine’scaseitisthechildwhoisviolent,strikingherwhenshetriestocounselhim.Aswell,themaincharactersfaceinversecareer-definingquestions:Amy isup forapromotion from juvenile tocriminalcourt,whileMaxineconsidersquittingherjobwiththeDepartmentofChildrenandFamiliesbecauseofthestressitcausesher.InthecourseofofferingherthepromotionAmy’sbossderidesthejuvenilebenchas“socialwork,”makingitcleartotheaudiencethatAmyandhermotherbothtoilatthesamekindofjobdespitemanydifferences.Theworkofhelpingchildrenandfamiliesisatstakeinbothcharacters’choices. AsinmostJudging Amyepisodes,thetroubledfami-liesdepictedintheprofessionalplotsareafoilfortheGrayfamily.However,inthisepisodebothAmy’sandMaxine’sperformancesasmotherarequestioned.Asalways,Amymustbalanceherobligationsasajudgeandasasinglemom,andinthefirstactof“SpoiltheChild” she takes her six-year-old daughter, Lauren,to pick up a butterfly outfit for her dance recital.BecauseAmy’slifeissobusyshehasputthiserrandofftoolong.Theshophassoldoutofbutterflies,andLaurenthrowsatantrum.TheonlyoptionleftisforAmytosewtheoutfitherself,andLaurenfearsitwillbedifferentfromtheotherkids’costumes.Withallofthe family lookingonbeforedinnerLauren shouts,“You’reabadmommyandIhateyou!Youruinedmylife!”Meanwhile,AmyisupsetwithMaxinebecauseshehasnevercometohercourtroomtoseeheronthebench,andwhenshetellshermotherthisMaxinebecomesangryandsays,“It’snotmyjobtomakeyoufeelbetter.”Thusthesixyearold’sdancerecitalandhermother’sjobasajudgeareparallelperformanceswhereamother,asspectator,issupposedtotakepride

inthechild.Eachmotherisaccusedoffailingtomaketheperformancehappen. Asisoftenthecase,aquestionbeforeAmyincourt—howshouldaparenttreatachild?—isoneshefacesinherownfamily.ItisalsotypicalthatAmy’sinabilitytohaveherownlifegosmoothlyisanironiccontrastagainsttheroleshetakesonasajudge,assuredlymakingcrucialdecisionsaffectingotherpeople’slives.ItistypicalofJudging Amy thatepisodesarebuiltonthiskindofcomplexstructuralcoherence. Howdoes“SpoiltheChild”resolveitssituations?Amystaysonthejuvenilebench,affirminghercommitmentto“socialwork.”Maxinecontinuesatherjob,fightingforapsychiatricplacementforherassailant.TheGraywomenaffirmtheircommitmenttopublicserviceonbehalfofchildrenandfamilies.AmyalsostaysupallnightsewingLauren’scostume,andthedancerecitalisasuccess.Mostimportant,MaxineattendsAmy’scourtsessionandhearsherjudgmentonthespankingcase.Amyrulesthattheparentmaynotstrikehischildandspeakseloquentlyabouttheimportanceoftheparent-childbond,absorbingandreiteratingallofhermother’steachings.Maxine’seyeswellupwithtears,andafterAmyisfinishedhermotherturnstothepersonnexttoherandsays,“That’smydaughter.”ThissceneepitomizesthewayJudging Amyworks: inasinglemomentallofthenarrativethreadsoftheepisodearebroughttogetherinanaffirmationofreciprocalfamilialobligationsandpleasures. As“SpoiltheChild”makesclear,closureisnotsimplyamatterofquestionsbeinganswered,problemsbeingsolved.Aclosedformisoneinwhichtheelementsallhangto-getherinanintegratedpattern.Theparallelismsin“SpoiltheChild”givetheepisodeaclearshapeandcanmaketheexperienceofwatchingitsatisfyingnotonlybecauseofitsaffirmationofethicsthattheaudiencelikelyshares,notonlybecauseoftheemotionalchargeofthesentimentalending,butalsobecauseofanaestheticsophisticationthatcanbringitsownrewards.Ithasharmonythatnoopenformcanclaim,acounterpointofnarrativevoices thatsatisfiesadesirenotonlyforresolutionbutalsoforformalunityandthematicclarity.Judging Amyachievedsimilareffectsweekafterweek,balancingitsepisodic“case”plotswitharcingstorylinesaboutAmy’sfamilyandcoworkersandintegratingallofthemthematically.Itistheepitomeofthepost–Law & Order serialpoisedtosnagcasualview-ersinrerunswhilealsosatisfyingitsloyalfansweekafterweek.



