fromkin-1-language

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CHAPTER 1:WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

PowerPoint by Don L. F. Nilsento accompany

An Introduction to Language (8th or 9th edition 2007/2011)by Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman

and Nina Hyams

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LANGUAGE PLAY & MAPPING

The primary function of language is not to communicate, but is rather to think creatively or analogically. Language play allows humans to map an infinite number of real-world details onto a small finite number of sounds, letters and words.

(cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 8-11)

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And the exciting thing is that this mapping happens not only for the infinite details of the real world, but of all possible worlds whether real, discovered, invented, postulated, fictionalized, or imagined.

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THE CONTINUITY PARADOX

Derek Bickerton states it as follows: “Until we cease to regard language as primarily communicative and begin to treat it as primarily representational, we cannot hope to escape from the Continuity Paradox” (Bickerton 689).

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FORM-MEANING CORRELATION

CONTRAST SOUNDS, SPELLINGS AND MEANINGS:Antonyms: tall vs. shortConverses: buy vs. sellCognates: embarrassed vs. embarazadaHeteronyms: minute vs. minuteHomographs: bank vs. bankHomonyms: Homographs or HomophonesHomophones: too vs. two vs. toHyponyms: metaphor vs. metaphorSynonyms: big vs. large

(Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 196-198)

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WORD-LEVEL VS. SENTENCE-LEVEL GRAMMAR

LEXICAL: SYNTACTIC:

AMBIGUITY: Take your pick! Call me a taxi!

ANOMALY: She wanted a gnepf. John me cow a gave.

PARAPHRASE: William hit a policeman. Bill hit John.

vs. Bill slugged a cop. vs. John was hit by Bill.

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WHAT A GRAMMAR MUST DEAL WITH

Analysis vs. Synthesis:

Parsing vs. Generative Grammar

Denotation vs. Connotation:

Pro-Choice vs. Pro-Life views of “abortion”

Systematic vs. Accidental Gaps: “schplick” vs. “blick”

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FORM VS. MEANING

Linguistics is concerned with the mapping of meaning onto form (decoding) and form onto meaning (encoding).

The form is the surface structure (phonology, graphology, morphology and syntax)

The meaning is the deep structure (semantics, pragmatics, discourse)


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LEVELS OF ADEQUACY

Prescriptive Adequacy: What people should do

Descriptive Adequacy: What people do do

Explanatory Adequacy: Patterns, Trends, and Predictions

Evaluative Adequacy: Based on EleganceSimplicityCompletenessInternal ConsistencyGenerative Power


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SURFACE STRUCTURE

Syntax Allotag Tagmeme

Morphology Allomorph Morpheme

Graphology Allograph Grapheme

Phonology Allophone Phoneme

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DEEP STRUCTURE

Pragmatics (Context, Deictics, Anaphora, Speech Acts, Conversational Implicatures, Intent, Felicity Conditions)

Pragmatics Allobehavior Behavioreme

Semantics Alloseme Sememe

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EVOLUTION

During the past five million years, “our forebears became predominantly right-handed, made use of increasingly sophisticated tools, and organized their culture in ever more complex ways.” This evolution resulted in “a puny, almost hairless animal, with a bent windpipe that reduced breathing efficiency to nearly half of its original capacity. The creature’s teeth were practically useless for chewing.” But we had an asymetrical brain with the left hemisphere being efficient at learning language. (Heny 634).

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M. A. K. Halliday’s 7 Functions of Language:

Instrumental: To get things done

Regulatory: To control other people

Interactional: To define groups and relationships

Personal: To express feelings and beliefs

Heuristic:To test hypotheses or to learn

Imaginative: To create a world

Representational: To give information (Clark, 52)

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In terms of language,Who’s in charge?

“We make language more than language makes us” (Clark, 55).

Go to slide 15 to find out what Humpty Dumpty said about language?

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In Through the Looking-Glass Humpty Dumpty Says to Alice

“I don’t know what you mean by ‘glory,’ ” Alice said.

Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously. “Of course you don’t—till I tell you. I meant ‘there’s a nice knock-down argument for you!’ ”

“But ‘glory’ doesn’t mean ‘a nice knock-down argument’,” Alice objected.

“When I use a word,” Humpty Dumpty said, in a rather a scornful tone, “it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more nor less.”

“The question is,” said Alice, “whether you can make words mean so many different things.”

“The question is,” said Humpty Dumpty, “which is to be master. That’s all.”

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Through_the_Looking-Glass

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Poem by Maurice Evan Hare

There once was a man who said, “Damn!”

It is born in upon me I am

An engine that moves

In predestinate grooves,

I’m not even a bus; I’m a tram.

--Aitchison 560

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THE INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS

Noam Chomsky claims that language is innate.

B. F. Skinner claims that language is learned; it is basically a stimulus-response mechanism.

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Noam Chomsky reviewed B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior in Language, the journal of the Linguistic Society of America and convincingly presented twelve types of evidence that language is basically innate, not learned.

