fruit and pomace extracts biological activity,
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This book discusses biological activity,potential applications and beneficial health effects of fruit and pomace extractsTRANSCRIPT
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FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH
FRUIT AND POMACE EXTRACTS
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY, POTENTIAL
APPLICATIONS AND
BENEFICIAL HEALTH EFFECTS
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FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION
AND HEALTH
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FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH
FRUIT AND POMACE EXTRACTS
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY, POTENTIAL
APPLICATIONS AND
BENEFICIAL HEALTH EFFECTS
JASON P. OWEN
EDITOR
New York
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Copyright 2015 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
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Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York
ISBN: 978-1-63482-510-8 (eBook)
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CONTENTS
Preface vii
Chapter 1 Fruit and Pomace Extracts: Applications to Improve the Safety
and Quality of Meat Products 1 P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai
Chapter 2 Valorization of Liquid Effluents from Olive Oil Extraction Activity
in the Production of Ceramic Bricks: Influence of
Conformation Process 29 D. Eliche-Quesada and F. A. Corpas-Iglesias
Chapter 3 Fruit and Pomace Extracts: Applications to Improve the Safety
and Quality of Fish Products 53 F. Gai and P. G. Peiretti
Chapter 4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Pharmaceutic Compounds from
Waste Materials Derived from Vinification Processes 69 Cleofe Palocci and Laura Chronopoulou
Chapter 5 Passion Fruit Pomace Powder: Potential Applications of
Emerging Technologies for Extraction of Pectin 81 Cibele Freitas de Oliveira and Poliana Deyse Gurak
Chapter 6 Hesperetin: Simple Natural Compound with Multiple
Biological Activity 107 Jos Valdo Madeira Junior, Vnia Mayumi Nakajima, Fabiano Jares Contesini, Camilo Barroso Teixeira, Juliana Alves Macedo and Gabriela Alves Macedo
Chapter 7 A Review of the Antimicrobial Activity of Various Solvent Type
Extracts from SOME Fruits and Edible Plants 121 R. C. Jagessar, N. Ramchartar and O. Spencer
Chapter 8 Coconut Water: An Essential Health Drink in Both Natural
and Fermented Forms 145 Mansi Jayantikumar Limbad, Noemi Gutierrez-Maddox
and Nazimah Hamid
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Contents vi
Chapter 9 Extraction, Characterization and Potential Health Benefits
of Bioactive Compounds from Selected Cornus Fruits 157 Luminia David and Bianca Moldovan
Chapter 10 Kumquat (Fortunella Spp.): Biochemical Composition and
Prophylactic Actions 189 Theeshan Bahorun, Darshini Narrain, Piteesha Ramlagan
and Chandra Tatsha Bholah
Chapter 11 Aloe Vera Extracts: From Traditional Uses to Modern Medicine 211 Taukoorah Urmeela and Mahomoodally Mohamad Fawzi
Chapter 12 Elderberries Extracts: Biologic Effects, Applications for Therapy:
A Review 227 Mihaela Mirela Bratu and Ticuta Negreanu-Pirjol
Chapter 13 Tumor Cell Growth Activity of Fruit and Pomace Extracts 241 Dragana etojevi-Simin
Chapter 14 Influence of Two Maturation Stages and Three Irrigation Regimes
on Fatty Acid Composition of cv. Arbequina Produced under
Tunisian Growing Conditions 255 Faten Brahmi, Chehab Hechmi, Imed Chraief
and Mohamed Hammami
Index 265
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PREFACE
The use of natural or naturally-derived antioxidants, instead of synthetic antioxidants, to
produce foods with a longer shelf life and a higher degree of safety is a growing trend. Fruit
and fruit-processing by-products are considered to be an important source of bioactive
molecules (vitamins C, E, carotenoids, phenolic compounds and dietary fiber) of great
interest for the food industry, although their content varies greatly depending on origin,
source, type of extract and concentration levels. This book discusses biological activity,
potential applications and beneficial health effects of fruit and pomace extracts.
Chapter 1 Meat and meat products are prone to both microbial and oxidative spoilage;
therefore, it is desirable to use a natural preservative with both antimicrobial and antioxidant
properties. This chapter aims to critically review the use of fruit and pomace extracts in order
to improve the safety and quality of meat and meat products, as described in studies recently
carried out worldwide. In particular, the antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of these natural
food additives in fresh or frozen beef, pork and chicken meat products are evaluated.
Chapter 2 Olive oil production industry is characterized by relevant amounts of by-
products that represent an important environmental problem in Mediterranean areas where
they are generated in huge quantities in short periods of time.
In this work the feasibility of using olive wastewater (OW) or olive oil wastewater
(OOW), in bricks, were reported. In order to evaluate how it affects the method of forming
the bricks on the microstructure and properties of ceramic materials, bricks have been molded
by compression or extrusion. The influence of the replacement of fresh water (FW) by wasted
was analyzed. The samples containing FW, OW or OOW (22 wt %) was added to the clay in
order that it acquires enough plasticity to the stage of molding by extrusion. The specimens
molded by extrusion and compression were dried at 110 C (24 hours) and fired at 950 C (3
C/min) for 4 h. Loss on ignition, linear shrinkage, bulk density, water absorption, water
suction, compressive strength, thermal conductivity and microstructural properties values of
the fired samples were investigated depending on the type of waste and method of forming.
Results show that the bricks obtained with olive and olive oil wastewaters are comparable and
slightly better to traditional bricks used fresh water as mixing water in terms of forming and
technological properties of end products. The use of waste decreases bulk density, water
absorption and thermal conductivity, while slightly increases the mechanical strength of
bricks, because of the closed porosity that originates during the combustion process the small
content of organic matter from waste. In addition, the forming by extrusion process turns out
to be more appropriate than the process of compression.
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Jason P. Owen viii
The incorporation of OW and OOW wastewaters in bricks can represent a promising way
to valorize these effluents, can alleviate the environmental impact generated by the industry
of extraction of olive oil and, at the same time, represent an economic and water saving for
the ceramic industry.
Chapter 3 The use of natural or naturally-derived antioxidants, instead of synthetic
antioxidants, to produce foods with a longer shelf life and a higher degree of safety is a
growing trend. Fruit and fruit-processing by-products are considered to be an important
source of bioactive molecules (vitamins C, E, carotenoids, phenolic compounds and dietary
fiber) of great interest for the food industry, although their content varies greatly depending
on origin, source, type of extract and concentration levels. After a brief introduction, this
chapter aims to critically review the applications of fruit and pomace extracts from processing
by-products of grape, pomegranate and berry fruits, in improving the safety and quality of
fish products, as described in studies recently carried out worldwide. In particular, the
antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of these natural food additives in the minced muscle of
various marine and freshwater fish species are evaluated.
Chapter 4 Grape cultivation dates back to approximately 6000-8000 years ago.
Nowadays it is still one of the major crops produced worldwide, mostly for wine production.
Accordingly, grape pomace, the solid remain of the wine making process, is produced in
large quantities. The disposal of such waste material is an issue of great ecologic and
economic importance. Some wineries use the material as a fertilizer, while others are selling it
to biogas companies for energy production. However, grape pomace possesses a much higher
potential.
Pomace is composed of grape seeds, stems, pulps and skins and contains
pharmaceutically interesting polyphenolic compounds such as catechin, epicatechin, trans-
resveratrol and procyanidin B1. Such compounds have beneficial effects on human health
including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic and anticarcinogenic activities.
Such interesting compounds may be extracted from grape pomace by the use of organic
solvents, however this procedure has several limitations, including solvent toxicity and the
non-selectivity of the extraction towards lipophilic compounds. Alternative extraction
technologies focus on the use of supercritical fluids. Supercritical CO2 is the most commonly
used solvent, since it is non-toxic, inert and has modest critical values in terms of temperature
and pressure, making its use industrially appealing. By the use of supercritical fluids
extraction, high-quality extracts can be obtained from a variety of raw materials, including
grapes, grape seeds and grape pomace.