MacroLevel:Arcs

Whatmostdistinguishes thePTS fromother formsofprogramming is theway it is invested incharacter.34 Itisnotmerelyplotsthatcarryoverweekafterweekbutcharacterswhose lives theseplots define.Wedon’t justwanttoknowwhat’sgoingtohappenbutwhat’sgoingto happen toPembleton andBayliss (Homicide: Life on the Street,NBC,1993–99),BuffyandSpike,AngelaandJordan (My So-Called Life,ABC,1994–95).Continuingstoriesmakecharactersmorelikelytoundergosignificantlifeeventsandchanges.35Inreactiontothesechangesincircumstancesthecharactersthemselvesaremorelikelytochangeoratleasttogrow. Characters in serials demand an investment in time.Theyinviteregularviewingovera longterm,chartingaprogressionofthecharacters’lifeevents.Itistruethatin episodic forms such as the traditional sit-com theremayalsobeastronginvestmentincharacter,butitisofadifferentnature,basedmoreonthefamiliaritybredbyrepetition than on engagementwith unfolding events.InagivenepisodeofHappy Days(ABC,1974–84)theviewer’sinterestincharacterisoftenaproductofrecog-nizingfamiliarbitsofaction,mise-en-scène,anddialogue:takingdatestoInspirationPoint,eatingatArnold’s,ask-ingFonzie’sadviceinthemen’sroom,bluecardigansfortheboys,longskirtsforthegirls,Fonzie’sjacket,Chachi’sbandana,“Aaaay,”“Yowza,”“Ifoundmythrill,”“Istillgotit,”“Mrs.C,”“wawawa.”Incontrast,theinvestmentinaserialcharacterisbasedonamorenovelisticprogressionofeventsoveralongduration,withepisodeslikechaptersinanongoingsagaratherthanself-containedstories.36(ItisarguablethatinitslaterseasonsHappy Days begantooffersomeofthesepleasuresasthecharactersgrewupandchanged.)CharacterizationinthePTSismorelikelytohaveacertainkindofdepthastheaudienceknowsmoreaboutthecharacters’ innerlivesinserialsthaninmanyepisodicshows.EspeciallyincomparisontotheepisodicdramarepresentedbytherecentcropofproceduralsinthemoldofLaw & Order,thePTSisacharacter-drivenform,andthisisonethingthatmakesitmoreeasilyfiguredas“qualityTV”inpopularandcriticaldiscourse. Itissometimesincorrectlysaidthatonepisodicshowscharactersseemtohavenomemoryofthepreviousweek’sevents.37Whatismoreimportantthancharactermemory,however,isthatviewersofepisodicshowsneednomemoryofthepreviousepisodestounderstandandappreciatethe

presentone.Episodesmaybeseeninanyorderandmaybeskippedwithoutcompromisingfuturecomprehensionand engagement.ThePTS, on the other hand,makessignificant demands on the audience,which it rewardswithamuchfullerexperienceofcharacter.Theaudienceisexpected—ideally—towatchtheepisodesinsequence,totrackcharacterandplotdevelopmentscarefully,andtotuneineveryweek. Thedevicethatbestensuresthiscommitmenttothenarrativeisthecharacterarc.Arcistocharacterasplotistostory.Putslightlydifferently,arcisplotstatedintermsofcharacter.Anarcisacharacter’sjourneyfromAthroughB,C,andDtoE.Thistermhasremarkableutilityinde-scribingPTSstorytelling:althougheachepisode,sweepsperiod,season,andseriesmayhaveitsownshapeandunity,eachcharacter’sstorycanbeindividuated,spatializedasanarcoverlappingalloftheseandalloftheothercharacters’arcs.38

Characterarcsmaystretchacrossmanyepisodes,sea-sons,andtheentiretyofaseries.Theshapeofthelargestcharacterarcsarethoseofthelifespan,withitsprogres-sionfromyouthtoadulthood,innocencetoexperience.Somecallthisashow’s“emotionalthroughline.”39ItisnotonlychildrensuchasAngelaChase,LindsayWeir,andWillowRosenbergwhogrowupontelevisionshows.JoelFleishmangainsthefolkwisdomofhisAlaskanneighborsasacomplementtohisformalschooling.BoomeronSt. Elsewhere beginsasagreenhorninternandgrowsthroughhissurvivalofmultipletraumas.ThedetectivesonHomicideeachcometogrips,atsomepoint,withalife-changingmomentthatmarksapassageintogreatermaturity. Theselife-spanarcsoperateontheleveloftheseries,buttherearemoremanageable-sizedarcsthatwritersdealwithmorecommonlyincraftingstories.Likebeatandepisodestructures, arc structures functionunder commercial andaestheticimperatives.Therearetwosalientcommercialcon-straints.First,inadditiontofocusedcliffhangersconnectingtheendofoneepisodeandthebeginningofanother,theques-tionsthatdangleweekafterweekservetomaintainsuspense.OnDawson’s Creek(WB,1998–2003)willJoeytellDawsonthatsheisinlovewithhim?OnHomicidewhatifanycon-sequenceswillKellermanfaceforkillingLutherMahoney?Perhapsthemostfamousofthesedanglershasitsownslangterm—awill-they-or-won’t-they—asonMoonlighting(ABC,1985–89):willMaddieandDavidsleeptogetherorwon’tthey?Byposingthesequestionsprogramsstrivetomaintainourviewership,tokeepusinterestedanddriveupratings.