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1. Language is very complex. Consider the complexity of any complete English grammar book.

2. The model for language learning is imperfect. Mothers use caregiver language; friends use baby talk; children use modified grammar (holophrastic, pivot-open, or telegraphic).

3. All humans learn a spoken language (NOTE: Chomsky does not claim that written language is innate).


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4. No animals learn a human-type language. However, some animal languages are impressive:

primates (Vikki-Hayes, Koko-Patterson, Warshow-Gardners, Lana, Nim Chimsky-Terrace, Sarah-Thomas/Church)

bees (Von Frisch)dolphins (Lilly)birds, parrots and cockatielscaninesequinesbovinesfelinesants


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ANIMAL MESSAGES: Come. Go. Food. Protection (camouflage, assistance, misleading enemies…). Sex. Territory, Dominance, Mimic, Defiance, Friendship, Attention

ANIMAL LANGUAGE: Calls. Body Coloring and Shape. Tail Slap, Facial Expression. Tail Wagging, Baring Throat, Dancing (Round, Tail-wagging, Sickle), Whistling, Chuttering, Attacking, Singing, Giving Off Pheromones

HUMAN-LANGUAGES AMONG ANIMALS: AMESLAN, Yerkish, Computers, Magnetic Chips, “Sugar Fruit,” “Finger Bracelet” 2nd-Generation Language (Planet of the Apes)

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WASHOW SIGNING “TICKLE” (KEMP AND SMITH 671)WASHOW SIGNING “TICKLE” (KEMP AND SMITH 671) 671)

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AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE: CONFIGURATION (Emmorey 82)

(cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 257-258)

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AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE: PLACE (Emmorey 82)

(cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 257-258)

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AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE: MOVEMENT (Emmorey 82) (cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams [2011] 257-258)

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BEES’ ROUND DANCE (Kemp & Smith 663)

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BEES’ TAIL-WAGGING DANCE (Kemp and Smith 664)

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SARAH’S SYMBOLS (Kemp and Smith 672)

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YERKISH LEXIGRAMS (Kemp and Smith 672)

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5. There are many human-language universals, and these are only a small subset of semiotic possibilities; computer languages don’t have these same natural-language constraints (embedding, cross-over, A over A, etc.).

6. There is a critical age for foreign-language acquisition (around puberty).

7. There is a sequence in language acquisition (holophrastic, pivot-open, telegraphic, adult). Note also color acquisition in both phylogeny and ontogeny.


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8. Human language is rule-governed (like mathematics). It is not memorized.

9. Human language is very creative. Except for small-talk, almost all sentences are novel. Language can adjust to new situations (unlike bee-language for unexpected placing of honey source).


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10. Human language has duality. A limited number of symbols are reused in many different ways.

11. Human language has displacement in Time, Place, and Truth.

12. Human language is not predictable. Given a particular stimulus, there is a much wider range of responses for humans than for animals.


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CONCLUSION

The most important of Chomsky’s observations is that “Language is Creative.”

Language should not be prescribed, as that would limit its creativity. Rather, language should be allowed to adapt to social situations. In other word language VARIES in the following ways:

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LANGUAGE VARIATIONV-Vocational Differences

A-Age DifferencesIndividual (holophrastic vs. adult language)Language (Old English vs. Modern English)

R-Regional Differences

I-Informality Differences

E-Ethnic Differences

S-Sex Differences

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METAPHOR, METONYMY, SYNECDOCHE, IRONY AND LANGUAGE PLAY

The most creative aspect of language is its ability to adapt to new situations, and it does this by using the “Master Tropes”: Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, and Irony.

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HOMO ERECTUS, HOMO SAPIENS, HOMO LOQUENS AND HOMO RIDENS

Humans have been called “homo erectus” because like primates, kangaroos and chickens they stand erect.

They have been called “homo sapiens” because they are the thinking animal.

They have been called “home loquens” because they are the talking animal.

But they have been called “homo ridens” because they are the only animal that laughs appropriately.

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LANGUAGE FOR ENGAGEMENTLANGUAGE FOR TRANSCENDENCE

Language is a tool that allows us to deal with the real world. It allows us to solve the problems of the real world. It helps us survive.

But as we spend less and less time working to survive and more and more time thinking and pondering, our language needs to meet these new needs.

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Exercise 2: *Ungrammatical

A. Robin forced the sherrif go.B. Napoleon forced Josephine to go.C. The devil made Faust go.D. He passed by a large pile of money.E. He came by a large sum of moneyF. He came a large sum of money by.G. Did in a corner little Jack Horner sit?H. Elizabeth is resembled by CharlesI. Nancy is eager to please.

(Fromkin Rodman & Hyams [2011] 38-39)

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J. It is easy to frighten Emily.