Chapter 5 The term passion fruit comprises several species from the genus Passiflora
L., family Passifloraceae; the genus Passiflora consists of approximately 400 species, with
over 150 being native from Brazil. The most important variety cultivated in Brazil for
commercial purposes is the yellow passion fruit, Passiflora edulis Sims f. flavicarpa Degener,
which is used for pulp and juice processing. Passion fruit are climacteric fruits classified
botanically as fleshy fruit with round shape; the edible part of passion fruit (40 %) consists of
pulp with seeds, and approximately 60 % of the peel consists of mesocarp and epicarp. The
valorization of agricultural residues is receiving more attention nowadays, and many
researchers have been evaluating the conversion of by-products into food ingredients and
other value-added materials. Residues obtained from fruits represent an imminent
environmental risk due to the high quantity generated in a short period and their polluting
characteristics. Meanwhile, passion fruit pomace has been highlighted for reuse for its
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Preface ix
interesting composition, overcoming environmental issues and adding value to this raw
material. The yellow passion fruit pomace contains bioactive compounds and high levels of
dietary fiber, such as pectin. Pectin is a complex polysaccharide material that can be extracted
from the cell walls of non-graminaceous plants. The structure of pectin is based on 1,4-linked
-D-galacturonic acid and has L-rhamnose residues with side-chains of neutral sugars (mainly
D-galactose and L-arabinose). Pectin is a soluble fiber, and it can be used as a gelling agent
and stabilizer in a variety of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products. The utilization of a
suitable method for pectin extraction is significant to maximize its extraction yield and
improve the product quality. Numerous scientific publications have studied the influence of
extraction conditions on the physicochemical characteristics and functional properties of
pectin extracted from various plant tissues. Pectin can be extracted from apple pomace (15-
20% dry matter), citrus albedo (30-35% dry matter), beet pulp (15-20% dry matter) and
passion fruit pomace (10-20% dry matter). The most commonly used method for the
extraction of pectin is direct boiling, named conventional method, which takes up to
approximately two hours to obtain a good yield of pectin. Due to a relatively long period of
direct heating, the extracted pectin undergoes thermal degradation and a lot of time and
energy is spent. Several kinds of new technologies have been studied for enhance extraction
of pectin. Moderate electric field and high pressure are emerging technologies that can be use
to extract the pectin using less time and low temperature. For these reason, this review will
explorer extraction mechanism of these technologies.
Chapter 6 Bioactive compounds are extra nutritional constituents that naturally occur in
small quantities in plant and food products. Most common bioactive compounds include
secondary metabolites, such as antibiotics, mycotoxins, alkaloids, food grade pigments, plant
growth factors, and phenolic compounds. Flavonoids constitute the largest group of plant
phenolics, accounting for over half of the eight thousand naturally occurring phenolic
compounds. Currently, flavanones are obtained by chemical synthesis or extraction from
plants, and these processes are only produced in the glycosylated form. However, there are
environmentally friendly bioprocesses that deserve attention regarding phenolic compound
production, especially in aglycon forms. One of these flavonoids is the hesperetin, that has
recently been recognized for their influence on human metabolism, acting in the prevention of
some chronic diseases, as well as proving to be an important antioxidant in food. In the last
few years, great attention has been paid to bioactive phenolic compounds due to their ability
to promote benefits for human health. Hesperetin is reported to be a powerful radical
scavenger and a promoter of cellular antioxidant defense-related enzyme activities. This
compound exhibited anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting of LPS-induced expression of
the COX-2 gene in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Hesperetin is a potent chemopreventive agent;
its supplementation during the initiation, post-initiation, and entire period stages of colon
carcinogenesis in the male rat model in vivo significantly reversed these activities. In
addition, the aglycon flavanone presents activity against parasites from tropical diseases.
Considering the folk claims, several medicinal compounds (including hesperetin) have been
evaluated for this antifilarial activity. Recent studies showed that hesperetin inhibited (>60%)
the adult worms growth (Wuchereria bancrofti) at 7.8 and 31.2 g/ml concentration. The
bioactive aglycon phenolic compound demonstrates antiviral activity. Experimental tests
showed hesperetin presents inhibition activities of genotype 2 (DENV-2) virus replication.
This flavonoid seems to be usefull also in the treatment of some non-communicable diseases,
such as cardiac diseases, diabetes, hypertension. A hesperetin suspension administered in
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Jason P. Owen x
adult male C57BL/6 mice inhibited cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, oxidative stress and
myocytes apoptosis induced by pressure overload and protected against cardiac dysfunction.
In another study, hesperetin enhanced ApoA-I-mediated cholesterol efflux in THP-1
macrophages, which was accompanied by an induction of the ABCA1 gene, which is critical
for cholesterol metabolism. The effect of hesperetin on ABCA1-dependent cholesterol efflux
may be explained by its potency of activation of LXR and PPAR enhancers. In a study
conducted with Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats, hesperitin reduced vascular leakage,
dilatation of retinal vessels and basement membrane thickening. In another study also with
Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats, hesperitin treatment rescued retinal neuroinflammation,
oxidative stress, apoptosis and oedema as a result of chronic uncontrolled hyperglycaemic
state. These studies indicate that hesperitin can be used for the prevention of induced
neurovascular complications caused by descompansated diabetes. Intravenous administration
of hesperetin-7-O-b-D-glucuronide decreased blood pressure in anesthetized spontaneously
hypertensive rat. Furthermore, it enhanced endothelium-dependent vasodilation in response to
acetylcholine, decreased hydrogen peroxide-induced intracellular adhesion molecule-1 and
monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 mRNA expression in rat aortic endothelial cells.
Hesperitin can also be used in management of obesity due to its influence in the control of
hunger and satiety. In this context, the flavanone aglycone caused an increase in the secretion
of cholecystokinin (CCK) in STC-1 cells through increase in intracellular calcium
concentration by the TRP (transient receptor potential) and TRP 1 ankirin channels. The
addition of hesperidin analytical standard in the same model caused no effect. The increase in
CCK would be interesting because this hormone assists in the control of food intake. The
purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the study of obtainment and biological
properties of hesperetin.
Chapter 7 As part of a research initiative to evaluate plants used for their nutritional and
herbal values, the antimicrobial activity of the n-C6H14, CH2Cl2 and CH3CH2OH extract of
Brassica rapa chinensis vegetable, Artocarpus altilis and Solanum melongena fruit and
leaves of Moringa oleifera were investigated. Each plant part was subjected to selective
extraction using solvents of varying polarity: n-C6H14, CH2Cl2, EtOAc and CH3CH2OH.
using the Disc Diffusion Assay under asceptic conditions at a concentrations of 0.025g/ml,
0.05g/ml and 0.1g/ml against pathogens: E.coli, S.aureus, Bacillus species and C. albicans.
Also, the combined CH3CH2OH and n-C6H14 extracts of A. altilis plus Brassica rapa
chinensis at high concentrations were investigated. For each concentration, experimental discs
on a single plate were prepared in triplicates versus a single reference disc. The diameter of
the zone of inhibition, DZOI was measured from which the Area of Zone of Inhibition
(AZOI) was calculated. The highest AZOI of 209.34 mm2 was induced by the CH3CH2OH
extract of Brassica rapa chinensis against E. coli at a concentration of 0.025g/ml and the
CH3CH2OH extract of A. altilis at a low concentration of 0.025g/ml which induces AZOI of
94.89 mm2. The lowest AZOI of 12.56 mm
2 was induced by Brassica rapa chinensis against
Bacillus at a concentration of 0.025g/ml. Zero AZOI was induced by n-C6H14 extract of A.
altilis against all four pathogens at a low concentration of 0.025g/ml. Zero AZOI was also
induced by the n-C6H14 extract of A. altilis at a low concentration of 0.025g/ml against all
four pathogens and the CH3CH2OH extract of A. altilis at a high concentration against all
pathogens. Selective antimicrobial activity were observed in several instances. Interestingly,
the CH2Cl2 and CH3CH2OH extract at low concentration were more antimicrobial than that at
high concentration of A. altilis. A similar trend was noted for the n-C6H14 and CH3CH2OH
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Preface xi
extract of Brassica rapa chinensis. Thus these two plants can be used as both antimicrobial
and nutritional agents.
The n-C6H14 and CH3CH2OH extract of Solanum melongena fruit and leaves of Moringa
oleifera were tested for their antimicrobial activity at three different concentrations of 5%,
10% and 20% of crude extracts against Eschericia coli, Staphyloccocus aureus and Klebsiella
pneumoniae. Both the n-C6H14 and CH3CH2OH extracts of Solanum melongena fruit and
Moringa oleifera leaves showed antibacterial activity at a higher concentration of 20% of
crude extract. The order of bacteria susceptibility to Moringa oleifera extract been S. aureus
> K. pneumoniae > E.coli whereas that for Solanum Melongena extract been S. aureus >
E.coli > K. pneumonia. The area of zone of inhibition ranging from 44.15 mm2 to 53.55 mm
2.
These investigations suggest that the extracts of Brassica rapa chinensis, Artocarpus altilis,
Moringa oleifera and Solanum Melongena can be used as antibacterial agents in addition to
their nutritional value.