24 FromBeatstoArcs

Another commercial imperative has to dowith theorganizationof the season into segments.40The seasonhasat leastfivedefinablesegments: fallpremieres(Sep-tember–October),fallsweeps(November),aholidayrerunperiod (December–January),winter sweeps (February),anotherrerunperiod(March–April),andspringsweeps/seasonfinales(May).MostPTSsrunaroundtwenty-fourepisodes per season. Networks save new episodes forsweepsperiods,onthebasisofwhichadvertisingratesaresetaccordingtoeachshow’sNielsenratings.Theyavoidrerunsatthebeginningoftheseason,figuringthatnewepisodeswillmaintainandincreaseinterestinashow.Thisgivesthenetworkatleasteightweeksofepisodestobegintheseasonandanothereighttoairduringthewinterandspringsweepsforatotalofsixteenepisodes.TheremainingepisodesareairedinDecember,January,March,orApril. Theimplicationsofthisseasonsegmentationfornar-rativeformareclear.Justasepisodesbuildtowardstrongcurtains,seasonsbuildtowardstrongsweepsepisodes.Someshowshavedefinablearcsthatstretchacrossawholeseason,butthedemandsofthethreesweepsperiodsmakearcsmoreeasilyconstructed inunitsofaroundsixoreightepisodesthaninunitsoftwenty-four.Thuswemaythinkoftheseason,aswellastheepisode,ashavingacts.Eachseasonhasthree. Whenwritingstaffsbegintoworkonaseasontheywillsometimesplotoutthemostmajordevelopmentsofthewholeyearofshows.Somewriters’roomskeepanoutlineofthewholeseason’sstoryonthewall.Butevenonashowsuchas24(Fox,2001–),whichhasatightlyfocusedseasonstructure,theconceptionofarcshappensinamorepiecemealfashion.24doesnotplotoutitswholeseasoninadvance.Itsstaffbreaksthestoryingroupsofsixoreightepisodes.41Eight,itturnsout,isamuchmoremanageablechunkofstorytobreak.Thisisn’ttosaythattheeightepisodeshave the samekindofcoherenceasanindividualepisode.Butacrosstheselargersegmentsofstory—call them“seasonacts”—definableproblemsareintroduced,developed,andresolved.Intuitivelyitmakessense,moreover,thatviewersexperiencetelevisionstoriesinsegmentslargerthanepisodesbutsmallerthanseasons.Weengagewith thenarrativeonanongoingbasisbutcertainlydonothavethememorythatwouldallowustoholdawholeseason,asitwere,inourheads. SincethemainplotsofanygivenPTSepisodemaybelargelyself-contained,manyanarcisstrungalongepisodeafterepisodewithafewlinesofdialogueorasceneor