K. It is eager to love a kitten.

L. That birds can fly amazes.

M. The fact you are late to class is surprising.

N. Has the nurse slept the baby yet?

O. I was surprised for you to get married.

P. I wonder who and Mary went swimming.

Q. Myself bit John.

R. What did Alice eat the toadstool with?

S. What did Alice eat the toadstool and?

(Fromkin Rodman & Hyams [2011] 38-39)

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Exercise 3: Onomatopoeia

Animals across languages:

Cows Horses PigsChickens Roosters ChicksLions Tigers GoatCats Dogs TurkeysGeese Pigeons SheepPigs Frogs DonkeysHens Crows Flies

(Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams [2011] 39)

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Exercise 3: Sound Symbolism

Bang

Beep

Bubble

Buzz

Clap

Click

Crackle

Crunch

Gong

Groan

Gurgle

Hiss

Kerplop

Screech

Sigh

Slap

Slurp

Smack

Smash

Snap

Swish

Thump

Tinkle

Whiz

Zing

Snap crackle & pop


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Exercise 3: Reduplication

Children

Bowwow

Dada

Dingdong

Doodoo

Mama

Peepee

Weewee

Adults:

Hanky Panky

Ticktock

Tooty Fruity

Zig Zag

Zsa Zsa

Other Examples:


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Exercise 4: Iconicity & Paralanguage

I II III IV X

1 2 3 0

٠ ٣ ٢ ١*

. ? !

$

Shhh! Shush!

Hiss

Tsk tsk

Uh Huh! (yes)

Uh uh (no)

Huh?

Giddyup

(lateral click)

Raspberry (Bronx Cheer)

Uchhhhh

Yuchhhhh

Wolf Whistle

Swearing

(*^&%+#@!)


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Exercise 12: Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw

“The rain in Spain is mainly on the plain.”

“In Heartford, Herriford and Hartshire, hurricanes hardly ever happen.”

“Look at her—a prisoner of the gutters;Condemned by ev’ry syllable she utters.By right she should be taken out and hungFor the cold-blooded murder of the English

tongue!” (Pygmalion, 109)

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!My Fair Lady by Lerner and Lowe

An Englishman’s way of speaking absolutely classifies him.

The moment he talks he makes some other English despise him,

One common language I’m afraid we’ll never get.Oh, why can’t the English learn to Set a good example to people whose English is painful

to your ears?The Scots and the Irish leave you close to tears.There even are places, where English completely

disappears.In America, they haven’t used it for years! (110)

(Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams [2011] 40-41)

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!!Exercise 13: English Only vs. Bilingualism

Discuss Queen Elizabeth I’s outlawing of Celtic dress, music and traditions

King James Translation of the Bible into English to unite England with Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and Scotland by an English-Only movement

What about the English-only movement today vs. bilingualism?


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!!!Animal-Play Web Sites:

ANIMAL POWER MOVES:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GkYbFr7dcIs

CATS VS. DOGS PLAYING:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3dugipeVZtE

ELEPHANTS PLAYING SOCCER:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6sP09MejTcA

ELEPHANT PLAYING SOCCER:

http://www.videovat.com/videos/1419/elephant-soccer.aspx

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GkYbFr7dcIs

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3dugipeVZtE

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6sP09MejTcA

http://www.videovat.com/videos/1419/elephant-soccer.aspx

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I CAN HAS CHEEZBURGER WEB SITE:

http://icanhascheezburger.com/

LOLCAT BIBLE:

http://www.lolcatbible.com/index.php?title=Genesis_1

PETCENTRIC WEB SITE:

http://www.petcentric.com/article/aspx?C=1&OID=180

TAASP: THE ASSOCIATION FOR THE STUDY OF PLAY:

http://www.tasplay.org

http://icanhascheezburger.com/

http://www.lolcatbible.com/index.php?title=Genesis_1

http://www.petcentric.com/article/aspx?C=1&OID=180

http://www.tasplay.org/

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References:

Aitchison, Jean. “Predestinate Grooves: Is There a Preordained Language ‘Program’?” (Clark 560-578).

Bickerton, Derek. “The Continuity Paradox” (Clark 681-695).

Bolton, W. F. “Language: An Introduction” (Clark, 61-73).

Clark, Virginia, Paul Eschholz, and Alfred Rosa. Language: Readings in Language and Culture, 6th Edition. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1998.

Daniels, Harvey A. “Nine Ideas about Language (Clark, 43-60).

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Emmorey, Karen. “Sign Language” (Clark 78-94).

Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams. “What is Language?” An Introduction to Language, 9th Edition. Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2011, 1-42.

Heny, Jeannine. “Brain and Language (Clark, 634-657).

Kemp, William, and Roy Smith. “Signals, Signs, and Words: From Animal Communication to Language” (Clark 658-679).

Nilsen, Alleen Pace, and Don L. F. Nilsen. Encyclopedia of 20th Century American Humor. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2000.

Nilsen, Don L. F., and Alleen Pace Nilsen. Language Play: An Introduction to Linguistics. Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers, 1978.

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