Chapter 8 Coconut water is the liquid endosperm fluid of the coconut fruit which
contains high amounts of essential nutrients and minerals. This endosperm fluid is a widely
consumed as a beverage in many parts of the world as it provides hydration along with
increased nutritional, health and medicinal benefits. In addition to being used as a medium
constituent, it also acts as a natural biocatalyst. One of the fermented products of coconut
water, coconut water kefir, is made by fermenting coconut water with the kefir granules
which contain essential lactic acid bacteria and yeast spp. known to have health benefits for a
disease-free life. It has many applications in the food industry and functional food market. It
is used as one of the important constituents in a variety of products or can be consumed as-it-
is. It is known to have no undesirable side effects and is said to improve digestion. This
paper reviews the functional properties of coconut water, its applications in the food industry
and recent advancements in this area.
Chapter 9 Cornus is a genus of the Cornaceae plant family, represented by about 30-60
species of woody plants commonly named Dogwoods, widely spread in Europe, Asia and
North America.
From about 2000 years ago, traditional Chinese medicine used different parts of plants
belonging to Cornus genus for treatment of various diseases such as kidney and
gastrointestinal disorders, diabetes, uterine bleeding and bladder incontinence. The fruits and
the bark of Cornus species have been widely used for their analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-
malarial, anti-bacterial, anti-histamine, anti-allergic, anti-microbial, anti-parasitic, tonic,
febrifuge and vulnerary properties as well as for their inhibitory effect on tumor cell
proliferation.
A high number of bioactive compounds have been identified in Cornus fruits, including
ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds, anthocyanins, flavonoids, iridois, terpenoids, compounds
that exert health effects especially by acting as potent antioxidants.
This review will focus on the recent data reported on the extraction, characterization and
biological activities of bioactive compounds isolated from fruits of selected Cornus plants in
order to understand the high nutritional value of these fruits and their possible use as source
of bioactive compounds for developing new pharmacological products.
Chapter 10 Natural plant products continue to be of increasing interest due to the wide
range of health benefits they confer to humans. Citrus fruits have been extensively studied for
their health-promoting potential and have been widely applied in the medical and food
industry. Kumquat, a tropical fruit originally included in the genus Citrus has been classified
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Jason P. Owen xii
a century ago in the genus Fortunella. The latter has so far been poorly studied compared to
the genus Citrus, most probably due to its limited distribution and consumption. This chapter
reviews selected interesting findings on phytochemical content of kumquats with emphasis on
their prophylactic effects at biochemical and molecular levels.
Chapter 11 Aloe vera, one of natures most curative medicinal plants, has been
traditionally used as alternative treatment against a plethora of human ailments in various
countries like China, India, and Egypt, amongst others. Its therapeutic attributes have been
well investigated and proven by numerous in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies. Native to
North Africa, this succulent plant has been shown to be beneficial in the treatment and
management of a wide range of conditions including skin disorders, constipation, non-insulin
dependent diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disorders, cancer and even AIDS. During the past
recent years, the commercialisation of crude Aloe vera extracts and/or formulated products
has experienced a boom in the pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic and the wellness industries.
The beneficial effects of Aloe vera can be attributed to the panoply of phytonutrients and
phytochemicals including non-nutritive constituents like phenolic compounds present in the
plant. This chapter attempts to give an updated overview of the therapeutic uses of Aloe vera
extracts and related formulation in the treatment and manage of human diseases.
Chapter 12 As many berries, the fruits of Sambucus nigra (L.) contain large amounts of
flavonoids with different structures, mostly anthocyanins (mainly cyanidin-3-glucoside and
cyanidin-3-sambubioside) and small quanities of flavonols and flavonol ester.
Flavonoids are a broad class of low-molecular-weight secondary metabolites
encompassing more than 10,000 scaffolds, and are commonly found in leaves, seeds, bark
and flowers. Their role in plants is to afford protection against ultraviolet radiation, pathogens
and herbivore animals. Due to their activity as safe and potent antioxidants, they are
considered as important nutraceuticals.
Due to the content in anthocyanins, elderberries have an attractive bright purple color,
which make elderberry anthocyanins extracts valuable foodstuff colorants but also therapeutic
agents.
There are many studies showing the biologic effects of certain elderberries extracts, such
as: in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activities, anti-inflammatory properties, stimulant of cell
division. Some of them offers contradictory information.
There are also reports concerning attempts to formulate and develop new
pharmaceutical/nutraceutical products.
This chapter tries to join together the information concerning the main therapeutic effects
of elderberries extracts as they are presented in the recent publications.
Also, it presents some attempts to apply the elderberries extracts in pharmacy as active
principles.
Chapter 13 Fruit and fruit waste by-products that are usually obtained after industrial
processing should be regarded as a potential nutraceutical resource capable of offering low-
cost, nutritional and health promoting dietary supplements. They can contain significant
amounts of carotenoids, phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins and other bioactive
phytochemicals that can modulate cell proliferation, oxidative reactions in cellular systems
and exert excellent anti-oxidative, anti-microbial, anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic
activities. Fruit and fruit pomace extracts of different genotypes of tomato, pepper, raspberry,
bilberry and rosehip exerted pronounced and selective tumor cell growth inhibition effects in
cervix, breast and colon tumor cells. They also demonstrated favorable non-tumor/tumor cell
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Preface xiii
growth ratios and increased apoptosis/necrosis ratios. These are the qualities that favor their
use as healthy food and promote the development of dietary supplements on their basis. Anti-
tumor activity of different fruit species, genotypes and their waste by-products was compared
and discussed with regard to different extraction procedures and bioactive phytochemicals
content.
Chapter 14 The effects of three-irrigation managements (50% evapotranspiration [ETc],
75% ETc and 100% ETc) and two-maturation degrees (maturation I and maturation II) on the
fatty acid composition of fruits from olive grown in Tunisian conditions were evaluated. At
maturation grade I, at the highest level of water supplied to the variety arbequina of olive
produced under Tunisian growing conditions, a statistically significant decrease of oleic acid
percentage (from 66.71 to 64.73%) and an increase of gadoleic and linolenic acids levels
(from 0.6 to 1.53% and from 0.84 to 1.1% respectively) were observed. At the second
maturation stage, an inverse trend of the fatty acids composition at the different water
managements was noted for the linolenic acid. Hence, when the percentage of palmitoleic
acid increased (from 2.42 to 3.16%) the percentage of oleic acid decreased (from 64.94 to
63.35%) as the amount of water supplied to the olive tree increased. These results could be
due the fact that the levels of saturated, polyunsaturated, monounsaturated fatty acids and
oleic to linoleic acid ratio may have undergone some changes during ripening and also to the
three different amounts of water supplied to the olive tree. Therefore, the authors noticed
that, the oleic linoleic acid ratio in the second stage of maturation increased proportionally
with water managements and proportionally with maturation.
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In: Fruit and Pomace Extracts ISBN: 978-1-63482-497-2
Editor: Jason P. Owen 2015 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
FRUIT AND POMACE EXTRACTS:
APPLICATIONS TO IMPROVE THE SAFETY
AND QUALITY OF MEAT PRODUCTS
P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai Institute of Sciences of Food Production,
Italian National Research Council, Grugliasco, Italy
ABSTRACT
Meat and meat products are prone to both microbial and oxidative spoilage;
therefore, it is desirable to use a natural preservative with both antimicrobial and
antioxidant properties. This chapter aims to critically review the use of fruit and pomace
extracts in order to improve the safety and quality of meat and meat products, as
described in studies recently carried out worldwide. In particular, the antimicrobial and
antioxidant effects of these natural food additives in fresh or frozen beef, pork and
chicken meat products are evaluated.
Keywords: Meat, citrus, apple, grape, pomegranate, plum, berry, antioxidant, antimicrobial
INTRODUCTION
Fruits and pomace extracts are rich sources of antioxidants and can serve as a source of
natural antioxidants for meat products. These antioxidants include fat-soluble vitamins and
precursors, such as carotenoids and tocopherols, as well as flavonoids and the water-soluble
vitamin C (Banerjee et al., 2012). The high content of bioactive compounds (vitamin C,
carotenoids, tocopherols, phenolic compounds and dietary fiber) present in fruit by-products
Tel.: +39 011 6709232; fax: +39 011 6709297.E-mail address: [email protected]
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P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 2
can be used as natural food additives (antioxidants, antimicrobials, colorants, flavorings, and
thickening agents) (Schieber et al., 2001; Abd El-Khalek & Zahran, 2013).
Application of various fruits and their by-products to meat products as natural
antioxidants has been attempted by many researchers. Introducing natural antioxidants into
meat products increases their nutritional value by bringing a health benefit to consumers, and
reducing the doses of synthetic antioxidants currently being used (Bisboaca & Bara, 2011).