two that justbarelypushes it forward.On Judging AmyPeterandGillian’squesttohaveachildtakestwoseasonstoresolvefully,withnosingleepisodeinwhichitisanAplot.Itis,however,brokenupintosmallerunitsofstory-telling,beginningwiththepilot:consideringandtryinginvitro,pursuinganadoption,losingNedwhenhisbirthmotherchangeshermind,andsoon,untilfinallyduringMaysweepsofthesecondseasontheyhavetheirsonbackforgood.42Althoughthisisaverylongarc,itisbrokenupintomoremanageablechunksthatoverlapwiththeseasonacts. Seasonactsmadeupofseveralepisodesdonotneces-sarilycoincideneatlywithcharacterarcs,andtheideaofanarcsuggeststhateachcharacter’smaybeginandendatdifferentpoints.Butthereisconsiderableoverlapbetweentheseasonactandthemaincharacters’arcs,iffornootherreasonthanbecauseplotandcharacterarenotindependentofoneanother.Rory’sarcinthefifth-seasonepisodesofGilmore Girlsdiscussedaboveoffersaclearexample.Theshapeof season act 3 is definedbyRory’s encounterswiththeHuntzbergers.Justasindividualepisodespresentproblemsandsolutions,sodoseasonacts.Whatwillhap-penwithRoryandLogan?HowwilltheHuntzbergers,Lorelai,Richard,andEmilyrespond?WhatimplicationswilltheseeventshaveforRory’sfuture?Thesequestionsspantheseriesofepisodesculminatingintheseasonfinale,whenRorydecidestoquitYaleandmoveinwithhergrandparents. Arcsalsoshareashapewithseasonactsbecausechar-acters’ lives are intertwined,with each character’s goalsshapedbytheothercharacters’goals.LorelaiGilmore’sarcinseasonact3couldbeindependentofRory’sandoftenseemsso.Lorelaifacesaclusterofrelatedquestionsthatscarcelyinvolveherdaughter.Whatkindofrelationshipshouldshehavewithhermeddlesome,snobbishparents?Should she sell theDragonfly Inn and take a job thatmightmeanmovingawayfromStarsHollow?WhatwillhappeninherrelationshipwithLuke?UnbeknownsttoLorelai,duringallofthistimeLukeisplanningonaskinghertomarryhim,consideringbuyinganewhousewheretheybothwilllive,andhopingeventuallytohavechildrentogether.SoRory’sarcwithLoganandtheinternshipandLorelai’sarcwithRichardandEmily,theDragonfly,andLukearehardlyintertwined. Intheseasonfinale,“AHouseIsNotaHome”(17May2005), theycometogetherwhenLorelairespondstoRory’sdecisiontoquitschool.Shereluctantlygoesto



herparentstoaskthemforhelpinconvincingRorytoreturntoYale,andtheyagree,onlytogobackontheirwordandallowRorytomoveinwiththemandtaketimeoff.Thisanswersquestionnumberone:LorelaiwillreturntoherpolicyofhavingnothingtodowithRichardandEmily.Butwhen she tellsLukeabout thishebecomeshyperbolicallyirateandinsiststhattheykidnapRoryandforcehertogotoschooleveryday.InthismomentLorelaiissomovedbyLuke’sconcernforherandRorythatsheaskshimtomarryher,acliffhangerseason-endingcurtain.Thissuggestslikelyanswerstoquestionstwoandthree:attheendofseasonfiveitseemslikelythatLorelaiwillnotselltheDragonflyandthatherrelationshipwithLukewillprogresstomarriage,ifnottothenewhouseandkidsofhisdreams.What’smostimportanttothisdiscussion,however,isthewaythevariouscharacters’arcsresolveinunison.Rory’sdecisiontoquitschoolandmoveinwithhergrandparentsandLorelai’sproposaltoLukearecaughtupinthesamedramaticprogression.Rory’sactionsaffectLorelai’s,whichaffectLuke’s,whichaffectLorelai’s.Thearcsresolveasone,makingtheMaysweepsepisodesintoacoherentunitofnarrative.Thispatternofcoalescingarcsmeansthatinanygivenepisodethevariousplotsmightnotseemtobeconnected.Ultimately,however,theycanbebroughttogetheraspartofasinglepatternofdramaticresolution.Again thePTS form tends towardnarrativeunityandcoherence. What,then,ofunitsofstorytellinglargerthanaseasonact?Whatabouttheseasonasaunitofstorytelling?Cabledramas such asNip/Tuck (FX, 2003–) andThe L Word(Showtime,2004–)havethirteen-episodeseasons,makingiteasiertothinkoftheseasonasameaningfulnarrativeunit.EachBuffyseasonhasaseason-spanningconflictinwhichthecharactersconfronta“bigbad.”Buteachseasonhasmanyepisodesinwhichthe“bigbad”figuresonlymargin-allyintotheconflict.Certainly24,withitshigh-conceptnarrativestructure,demandstobeconsideredasaseason.But24segmentstheseason’sconflicts intosubconflicts.Thefirstfewepisodesofseasonfourfollowtheattemptedassassinationofacabinetsecretary;whenthisisavertedthecharactersrealizethereisanuclearattackunderwayandturntheirattentiontoavertingit;andsoon.Theiroverarch-inggoalistodefeattheterrorists,butthisisaccomplishedthroughsubgoalsthatstructuresmallerunitsofnarrativeasothershowsdo.Ingeneral,theseasonisatbestaloosekindofnarrativeunit,buttheseasonactsculminatingduringsweepsfunctionastight,coherentsegments.