By-products of plant food processing are a major disposal problem for the industry
concerned, but they are also promising sources of compounds which may be used because of
their favorable technological or nutritional properties (Schieber et al., 2001).
Significant interest has recently focused on the addition of natural antioxidants to foods
to replace synthetic antioxidants, due to their potential to prolong the shelf life of food
products by inhibiting and delaying lipid oxidation (Rey et al., 2005). Synthetic additives can
reduce food spoilage, but consumers are concerned about chemical residues in food;
therefore, one of the major emerging technologies is the application of natural additives (Abd
El-Khalek and Zahran, 2013). Full utilization of fruits could transform the industry into a
lower-waste agribusiness, increasing industrial profitability (Ayala-Zavala and Gonzlez-
Aguilar, 2011), but application of these natural plant extracts at higher levels might be limited
if the sensory quality of the meat were to be affected. The discovery of new compounds with
specific roles in human metabolism has encouraged food technologists to develop new
processes and soft technologies to preserve the beneficial characteristics of these compounds
(Gonzlez-Aguilar et al., 2008). However, different practical aspects should be borne in mind
concerning their possible application in meat products: extraction efficiency, availability of
sufficient material for subsequent application, and health and safety considerations (Viuda-
Martos et al., 2009).
The use of plant-derived nutraceuticals may afford meat processors the opportunity to
develop novel meat products with enhanced nutritional and health benefits (Carpenter et al.,
2007). But sometimes, when these ingredients are added at high concentrations, their use
results in products of lower sensory and physicochemical quality (Fernndez-Gins et al.,
2005).
The antioxidant potential of fruit and berry extracts against muscle lipid oxidation has
been profusely documented. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to review the information
and studies on fruit and pomace extracts and their applications in meat.
APPLE
Apple (Malus domestica Borkh) is a good source of total phenolics, carbohydrates,
pectin, minerals and fiber with a well-balanced proportion between soluble and insoluble
fractions (Gorinstein et al., 2001). Apple pomace is a co-product of the apple juice industry,
abundantly available, safe and can be implemented without further fractionation or
purification (Lantto et al., 2006) making it a potential fiber source for food enrichment
(Figuerola et al., 2005) and giving it potential in restructured meat products (Huda et al.,
2014). Furthermore, apple pomace powder, a recovered co-product of an industrial process,
may contain suitable enzyme activities for food protein stabilization (Lantto et al., 2006). The
-
Fruit and Pomace Extracts 3
incorporation of apple pomace into meat products (Table 1) could help to overcome the fiber
deficit in the current human diet (Huda et al., 2014).
Fernndez-Martn et al., (2000) studied the addition of three non-meat ingredients: apple
fiber, potato starch and plasma proteins to pork meat (low-fat) batters. They processed batters
by cooking alone (70 C) and by a high-pressure/temperature combination (400 MPa/70 C)
and determined some batter characteristics such as water holding and various texture
parameters. No particular interactions were detected between meat batter proteins and non-
meat ingredients. Apple fiber behaved as an inert filler in both kinds of processed batter,
increasing hardness but proved ineffective at improving cohesiveness and water holding in
cooked-only batters.
Lantto et al., (2006) studied the effects of a co-product of an industrial process (freeze-
dried apple pomace powder) containing both tyrosinase and transglutaminase enzyme
activities on heat-induced rheological changes, and on gel hardness in unheated pork meat.
The efficiency of the apple pomace powder was compared with commercial microbial
transglutaminase, mushroom tyrosinase and polyphenol oxidase. All the enzymes studied
were able to improve the gel hardness of unheated meat homogenate at 4C to a certain
extent. These authors concluded that apple pomace powder containing protein-modifying
enzymes other than proteinase has the potential to improve gel formation during heating in
pork meat homogenate.
Table 1. Recent articles about meat and meat products with apple by-product
Meat product Type of ingredient Impact on product Reference
Pork meat batters Apple fiber Behave as an inert filler &
Increase hardness
Fernndez-Martn et
al., 2000
Mutton nuggets Apple pomace Reduce hardness, texture, flavor &
overall acceptability scores
Huda et al., 2014
Pork meat
homogenate
Apple powder Improve gel hardness & may
contain suitable
enzyme activities for food protein
stabilization
Lantto et al., 2006
Raw pork sausages Apple puree Together with plum, decrease fat &
increased moisture
Nuez de Gonzalez et
al., 2008a
Low fat chicken
nuggets
Apple pulp Increase dietary fiber content,
redness,
yellowness & chroma index
Verma et al., 2010
Huda et al., (2014) determined pH, cooking yield, emulsion stability, proximate
composition, texture analysis and sensory properties of mutton nuggets produced with the
addition of apple pomace at levels of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%. The results of this study
indicate that mutton nuggets containing apple pomace had improved cooking yield and
emulsion stability compared to the control, while pH values were significantly higher for the
control than in the treated samples. Obviously, crude fiber content increased significantly
with increasing levels of apple pomace, while protein, ash and fat contents were significantly
higher in the control and decreased in the treated samples. Among these samples, the mutton
nuggets with 15% apple pomace had significantly higher moisture content. Among textural
properties, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness and gumminess did not change for the apple
pomace-incorporated treatments, whereas the addition of this by-product significantly
-
P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 4
decreased hardness in the meat products. Sensory evaluation showed significant reductions in
flavor, texture, and overall acceptability scores in the treated samples; however, the scores
were in the range of acceptability and 5% apple pomace showed the best acceptability among
the treated samples.
Nuez de Gonzalez et al., (2008a) evaluated the antioxidant properties of 3% or 6% dried
plum and apple purees in both raw and precooked pork sausages, stored either refrigerated or
frozen. The results of objective color evaluations showed that the addition of dried plum and
apple purees together and dried plum puree alone changed the internal color attributes of raw
pork sausage to a small degree by darkening the samples, slightly diluting internal redness,
and increasing yellowness. Consumer sensory evaluations indicated that pork sausage patties
with 3% dried plum and apple purees together or 3% dried plum puree alone were liked as
much as the butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)/ butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) treatment or
control.
Verma et al., (2010) studied the effect of adding apple pulp, at levels of 8%, 10% and
12%, and of a formulation replacing 40% of the common salt with a salt-substitute blend
consisting of potassium chloride, citric acid, tartaric acid and sucrose, on the physico-
chemical, textural and sensory properties of low-fat chicken nuggets. Addition of apple pulp
and replacement of common salt resulted in lower pH, cooking yield, emulsion stability, ash
and protein contents and in higher moisture, dietary fiber and color parameters (redness,
yellowness and chroma index) when compared to control. Textural properties (hardness,
springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness values) of chicken nuggets were
affected by addition of apple pulp and common salt replacement. Sensory evaluation showed
significant reductions in the texture, flavor and overall acceptability scores in treated samples,
while their appearance, saltiness and juiciness scores were almost similar to the control.
CITRUS FRUIT
Citrus fruits are mainly used for juice, oil and pectin production. The by-products
obtained during the processing of citrus fruit to obtain juice are promising new sources of
phenolic antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds (myricetin, mangiferin, gallic acid and
hydrolysable tannins, which are most likely gallotannins, constitute the major antioxidant
polyphenolics) and offering new commercial opportunities to the food industry (Gonzlez-
Aguilar et al., 2008). The antimicrobial activity of citrus by-products obtained from industrial
manipulation of citrus fruit depended on the volatile oils present in their rinds; indeed,
mandarin rind powder was the most effective, followed by orange rind powder and then
grapefruit rind powder. Since limonene was present at very high and similar concentrations in
the three citrus peels, the greater antimicrobial activity of mandarin essential oil might not be
attributable to limonene, but probably to the presence of other essential oil constituents, given
the higher proportion of oxygenated monoterpenes in mandarin. Citrus fruits are an important
source of flavonoids (hesperidin, narirutin, naringin and eriocitrin) and vitamin C (Schieber et
al., 2001). Kinnow or Tangerine (Citrus reticulata) is a citrus fruit variety grown in northern
Indian states. In the process of juice extraction, 3034% of kinnow peel is obtained as a major
by-product. Kinnow peel is a rich source of vitamin C, carotenoids, limonene, and
polyphenolic antioxidants (Anwar et al., 2008). Hesperidin was selected by Fernndez-Lpez
-
Fruit and Pomace Extracts 5
et al., (2007) as the most suitable compound for monitoring polyphenol changes in sausages
added with citrus fiber during processing. Citrus bioflavonoids reportedly have wide-ranging
antimicrobial properties effective against a broad range of human pathogens, fungi and food
spoilage organisms (Fernndez-Lpez et al., 2005). Citrus by-products can be considered as
potential ingredients of meat products (Table 2), because of their ability to reduce residual
nitrite levels, thus avoiding the possible formation of nitrosamides and nitrosamines (Viuda-
Martos et al., 2009). Health concerns relating to the use of nitrates and nitrites in cooked and
dry cured meats tend toward decreased usage to alleviate the potential risk to consumers from
formation of carcinogenic compounds.
Alesn-Carbonell et al., (2005) assessed that albedo of citrus fruits could be an
interesting functional ingredient to improve the cooking properties of beef patties, because
better fat and water retention reduces cooking losses in meats. Furthermore, if an increase in
dietary fiber is normally recommended in some specific diets, the increased fiber content
constitutes an additional nutritional benefit for the consumer. The use of citrus fiber could be
attractive to some consumers as a positive alternative to conventional fillers in meat-based
products. The effects of citrus fruit (lemon, orange, mandarin, etc.) extracts and their by-
products (albedo, rind and fiber powder, etc.) have been reported on lipid oxidation of meat
products, whether fresh (Alesn-Carbonell et al., 2005), cooked (Viuda-Martos et al., 2009)
or dry cured (Fernndez-Lpez et al., 2008).
Abd El-Khalek and Zahran (2013) evaluated the use of fruit by-products such as
mandarin rind powder, orange rind powder, and grapefruit rind powder, with or without
irradiation on color change, microbial growth and lipid oxidation of raw ground beef meat
stored at 41C.
Table 2. Recent articles about meat and meat products with citrus by-products
Meat product Type of ingredient Impact on product Reference
Ground beef meat Citrus by-products Increase nutritive value, preserve
& extend shelf life
Abd El-Khalek &
Zahran, 2013
Dry-cured
sausages
Raw & cooked lemon
albedo
Decrease nitrite levels & delay
oxidation development
Alesn-Carbonell et al.,
2003, 2004
Beef burger Lemon albedo Improve cooking properties &
increase fiber content
Alesn-Carbonell et al.,
2005
Raw ground goat
meat
Kinnow rind powder Antioxidant effect Devatkal & Naveena,
2010
Goat meat patties Kinnow rind powder Antioxidant effect Devatkal et al., 2010
Swedish-style
meatballs
Orange & lemon
extracts
Control rancidity & off-flavor
development
Fernndez-Lpez et al.,
2005
Dry-cured
sausages
Orange dietary fiber Decrease residual nitrite levels Fernndez-Lpez et al.,
2007
Dry-fermented
sausages
Orange dietary fiber Decrease residual nitrite levels &
favor micrococcus growth
Fernndez-Lpez et al.,
2008
Fresh ground
chicken
Citrus extract Slight preservative effect Mexis et al., 2012
Dry-cured sausage
& Bologna
sausage
Lemon albedo &
orange dietary fiber
Reduce nitrite levels, thus
avoiding the formation of
nitrosamines & nitrosamides
Viuda-Martos et al.,
2009
Bologna sausage Orange dietary fiber Improve shelf life of meat
products
Viuda-Martos et al.,
2010a,b
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P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 6
They found that color parameters were significantly affected by the additives used. All
treatments increased lightness values significantly compared to the control over the 21 days
of storage, while treatment with 2% grapefruit rind powder and control had the highest
redness values and gave greater stability to the samples with regards to red discoloration of
ground meat compared to other treatments. The results show that at day 0 different treatments
caused a significant increase in yellowness values over the control value. All by-product
additives significantly extended the shelf life of ground meat compared with the control,
reducing total bacterial, lactic acid bacteria and total mold and yeast counts. Concerning lipid
oxidation, control meat showed significantly higher malonaldehyde content throughout the
storage period than treated meat. Abd El-Khalek and Zahran (2013) concluded that citrus by-
products combined with NaCl or irradiation preserved ground meat and extended its shelf
life for more than 21 days and can therefore be used in biotechnological fields as natural
preservatives for the food industry. In contrast, Mexis et al., (2012) found that the addition of
citrus extract had only a slight preservative effect on fresh ground chicken meat.
Alesn-Carbonell et al., (2003, 2004) studied the effect on compositional, textural, and
sensory characteristics of different types of lemon albedo (raw and cooked) when these by-
products were added at different concentrations (0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10%) to dry-cured
sausages. Products that contained 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5% of cooked albedo and 2.5% of raw
albedo demonstrated sensory properties similar to conventional sausages (Alesn-Carbonell
et al., 2003). Addition of 7.5 % of dehydrated cooked albedo or 5% of dehydrated raw albedo
yielded products with sensory properties similar to those of control sausages (Alesn-
Carbonell et al., 2004). These authors concluded that the addition of lemon albedo to dry-
cured sausages improves their nutritional properties and may have beneficial effects due to
the presence of active biocompounds that decrease residual nitrite levels and delay oxidation
development. Furthermore, they suggested that a good source of dietary fiber, such as lemon
albedo, could be successfully used in other processed meats or other food products, including
dairy and bakery products.
Alesn-Carbonell et al., (2005) studied the effect of adding four concentrations (0%,
2.5%, 5% and 7.5%) of lemon albedo prepared using four different methods (either cooking
and/or drying and mincing) on the quality attributes of beef burgers including: pH, fat
oxidation, compositional analysis, cooking characteristics, color, texture profile analysis and a
range of sensory attributes. These authors found that pH and lipid oxidation of samples were
slightly affected by the type of albedo, while some treatment types significantly improved the
cooking properties of meat patties when compared with the controls. Color parameters
showed differences in lightness, yellowness and redness, while gumminess, springiness,
hardness and chewiness grew as albedo concentration increased.
Devatkal & Naveena (2010) studied the effect of 2% kinnow fruit by-product powder +
2% salt on color and oxidative stability of raw ground goat meat stored at 4C. Addition of
salt resulted in a reduction in redness scores. Lightness increased in controls and was
unchanged in treated samples during storage, while redness scores declined and yellowness
showed inconsistent changes. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values in
meat treated with kinnow fruit was lower than control meat throughout storage and the
percentage reduction in TBARS values was 123%. Salt accelerated TBARS formation, and
by-products of kinnow fruit counteracted this effect. Therefore, they concluded that this
powder had the potential to be used as a natural antioxidant to minimize autooxidation and
salt-induced lipid oxidation in raw ground goat meat. Devatkal et al., (2010) evaluated the
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Fruit and Pomace Extracts 7
anti-oxidant effect of extracts of kinnow rind powder in goat meat patties. The results of this
study showed that this extract was a rich source of phenolic compounds with free radical-
scavenging activity; the authors concluded that extracts of this powder had potential for use as
a natural anti-oxidant in meat products.
Fernndez-Gins et al., (2003) showed that the addition of orange fiber powder (0.5, 1,
1.5, and 2%) to cooked Bologna sausage improved its nutritional value, decreased residual
nitrite levels, and delayed the oxidation process. These authors reported that microbial growth
was not modified by citrus fiber during storage and the products were harder and less springy
and chewy at all concentrations of citrus fiber in comparison with untreated samples. All
samples had similarly satisfactory quality scores except sausage with 2% orange fiber
powder, which scored the lowest.
Fernndez-Lpez et al., (2005) evaluated the antioxidant and antibacterial effect of
orange and lemon extracts in cooked Swedish-style meatballs in comparison with rosemary
and garlic extracts. They found that the application of citrus extracts and rosemary improved
the acceptability of the product. Activity in a lard system was established for all the extracts
and further determination of the development of rancidity measured as TBARS consistently
showed that about 50% of rancidity can be controlled by the citrus preparations, while water-
soluble and oil-soluble rosemary extracts were more effective, almost completely eliminating
rancidity. They concluded that the application of orange and lemon extracts could serve to
control the development of rancidity and off-flavors, and could have additional effects such as
water binding.
The use of orange fiber at five concentrations (0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2%) as an
ingredient in dry-cured sausages was studied by Fernndez-Lpez et al., (2007). They found
that TBARS values increased in all samples during drying, with higher increases in control
than in treatment samples and concluded that this juice industry by-product has a protective
effect from oxidation and due to the decrease in residual nitrite level could prevent
nitrosamide and nitrosamine formation in meat products. The authors supposed that the high
reactivity of nitrites could lead to a reaction with the polyphenols present in orange fiber.
They also determined the polyphenol composition of each formulation and its evolution
during dry-curing, and found that hesperidin was the most important phenolic compound in
orange fiber and in sausages to which this fiber has been added.