Arcs,likebeatsandepisodes,havetheirownfunctionsandeffects.Theyareawayofmanagingstorymaterial,ofcraftingitintoameaningfulwhole.Arcsandtheseasonactssubtendingthemare,nolessthanbeatsandepisodes,aproductofanadvertising-drivenindustrialcontextofnar-rativeproduction.Theyareameansofcompellingweeklyviewingandofmaximizingratingswhenitmattersmosttothenetworks.Buttheyalsocomewiththeaestheticfunctionsofgeneratinginterestincharacter,ofengagingtheaudienceinthestrugglesanddiscoveries,thelivesandlovesoftheirTVfriends,andofmaximizingformalunity.Asatalllevelsoftelevisionstorytellingthelargest,macrolevelisdesignedtobestpleasetheaudience.

Conclusion

Theseareahandfulofnarrativegivenssharedamongwrit-ersandviewersofhundredsofdifferentprograms.Beats,episodes,andarcsofferprovenmeansofwinningaudiencesover.But thedirectionof influence isnot simply fromthecorporateofficetothewriters’room.Althoughtheyservecommercialfunctions,oncethesebecomenormsofstorytellingpracticethenetworksrecognizetheirnarrativeutility,andthusakindoffeedbackloopisinitiatedbetweenthecreativeandcorporatebranchesoftheindustry.Ade-vicelikeredundancyisseentoserveeveryone’sinterests.Anetwork’sexecutivesmightnotappreciatetrueorigi-nality,buttheyrespecttheprovenstorytellingresourcesoftelevision’scrafttradition.OthermeansofprospectiveprofitboostingthanthoseIhaveconsideredhavecomealong(e.g.,interactivity,productplacement,sweepssea-soncross-overs,and“super-size”episodes).Whethertheyoriginateinthewriters’roomortheboardroom,iftheyultimatelydonotamounttoawayfortelevisiontotellbetterstories,theyareunlikelytobecomeintegratedintonarrativetelevision’snorms.43

Oneveteranwriteroftelevisiondramassumsupherjobasfollows:“OnceIhavedecidedonastorytotell,Ithengetouttheentirebagofwriter’stricksinordertomaketheaudiencefeelwhatIneedittofeel—otherwise,Iwon’tholditsinterest,anditwon’thearanythingIhavetosay....Ialwayswritewiththeaudienceinmind.”44Thebagoftricks,theaudienceinmind:thetelevisionartistisasattunedasanystorytellertotheeffectsofnarrative.TheprogramsIhavediscussedhereareatonceasourceofhandsomeprofitsandintensepleasures.Theseprofitsandpleasurestranscendcriticaljudgmentsofquality.The


26 FromBeatstoArcs

practicesthatproducethem—thetricksinthebag—com-peltheattentionofanyoneinterestedinthenarrativesofpopularculture.

Notes

IwouldliketothankElanaLevineandtheVelvet Light Trapedito-rialboardforthehelptheyofferedmeincompletingthisarticle. 1.SarahKozloff,“NarrativeTheory,”Channels of Discourse, Reas-sembled: Television and Contemporary Criticism,ed.RobertC.Allen,2nded.(ChapelHill:UofNorthCarolinaP,1992)67–100,assertsthatnarrative theory“leaves toother criticalmethodsquestions aboutwherethestorycomesfrom...andthemyriadeffects(psychologicalorsociological)thatthetexthasuponitsaudience”(68).Cf.MichaelJ.Porter,“TheStructureofTelevisionNarratives,”Critical Approaches to Television,ed.LeahR.VandeBerg,LawrenceA.Wenner,andBruceE.Gronbeck(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1998)140–57. 2.Myconceptionofpoeticscomes fromAristotle’s PoeticsandfromDavidBordwell’scallforahistoricalpoeticsofcinema.See,forexample,Bordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema(Princeton:PrincetonUP,1988)andMaking Meaning: Inference and Rhetoric in the Interpretation of Cinema(Cambridge:HarvardUP,1989)263–74.SeealsoHenryJenkins,“HistoricalPoetics,”inJoanneHollowsandMarcJancovich,eds.,Approaches to Popular Film(Manchester:ManchesterUP,1995). 3.Otherapproachessuchasethnographicorreceptionstudiesalsoilluminateaspectsoftheaudience’sexperience,butpoeticstakesasitscentralobjectofstudythetextitselfandoffersinsightsaboutitsoriginsandusesonthebasisofitsdesignfeatures.Thuspoeticsmightlogicallybeseenasafirst—butcertainlynotlast—stepinunderstand-inghowanarrativetextfunctionswithinthecontextsofitsmodesofproductionandreception.Otherapproachesmightbetterexplainthesocialcirculationandthepoliticalusevalueofnarratives;poeticsseekstoilluminateatext’saestheticstrategies. 4.Thereareantecedentsof theprime-timeserial in the1960s(Peyton Place,ABC,1964–69)andthe1970s(Family,ABC,1976–80).Aswell,atleastsincethe1970sinshowssuchasSoap(ABC,1977–82)andMary Hartman, Mary Hartman(syn.,1976–78),situationcomedieshavealsobeenincreasinglyserialized,sosomeofmypointshereapplytosomesit-comsaswell. Whydidtheserialemergeinthelate1970sandearly1980sasamajorprime-timeform?Onemustconsideracomplexinterac-tionofsocialandindustrialforcesinspeculatingaboutthiskindofphenomenon,andnobodyofresearchhasyetofferedathoroughconsiderationof them. JulieD’Acci,Defining Women: Television and the Case of “Cagney & Lacey”(ChapelHill:UofNorthCarolinaP,1994)72,brieflyconsidersthe“soapoperafication”ofprimetimeinrelationtotheconstructionofa“workingwoman”audienceintheearly1980s.Thistopicisanimportantandintriguingoneforfutureresearch. 5.Althoughmanyofmyexamplesareoffairlyrecentprograms(thosemosteasilyavailabletometowatch),IintendmypointstoapplytothePTSingeneral,notonlytorecentexamples. 6.JaneFeuer,“QualityDramaintheU.S.:TheNew‘GoldenAge?’”The Television History Book,ed.MicheleHilmes(London:BFI,2003)99;RobinNelson,“Hill Street Blues,”Fifty Key Television Programs,ed.GlenCreeber(London:Arnold,2003)104,referstoHill Streetastheprogramthat“pavedthewayforthedominanceoftheseries/serial