Fernndez-Lpez et al., (2008) studied the effect of adding three concentrations (0%, 1%
and 2%) of orange fiber to Spanish dry-fermented sausages on their stability. Microbiological
(aerobic mesophilic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, Micrococcaceae and
mold and yeast counts), chemical (moisture, lactic acid and residual nitrite level),
physicochemical (pH and water activity) and sensory analyses were performed by these
authors. They concluded that the use of orange fiber as an ingredient has no negative effects
upon the fermentation or dry-curing processes of dry-fermented sausages. They found that
orange fiber addition during fermentation affected residual nitrite levels and counts of
micrococcus, while fiber addition during dry-curing affected pH and water activity, while
decreasing residual nitrite level and favoring micrococcus growth. Both effects have a
positive impact on sausage quality and safety. Finally, similar scores for all sensory attributes
were found for control sausages and sausages with 1% orange fiber, while the excessively
low pH reached in sausages with 2% orange fiber could cause changes in texture and color
that could affect the perception of taste, appearance and color.
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P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 8
Mexis et al., (2012) investigated the combined effect of a citrus extract (0.1% and 0.2%)
and an oxygen absorber (Ageless FX type) on shelf-life extension in fresh ground chicken
stored at 4 C. The authors monitored microbiological changes (total viable count, lactic acid
bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas, and Clostridium spp.), physicochemical changes
(pH, total volatile nitrogen, and color) and sensory changes (odor, color, and taste) as a
function of treatment and storage time. Results showed that addition of the citrus extract led
to a shelf-life extension of about 2 days, while the use of the oxygen absorber substantially
increased product shelf life by approx. 3 days as compared to control samples. A 4-5 day
product shelf-life extension was achieved using the combination of 0.1% citrus extract and
oxygen absorber.
Viuda-Martos et al., (2009) described the latest advances in the use of citrus by-products
(albedo, dietetic fiber obtained from the whole co-product, and washing water used in the
process to obtain the dietetic fiber) in meat products as a potential ingredient to reduce
sodium or potassium nitrite content. These salts are widely used as a curing agent in cured
meat products, because they develop the characteristic flavor, inhibit outgrowth and
neurotoxin formation by Clostridium botulinum, delay the development of oxidative
rancidity, react with myoglobin and stabilize the red meat color. Citrus fiber shows the
highest potential to reduce any nitrites that have not reacted with myoglobin, followed by
albedo and finally washing water. Viuda-Martos et al., (2010a) found that 1% orange dietary
fiber and spice essential oils (0.02% rosemary essential oil or 0.02% thyme essential oil)
could find a use in the food industry to improve the shelf life of a Bologna-type sausage
called mortadella. Fibre content affected the moisture, fat, ash content and color coordinates
of lightness and yellowness. The treatments analysed lowered the extent of lipid oxidation
and the levels of residual nitrite, while analysis of the samples revealed the presence of
hesperidin and narirutin. The treated samples stored in vacuum packaging showed the lowest
aerobic and lactic acid bacteria counts and no psychotropic bacteria or enterobacteria were
found in any of the treatments. Sensorially, the most appreciated sample was the one
containing orange dietary fiber and rosemary essential oil, stored in vacuum packaging.
Viuda-Martos et al., (2010b) studied the effect of adding 1% orange dietary fiber and 0.02%
oregano essential oil and of various storage conditions (air, modified atmosphere and
vacuum) on the shelf-life of Bologna sausage. These authors found that samples with orange
fiber and oregano essential oil showed the lowest aerobic and lactic acid bacteria counts and
lowest TBARS values when they were stored in vacuum packaging, while samples with
orange fiber and oregano essential oil showed similar sensory evaluation scores when stored
either in air or in vacuum packaging. Viuda-Martos et al., (2010a,b) concluded that orange
dietary fiber and essential oils could find a use in the food industry to improve the shelf life of
various meat products.
GRAPE
Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) seed extract has been investigated for use as an antioxidant in a
few meat types and has been reported to improve the oxidative stability of goat meat
(Rababah et al., 2011), turkey patties, and cooled stored turkey meat (Lau & King, 2003;
Mielnik et al., 2006). Many studies have shown that grapes are used for increasing shelf life
-
Fruit and Pomace Extracts 9
in meat and meat products (Ahn et al., 2002; Ahn et al., 2007; Kulkarni et al., 2011). Grape
extract would probably be a more effective preservative in precooked or cooked meat
products (Ban et al., 2007), especially when lipid oxidation of high-fat ground meat
products compromises quality (Tables 3a and 3b).
Table 3a. Recent articles about meat and meat products with grape by-product
Meat product Type of ingredient Impact on product Reference
Cooked ground beef Grape seed extract Improve oxidative stability &
reduce warmed-over flavor
development
Ahn et al., 2002
Cooked ground beef Grape seed extract Positive effect on microbial
growth, color change & lipid
oxidation
Ahn et al., 2007
Raw beef patties Grape seed extract Increase shelf life Ban et al., 2007
Ground chicken thigh
meat
Grape seed extract Inhibit TBARS formation &
mitigate the prooxidative effects
of NaCl
Brannan, 2008
Ground chicken thigh
& breast
Grape seed extract Inhibit intensity of musty &
rancid odor, & rancid flavor
Brannan, 2009
Cooked pork patties Grape seed extract Decrease lipid oxidation Carpenter et al., 2007
Pork burger Red grape pomace
extract
Increase color stability &
acceptability & decrease lipid
oxidation
Garrido et al., 2011
Fried beef patties Grape seed extract Inhibit formation of heterocyclic
amines
Gibis & Weiss, 2012
Pre-cooked, frozen,
re-heated beef
sausage
Grape seed extract Protect against oxidation &
retain fresh odor & flavor longer
Kulkarni et al., 2011
Ground dark turkey
meat
Grape seed extract Inhibit development of TBARS Lau & King, 2003
Ahn et al., (2002) evaluated the effectiveness of selected natural antioxidants added to
meat samples at levels of 0.02%, 0.05% and 0.1% to reduce warmed-over flavor development
in cooked ground beef. They found that 0.1% grape seed extract reduced hexanal content by
97% after 3 d of refrigerated storage, while treated meat showed significantly lower TBARS
values than control meat. These authors reported no adverse effects of this natural plant
extract on flavor and aroma at the 0.02% level.
Ahn et al., (2007) studied the effects of 1% grape seed extract on the growth of foodborne
pathogens, color changes, and lipid oxidation of cooked ground beef compared to untreated
and butylated hydroxyanisole/butylated hydroxytoluene-treated meat.
When compared to the control, grape seed extract effectively reduced numbers of
Escherichia coli and Salmonella Typhimurium, and retarded the growth of Listeria
monocytogenes and Aeromonas hydrophila. The color of cooked beef treated with grape seed
extract was less light, more red, and less yellow than those treated with butylated
hydroxyanisole/butylated hydroxytoluene and other plant extracts (pine bark and oleoresin
rosemary). The control showed significantly higher hexanal content and TBARS during
storage than cooked ground beef treated with plant extracts. Indeed, grape seed extract
-
P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 10
retarded the formation of TBARS by 92% after 9 days, and significantly lowered hexanal
content throughout the storage period.
Table 3b. Recent articles about meat and meat products with grape by-product
Meat product Type of ingredient Impact on product Reference
Pork patties Grape extract Increase the quality & extend the
shelf-life
Lorenzo et al., 2014
Cooked turkey breast
meat
Grape seed extract Improve oxidative stability
during heat treatment & storage
Mielnik et al., 2006
Cooked pork patties Grape skin Provide partial protection against
lipid oxidation
Nissen et al., 2004
Pig liver pt Grape seed extract Reduce the oxidative
deterioration of lipid
Pateiro et al., 2014
Irradiated & non-
irradiated chicken
breast meat
Grape seed extract Prevent & minimize major
sensory changes during
irradiation
Rababah et al., 2005
Irradiated & non-
irradiated chicken
breast meat
Grape seed extract Decrease the amount of TBARS,
hexanal
& pentanal values
Rababah et al., 2006
Baladi Goat Meats Grape seed extract Minimize lipid oxidation Rababah et al., 2011
Cooked beef & pork
patties
Grape seed extract Reduce oxidative rancidity &
improve shelf life
Rojas & Brewer, 2007
Raw beef & pork
patties
Grape seed extract Provide minimal protection
against oxidation
Rojas & Brewer, 2008
Beef patties Grape pomace
extract
Inhibit some foodborne
pathogens
Sad et al., 2011
Raw & cooked
chicken meat
Grape seed & peel
extracts
Prevent lipid oxidation & alter
color of cooked meat
Selani et al., 2011
Ban et al., (2007) proposed grape seed and green tea extracts as preservatives for
increasing the shelf life of low-sulphite raw beef patties, comparing the antimicrobial and
antioxidant activities of both extracts with ascorbate. These authors evaluated meat spoilage
(total viable and coliform counts, pH, color parameters, metmyoglobin and TBARS) and
pointed to the possibility of using low-sodium metabisulphite/vegetable extract combinations
to preserve raw-meat products. In particular, they found that ascorbate, grape seed and green
tea extracts delayed microbial spoilage, redness loss and lipid oxidation, and improved the
preservative effects of SO2 on beef patties, especially against meat oxidation. No anomalous
sensory traits were caused by either extract.