hybrid”;Thomas Schatz,“St. Elsewhere and the Evolution of theEnsembleSeries,”Television: The Critical View,ed.HoraceNewcomb,4thed.(NewYork:Oxford,1987)94,writesthatSt. Elsewhere “struckacompromisebetween. . .episodicandserial strategies.”SeealsoJaneFeuer,PaulKerr,andTiseVahimagi,MTM: “Quality Television”(London:BFI,1984)25–26,85–100. 7.RobertJ.Thompson,Television’s Second Golden Age: From Hill Street Blues to ER (Syracuse:SyracuseUP,1996),argues that someprime-time serials of the 1980s and 1990s constitute a genre of“qualityTV.”Hethuslinksaformalcriterion—serialized,ensemblestorytelling—tooneofaestheticvalue,thoughhenotesthatatleastonecriticusestheterms“qualitydrama”asaput-down(13).Thisconfusescategoriesofnarrativeformandcriticaljudgment.UnlikeThompson,IaminterestedinunderstandingwhatinstancesofthePTSgenerallyhaveincommonregardlessofanyprogram’s“quality”orlackofit,howeverconstrued. 8.NoëlCarroll,A Philosophy of Mass Art(Oxford:OxfordUP,1998)245–90. 9.MadelineDiMaggio,How to Write for Television (NewYork:Prentice-Hall,1990)88.Certainlytheactors’paceofdeliveryaffectsthispage-to-minuteratio,andscriptsforshowssuchasGilmore Girlshavelongerpagecountsthanlesstalky,slower-pacedprograms. 10.LarryBrody,Television Writing from the Inside Out: Your Channel to Success(NewYork:Applause,2003)77,150–51. 11.Somewriterscallthis“cracking”or“beating”thestory.AgooddescriptionofthisprocessofgroupstoryconstructioncanbefoundinJohnWells,“TeamWriting,”inJulianFriedman,ed.,Writing Long-Running Television Series(Shoreham-by-Sea,UK:Gwynprint,1996)2:194–205;AmySherman-PalladinodiscussesherexperienceswithteamwritingonRoseanne,Veronica’s Closet,andGilmore Girlsina5May2005radiointerviewon“FreshAirwithTerryGross,”archivedonlineatwww.npr.org. 12.Brody76. 13. Ibid., 92.According toBrody, first acts usually havemore,shorterbeatsandlastactsfewer,longerones.SeealsoDouglasHeil,Prime-Time Authorship: Works about and by Three TV Dramatists(Syracuse:SyracuseUP,2002)133–34. 14.RichWhiteside,“TheSmallScreen:Judging Amy,”scr(i)pt 9.1(Jan.–Feb.2003).Iaccessedthisandotherscr(i)ptsourceseitheronlineatwww.scriptmag.comorthroughinterlibraryloansdeliveredasPDFfiles;inbothformatsthepagenumberswerenotavailable. 15.RobertC.Allen,“The Guiding Light: SoapOperaasEconomicProductandCulturalDocument,”Newcomb150(4thed.),analyzesthisrepetitiveexpositionindaytimedrama. 16.DavidBordwell,Narration in the Fiction Film(Madison:UofWisconsinP,1988)70–73;TaniaModleski,“TheRhythmsofRe-ception:DaytimeTelevisionandWomen’sWork,”Regarding Television: Critical Approaches—An Anthology,ed.E.AnnKaplan(LosAngeles:AmericanFilmInstitute,1983)67–74. 17.TheseGilmore Girls episodesare“ButI’maGilmore”(26April2005),“HowManyKropogstoCapeCod?”(3May2005),“BlameBoozeandMelville”(10May2005),and“AHouseIsNotaHome”(17May2005). 18.DennisPorter,“SoapTime:ThoughtsonaCommodityArtForm,”Television: The Critical View,ed.HoraceNewcomb,2nded.(NewYork:OxfordUP,1979)89. 19.RobertC.Allen,Speaking of Soap Operas(ChapelHill:UofNorthCarolinaP,1985)82–84;EllenSeiter,“Eco’sTVGuide—The



Soaps,”Tabloid5(Winter1982):35–43.AllenandSeiter’susagefol-lowsUmbertoEco,The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts(Bloomington:IndianaUP,1979),whichcontainsareprintofhis1959essay,“ThePoeticsoftheOpenWork,”47–66.SeealsoJaneFeuer,Seeing Through the Eighties(Durham,NC:DukeUP,1995)121–30.Allen,Seiter,andFeuerallapplyEco’snotionoftheopenworktosoapoperas. 20. John Fiske, Television Culture (London: Routledge, 1987)183. 21.LauraStempelMumford,Love and Ideology in the Afternoon: Soap Opera, Women, and Television Genre(Bloomington:IndianaUP,1995)67–93. 22.Feuer,Seeing Through the Eighties122,makesasimilarpointaboutepisodicclosureintheserialform. 23.BrianLowryandJimBenson,“NewHoursofPower?”Variety 24Oct.1994:39;JohnDempsey,“FXHopesforBigEffectsofNewBuys,”Variety1Oct.2001:30;BrianLowry,“TuningIn,”Variety4Apr.2005:19. 24.GaryLevin,“RerunsHaveSomeViewersSeeingDouble,”USA Today30Sept.1999:3D;JohnDempsey,“WolfPackLeadsCablewith‘Law&Order’”Variety6Oct.2003:26. 25.ElizabethGuider,“FranchiseMintsGlobalCoin,”Daily Variety18Nov.2003,specialsection1:A1. 26.Manyshowstodaybeginwithateaser,oneortwobeatsthatprecedethecreditsequence,whichfunctionsaspartofact1.Some,includingLostandThe O.C.(Fox,2003–),breakact4intotwoshortersegments.Howeverthecommercialbreaksaredistributed,afour-actstructureobtainsasanormofthePTS,eveninpremiumcableshows,asKristinThompson,Storytelling in Film and Television(Cambridge:HarvardUP,2003)51–55,hasshowninananalysisofThe Sopranos. Inthe2005–06seasonthereseemstobeanewnear-universalpracticeof havingmore than four segments perhour,with someprograms such asCommander-in-Chief (ABC, 2005–) having somenonteaser segmentsof less thanfiveminutes.The2005–06seasonhasalsorevivedtheconventionofthe“tag,”ashortepiloguescenebeforetheclosingcreditsthatwasstandardinthe1970s.Itremainstobeseenwhetherinsertingextracommercialbreaksandsegmentswillforceareconsiderationofthenotionofafour-actstructure,whichmayobtainregardlessofwherethebreaksareinserted. 27.Indeed,KristinThompson, Storytelling in the New Hollywood(Cambridge:HarvardUP,1999),hasconvincinglyarguedthatHol-lywoodmoviesarebetterunderstoodashavingfourratherthanthreeacts,andinStorytelling in Film and Television40–55,sheshowsthatthesamefour-actpatternappliesintelevisionstorytelling. 28.Syndicatedrerunsoftenrearrangethecommercialbreakstoaddextraones,doingakindofviolencetothetextbybetrayingtheviewer’sexpectationsofforwardprogressmidactandofapauseatact’send. 29.Twoindustrytermsfortheendofanactare“actend”and“actout,”butneitherofthesehasthestrengthofconnotationthat“curtain”has. 30.DiMaggio90;Brody126;RichWhiteside,“TheSmallScreen:Alias,”scr(i)pt9.2(Mar.–Apr.2003). 31.Itisatelevisionindustrymantrathatthesecond-actcurtainshouldbethestrongestbecausethecommercialbreakonthehalf-houristwiceaslongasthoseonthequarter-hours,butIhavenotnoticedadifferenceinthestrengthofcurtainsbetweenacts1and2,bothofwhicharetypicallyquiteforceful.Mysense,however,isthat