Brannan (2008) examined the effect of 0.1% grape seed extract and 1% NaCl on ground
chicken thigh meat during refrigerated storage at different relative humidity levels. Grape
seed extract delayed the reduction of water activity that occurred during refrigerated storage,
but had no effect on pH or moisture content compared to the untreated control. This extract is
an effective antioxidant in ground chicken thigh meat that inhibits the formation of TBARS
compared to the untreated control, helps to mitigate the prooxidative effects of NaCl, and may
alter the effects of NaCl on protein solubility in salted chicken patties.
Brannan (2009) performed sensory, instrumental color, yield, pH, water activity, and
binding strength analyses on ground chicken thigh and breast with or without grape seed
extract during refrigerated storage. This author concluded that grape seed extract may be an
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Fruit and Pomace Extracts 11
effective antioxidant in precooked chicken breast systems. Indeed, this extract inhibited the
intensity of musty and rancid odor, and rancid flavor compared to control patties, but in
chicken thigh and breast, grape seed extract caused significantly darker, redder, and less
yellow patties, while the differences in sensory scores were only due to storage time or
precooking.
Carpenter et al., (2007) assessed the effect of grape seed extract (01000 g/g muscle) on
lipid oxidation, color, pH, microbial status and organoleptic properties of raw and cooked
pork patties during chilled storage. The addition of grape seed extract resulted in minor
increases in the surface color of raw and cooked pork and decreases in TBARS in raw pork
patties on days 9 and 12 of storage, relative to controls. The redness value of raw and cooked
pork patties increased marginally with increasing grape seed extract concentration. The eating
quality of cooked pork, mesophilic plate counts and pork pH was unaffected by grape seed
extract addition.
Garrido et al., (2011) studied the effect on meat quality (pH, microbial spoilage, lipid
oxidation and color parameters) of two different types of red grape pomace extracts (0.06
g/100 g final product) obtained by different extraction systems in pork burgers packed under
aerobic conditions. The addition of these two extracts did not affect their microbial spoilage
and pH value. The lightness value of pork burgers decreased (darker meat) on day 6 when
grape pomace extract was added. These authors concluded that the new extraction system
(methanolic extraction + High-Low Instantaneous Pressure) could be a valid alternative to
optimize the purity of the grape pomace extracts in order to use them as a preservative in
meat foodstuffs.
Gibis & Weiss (2012) assessed the ability of water-in-oil marinades containing grape
seed extract (0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 g/100 g) to reduce formation of heterocyclic amines in fried
beef patties. These authors found four heterocyclic amines (MeIQx, PhIP, Harman, and
Norharman) in low concentrations in fried patties and the content of MeIQx (2-amino-3,8-
dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline) and PhIP (2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo
[4,5b]pyridine) reduced significantly, by 57% and 90%, respectively, after use of marinades
containing the highest extract concentration. The antioxidant capacity of grape seed was also
compared with rosemary extract and resulted about two times greater. They concluded that
both lipophilic and hydrophilic fractions of these extracts contain polyphenols that are
apparently able to partition to the reaction site, thereby inhibiting heterocyclic amine
formation. Marinating is thus a useful pre-treatment for meats prior to heating, and it should
be considered as a recommended method for decreasing daily exposure of consumers to
heterocyclic amines.
Kulkarni et al., (2011) compared grape seed extract (100, 300, and 500 ppm) to common
antioxidants (ascorbic acid at 100 ppm of fat and propyl gallate at 100 ppm of fat) in a pre-
cooked, frozen, stored meat model system sausage (70% lean beef, 28% pork fat and 2%
salt). After addition of grape seed extract or common antioxidants, the meat product was
formed into rolls, frozen, sliced into patties, cooked on a flat griddle to 70 C, overwrapped in
PVC, then frozen at 18 C for 4 months. Based on sensory characteristics, instrumental color
and TBARS values, grape seed extract at concentrations of 100 and 300 ppm generally
performed as well as propyl gallate in maintaining product quality throughout the storage
period and these samples retained their fresh cooked beef flavor and odor longer than controls
during the 4-month storage period.
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P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 12
Lau & King (2003) reported that the addition of 1% and 2% grape seed extract with 85.4
g of gallic acid equiv/100 g to dark poultry meat patties effectively inhibited the development
of TBARS, with treated samples having 10-fold lower TBARS values compared to untreated
controls.
Lorenzo et al., (2014) evaluated four natural extracts from grape, tea, chestnut and
seaweed with potential antioxidant activity. The addition of these natural antioxidants had a
preservative effect in porcine patties during 20 days of storage in modified atmosphere packs
at 2 C. Among the four natural compounds tested, grape and tea extracts showed the most
potential as alternatives to commercial antioxidants and both led to a decrease in
Pseudomonas, total viable counts, lactic acid and psychotropic aerobic bacteria compared to
the control. In particular, grape extract inhibited discoloration in refrigerated patties by
reducing the increase in yellowness and loss of redness. These authors stated that the
protective effect on the desirable red color of raw patties may influence consumer purchase
decisions.
Mielnik et al., (2006) tested the efficiency of four concentrations of grape seed extract (0,
0.4, 0.8, and 1.6 g/kg) in retarding the oxidative rancidity of cooked turkey breast meat.
Development of lipid oxidation over the 13 days of refrigerated storage was evaluated by
means of TBARS and volatile compound (hexanal, pentanal, octanal, 2-octenal, 1-octen-3-ol,
2-octen-1-ol, and 1-penten-3-ol) formation. The authors found that the ability of this extract
to prevent lipid oxidation was concentration-dependent and concluded that the addition of
grape seed extract combined with vacuum-packaging should be considered as a good method
for improving lipid stability in cooked poultry meat.
Nissen et al., (2004) compared the antioxidative efficiency of extract of grape skin with
rosemary, green tea, and coffee extracts in precooked pork patties over 10 days of storage at
4C in atmospheric air. They used descriptive sensory profiling following reheating and
quantitative measurements of hexanal, TBARS and vitamin E as indicators of lipid oxidation.
All extracts retarded lipid oxidation during processing of the pork patties, because their initial
oxidative status showed a significantly lower level of secondary oxidation products and
higher levels of vitamin E when extracts were incorporated. The effect of the extracts
incorporated in the meat was clearly related to the degree of lipid oxidation and an overall
ranking of the antioxidative efficiency of extracts in increasing order became apparent:
Coffee
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Fruit and Pomace Extracts 13
they concluded that it would be advisable to replace the synthetic antioxidant with these
natural extracts.
Rababah et al., (2005) evaluated the effectiveness of commercial grape seed extract (3000
ppm), green tea extract (3000 ppm), and a combination of the two (6000 ppm) on the sensory
evaluation of irradiated chicken breasts (at a dosage of 3.0 kGy) using instrumental,
descriptive, and consumer tests. The results showed that infusing plant extracts into skinless,
boneless chicken breast meats could be an effective technique for minimizing undesirable
changes in sensory properties during irradiation, which increases texture attributes, though
does not affect sensory flavor attributes apart from giving the meat a brothy flavor. These
authors concluded that the infusion of chicken meat with green tea extract is an effective
method for enhancing the sensory changes caused by irradiation, while the addition of grape
seed extract increased the darkness and redness of the meat samples. Rababah et al., (2006)
also investigated the effect of irradiation on volatile compounds and TBARS contents in raw
and cooked non-irradiated and irradiated chicken breast meat infused with green tea and
grape seed extracts and stored at 5C for 12 d. They found that irradiation increased hexanal
and TBARS values both of meat infused with plant extracts and controls, while cooking the
samples increased the amounts of TBARS and volatiles. They concluded that though
irradiation increased lipid oxidation, infusion of chicken meat with plant extracts could
reduce the lipid oxidation caused by irradiation because the addition of plant extracts
decreased the amount of TBARS as well as hexanal and pentanal values in comparison with
un-infused meat. Finally, Rababah et al., (2011) evaluated the effect of commercial grape
seed or green tea in combination with synthetic tert methyl-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) at
different concentrations on lipid oxidation and the redness of goat meats stored at 5C for 3,
6, and 9 days. They found that the infusion of goat meat with TBHQ and these plant extracts
is an effective method for minimizing lipid oxidation caused by storage; in particular, TBHQ
was the most effective antioxidant at retarding lipid oxidation in goat meat, while grape seed
and green tea extracts/combinations at a higher level (6000 ppm) were more effective than at
a lower level (3000 ppm).
Rojas & Brewer (2007) determined the effect of grape seed extract (0.01% and 0.02%),
oleoresin rosemary (0.02%) and water-soluble oregano extract (0.02%) mixed with salt (2%)
on oxidative and color stability in cooked beef and pork patties stored at 4C for 2, 4, 6, and 8
d. The higher grape seed extract concentration resulted in the best antioxidant activity in both
beef and pork and did not affect instrumental color measures of redness, yellowness, or color
intensity, and appeared to reduce visual green discoloration in beef patties. Therefore, grape
seed extract at 0.02% has the potential to reduce oxidative rancidity and improve shelf life in
refrigerated cooked beef and pork patties. Rojas & Brewer (2008) also studied the effect of
grape seed extract, oleoresin rosemary and water-soluble oregano extract mixed with salt on
the oxidative and color stability of raw beef and pork patties, vacuum packaged and stored
frozen at -18C for 1, 2, 3 and 4 months. Lipid oxidation was assessed using TBARS and
descriptive sensory evaluation and varied little between different extracts, while minimal
oxidation occurred, probably because the product had not been precooked; therefore little, if
any, lipid oxidation would have been initiated, and the product was vacuum packaged, which
excluded oxygen, thus limiting the progress of any oxidative rancidity that may have been
initiated. Moreover, the authors stated that the concentrations of polyphenolics in these
extracts varied substantially from those used in other studies. Grape seed extract addition
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P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 14
provided small degrees of protection against oxidation in both meat species and did not alter
the sensory perception of oxidation, redness, yellowness or color intensity.
Sad et al., (2011) compared the antimicrobial effects against food spoilage
microorganisms, yeast and moulds and lipolytic bacteria and against foodborne pathogens,
coliform bacteria and Enterobacteriaceae of grape pomace ethanolic extracts obtained from 5
different grape varieties grown in Turkey (Emir, Gamay, Kalecik Karas, Narince, and
kzgz). The extracts were concentrated, incorporated into beef patties at 0%, 1%, 2%,
5%, and 10% concentrations and stored in the refrigerator (4C) for 2, 12, 24, and 48 h.
During the storage period, microorganism numbers generally decreased in proportion to
extract concentration and all the microorganisms tested were inhibited by the extract
concentration of 10%. Furthermore, foodborne pathogens and spoilage microorganisms were
also inhibited by 5% of Emir (white grape cultivar), Gamay (red grape cultivar), and Kalecik
Karas (red grape cultivar) varieties in beef patties. The authors concluded that environmental
and agricultural factors can also influence the composition of grape pomace extracts and this
should be taken into account when classifying grape cultivar extracts in respect of their
antimicrobial effectiveness.
Selani et al., (2011) studied the effect of grape seed and peel extracts obtained from two
different grape varieties (Isabel and Niagara) grown in Brazil on pH, lipid oxidation, color
and sensory properties of raw and cooked processed chicken meat stored at 18C for nine
months. Neither extracts altered the pH values of raw and cooked samples or the color of raw
samples, but they led to alterations in the color of the cooked product (darkening and lower
intensity of red and yellow color). In the sensory evaluation, only the Niagara variety
interfered with the natural chicken meat flavor and odor. These two grape residue extracts,
that showed considerable amounts of total phenolic compounds, containing the flavonoids
catechin and epicatechin as major compounds, were effective in inhibiting the lipid oxidation
of meat, with results comparable to a synthetic antioxidant (0.01% BHT) or a commercial
mixture of sodium erythorbate, citric acid and sugar. These authors stated that the use of
residues from the wine industry as natural antioxidants, combined with the use of vacuum
packaging and storage under freezing temperatures, may be considered an effective method
for retarding lipid oxidation in both raw and cooked processed chicken meat.
PLUM
Various dried plum puree ingredients have been promoted to aid the retention of juices in
precooked meat and poultry products (Table 4) and have been reported to function as
antioxidants, antimicrobials, fat replacers, and flavorings (Karakaya et al., 2011). In fact,
plum (Prunus domestica L.) contains a known humectant, sorbitol, which has the potential to
alleviate the dry mouth-feel in low-fat meat because it naturally binds moisture (Lee &
Ahn, 2005). These authors evaluated the effects of plum extract (1%, 2% and 3%) on the
quality characteristics of vacuum-packaged, irradiated ready-to-eat turkey breast rolls at 0 and
7 days of storage. They found that the addition of plum extract had no detectable effect on the
proximate composition, but decreased lightness value and increased redness and yellowness
values of this ready-to-eat product due to the original color of plum extract. However, the
color of sample with 3% plum extract was dark and might not be appealing to consumers. The
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Fruit and Pomace Extracts 15
juiciness of turkey breast rolls was increased by plum extract, while texture was not
influenced. The authors recommended the addition of 3% or higher of plum extract with the
aim of improving mouth-feel and antioxidant effect in irradiated turkey breast rolls.
Table 4. Recent articles about meat and meat products with plum by-product
Meat product Type of ingredient Impact on product Reference
Turkey breast rolls Plum extract Increase juiciness, control lipid
oxidation & production of
aldehydes
Lee & Ahn, 2005
Precooked pork
sausage patties
Dried plum puree Increase sweetness Leheska et al., 2006
Chicken breast
fillets marinated
Dried plum products Suitable substitute for alkaline
phosphates as a marinade
Jarvis et al., 2012
Raw pork sausages Dried plum puree Suppress lipid oxidation Nuez de Gonzalez et al.,
2008a
Boneless beef roasts Fresh & dried plum
juice concentrate,
spray dried plum
powder
Reduce lipid oxidation &
warmed-over flavor
Nuez de Gonzalez et al.,
2008b
Boneless ham
muscles
Fresh & dried plum
juice concentrate,
spray dried plum
powder
No differences Nuez de Gonzalez et al.,
2009
Low fat beef patties Plum puree Increase juiciness & texture
scores
Yldz-Turp & Serdarolu,
2010
Leheska et al., (2006) evaluated the phenolic content and sensory attributes of precooked
pork sausage patties enhanced with 5% or 10% dried plum puree in comparison with 5% or
10% blueberry puree. Results indicate that adding dried plum puree to precooked pork
breakfast sausage increased total phenolics. Trained sensory panel evaluations showed that
dried plum puree treatments were significantly sweeter than all other treatments, in fact, as
the fruit amount increased, sweetness scores also increased with the dried plum puree
treatments being sweeter than the blueberry puree treatments. On the consumer panel, 70% of
children said they would eat the dried plum puree sausages again, while 90% said they would
like to eat the blueberry puree sausage again. Therefore, the concentration of dried plum
puree may need to be reduced to increase the number of children who would choose to eat the
sausage again.
In order to address the growing demand for more natural poultry products, Jarvis et al.,
(2012) determined physical and sensory attributes of vacuum-marinated boneless breast meat
containing various dried plum ingredients (0.06% dried plum fiber, 0.06% dried plum
powder, 1.1% and 2.2% plum juice concentrate, 0.06% and 0.22% fiber/powder mix), as
compared to the traditional marinade with 0.06% and 0.45% sodium tripolyphosphate
(STPP). The combination of plum powder and plum fiber marinade was found to have similar
sensory characteristics when compared to STPP in boneless/skinless chicken breast fillets for
a majority of the attributes measured. Plum concentrate at 1.1% produced an equivalent
marinade pick-up as compared to STPP, and drip loss was comparable to STPP for both
concentrations of plum concentrate. Cooking loss for the STPP treatment was similar to the
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P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 16
plum fiber/powder mix at 0.22% and the 1.1% plum concentrate. No differences were
observed in thaw loss for any treatment as compared to STPP. The authors concluded that a
blend of plum fiber and powder or a plum concentrate could be a suitable substitute for the
alkaline phosphates commonly used in chicken breast meat marinades.
Phenolic compounds in dried plums appear to be the main contributors to their
antioxidant capacity. Therefore, this may be a useful natural ingredient for retarding lipid
oxidation in raw ground or precooked pork sausage that routinely contains higher levels of fat
than other processed meat products. Nuez de Gonzalez et al., (2008a) determined the
antioxidant properties of dried plum purees (3% or 6% dried plum puree and 3% or 6% dried
plum and apple puree) in both raw and precooked pork sausages stored either refrigerated or