third-actcurtainsarelesslikelytobeasdramaticorsurprising.Onthesecond-act“cliffhanger”seeDiMaggio44–45. 32.Ibid.,45. 33.Onsomeshows,suchasNip/Tuck,comingupwiththethemeprecedesbreakingthestory.SeeRichWhiteside,“TheSmallScreen:Nip/Tuck—ASliceoftheNewAmericana,”scr(i)pt10.1(Jan.–Feb.2004):56–59.ThewritersonJudging AmyclaimthattheybeginwithideasforGrayfamilystories,thenfindtheirthemes,andonlythenconceiveofcasesforAmyandMaxine.SeeWhiteside,“TheSmallScreen:Judging Amy.” 34.Porterassertsthatthisisageneralfeatureoftelevisionwithoutdistinguishingbetween serials andepisodic shows (“TheStructure”141).HethengoesontoanalyzeanepisodeofER,aserialnarrative. 35.Thiskindofserializationisincreasinglycommononhalf-hourshowssuchasFriends(NBC,1994–2004)andSex and the City (HBO,1998–2004),andmanyofmypointsinthissectionwouldapplytothem. 36.InsomewaystheseobservationsaboutHappy DaysapplyaswelltotraditionalepisodicdramassuchasBaywatch(syn.,1989–2001),whichdrawheavilyontherepetitionofmotifs.Butsomeepisodicdramas,suchasMagnum P.I.(CBS,1980–88)andThe Closer(TNT,2005–),combineminorserialarcswithanoverridingemphasisonweeklycases.Assuch,theycombinetheappealsofsit-comrepetitionandserializedlong-formatcharacterengagement.Recentsit-comssuchasFriendsandSex and the Cityofferasimilarmix,withtheem-phasismoreheavilyontheserializedmodeastheprogramsmaturedthroughtheirruns. 37.Kozloffcallsthisa“truismoftelevisioncriticism”(91). 38.Becausetelevisionwritingadviceisaimedataspiringwriterswhohavenotyetmadeittostaffpositions,theirfocusisonwritingspecscriptsofepisodes.Thusthereisscanttreatmentoflong-formstorytellinginbooksandarticlesonteleplaywriting.Ironically,arcscomeupmore inmovie screenwritingmanuals than in those fortelevision,thoughthetermmostlikelyoriginatesinTV,notfilm.See,forexample,LindaSeger,Advanced Screenwriting: Raising Your Script to the Academy Award Level(LosAngeles:Silman-JamesP,2003)167ff. 39.LaDuke133. 40.OnehearsmanyreportsthattheSeptember-to-Mayseasonisathingofthepast,butthesixnetworksstilldebutnewepisodesofmostshowsinthefall,concludetheminthespring,andreruntheminthesummer.Furthermore,aslongasthemainsweepsseasonsareinthefall,winter,andspring,thenetworksarelikelytosavemanyoftheirbestepisodesfortheseperiods.Incasesinwhichhigh-profilenetworkprograms(e.g.,Survivor,The O.C.)haveairedduringthesummer,ithasalmostalwaysbeenastunttoattractattentionbeforetheregularseasonhasbegun.Suchprogramstendtofallintotheregularscheduleoncetheybecomefixturesonanetwork’sslateofshows. FoxcontinuestopremieremanyprogramsinAugustratherthanSeptemberbecauseofitscontracttoairbaseballgamesduringprimetimeinOctober,whichputsitsregularprogrammingonhiatus.ButinmostwaysFoxstilladherestothetraditionalseason;theaestheticsofseason-longstorytellingarenotaffectedbythispractice. 41.RichWhiteside,“TheSmallScreen:24,”scr(i)pt9.3(May–June2003):56–59. 42.“Grounded”(8May2001). 43.Iamnotsuggestingherethattelevisionwritershavenomo-tivefornarrativeexperimentationorthatcommercialfactorsstiflethedesiretotrynewthings.Iamalsonotimplyingthatallnarrative


28 FromBeatstoArcs

virtueshaveasourceinthenetworks’profitmotives.IamonlyarguingthatthePTSasagroupstyleisunlikelytoadoptas a stable, consistent normanycommerciallymotivatedinnovationthatisnotalsoameansoftellingstoriesefficientlyoreffectively.

44. Karen Hall,“AmericanTVWriting: Musings of a GlobalStoryteller,”Screenwriting for a Global Market: Selling Your Scripts from Hollywood to Hong Kong,ed.AndrewHorton(Berkeley:UofCaliforniaP,2004)130.


from beats to arcs: toward a poetics of television narrativemy.fit.edu/~lperdiga/hum...

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