USAID/ETHIOPIA FEED THE FUTURE

GENDER ANALYSIS

Introduction

One of the principal objectives of the Feed the Future Initiative (FTF) is the economic empowerment of rural women. “The Initiative acknowledges that reducing gender inequality is an important contributor to eradicating global hunger and recognizes the fundamental role that sdfwomen play in achieving food security. These include women’s access to and control over agricultural assets and how that impacts upon the agricultural value chain. And, it includes input into agricultural research; equal access to inputs and technology as agricultural producers; gender-appropriate extension packages and delivery; improved access to land and other productive natural assets; reduced gender barriers to financial services; and increased knowledge for men and women enabling them to participate in and obtain appropriate returns from the agricultural system.”1 In implementing FTF programs, missions will strive to achieve these goals by improving the potential of farmers and agriculture entrepreneurs, especially of women farmer, to increase their income and well-being through increased agricultural production.

Rural Women, Agricultural Employment and Land Tenure Issues

Ethiopian women play a major role in agricultural production, as they provide most of the labor on small farms and do most of the hoeing, weeding, transporting, processing, storing and marketing of agricultural products. However, their access to resources and control of the same is mediated through men, either their fathers or husbands, and their agricultural contribution goes largely unrecognized. Although women often have access to assets, they rarely have control over them. Women also play a large role on livestock management, horticulture and processing of animal by-products.

Rural women engage in activities that have low barriers to entry but are also of low profitability. Women face different and more basic constraints than men, linked to issues such as access to water, access to credit and low demand for their product. In contrast, men are concerned about constraints associated with more sophisticated activities, such as transport costs, road suitability, access to markets and inputs, and market information.2

Lack of access to credit is a major constraint in women’s success in their agricultural pursuits, since it hampers their capacity to purchase the necessary inputs and services. According to the Ministry of Women, women's access to agricultural sector credit stood at 12 percent of total credit allocated.3

Another major determinant of gender disparity is lack of access to land.

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The Land Reform of 1975 nationalized all rural land in Ethiopia and allocated it to farmers on a use-right basis through a local government. Land is allocated based on family size, and may be further re-distributed as families move, divorce, or die.

When women move to the husband’s place upon marriage, he is likely to be the one with his name on the land certificate while she will not get her name there unless he agrees to that. This will also imply that she is not entitled to half of the land upon divorce or death of the husband.4

A priority of the government has been the correction of gender inequalities in access to land as a way of addressing rural poverty. Recently, large programs of land certification have been implemented in the major regions of the country with the aim of reducing tenure insecurity. While evaluation of these programs is ongoing, available evidence suggests that, as with earlier efforts to reform land ownership, informal institutions are mediating the impact of policy initiatives.5

Both qualitative and quantitative evidence highlights that land ownership is traditionally considered to be reserved for men. According to the Agricultural Sample Survey of 2006/2007, the number of male owners is almost five times as high as the number of female owners (9.6 million vs. 2.3) and men on average hold larger plots (land per capita i s 1.12 hectares for male vs. 0.71 hectares for female holders).

Issues Related to Pastoralist SystemsWomen play a significant role in pastoral systems. Men tend to migrate with most of the cattle leaving women behind with the responsibility of caring for the household, which often includes a farming plot, as well as children and livestock that was left behind. Women also play vital roles in livestock production and management, trading, and maintaining support networks.

Even though women play such a central role in maintaining their source of livelihood and their households, development policy and practice have often failed to understand the significance of women’s valuable role in pastoral livelihoods.6 Though there have been some improvements, many pastoral development interventions still target men as the recipients of animal husbandry training, veterinary medicines and other benefits.7

Women in pastoralist communities tend to be excluded from public decision making processes, and experience high levels of violence and ill-health. A recent government study carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture highlighted that in all pastoral regions of Ethiopia, there are more men than women. The highest gap is in Afar region, where the population ratio was found to be 136 men to100 women, followed by Somali region, where the ratio is 118 men to 100 women.8 It is likely that high maternal death and violence against women in these regions contributes to this disparity, including female genital mutilation in its most virulent forms, and abductions and early marriage, which remain common in those areas.

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Other Employment/Entrepreneurship

Women’s opportunities to function in the market are hindered by their limited skills and greater burden of household responsibilities. As a result, women face lower activity rates, lower employment rates and higher unemployment rates than men. They are also disproportionately concentrated in unpaid or flexible jobs that offer lower earnings and less security.9

Women entrepreneurs are concentrated in non-farm enterprises that do not require high start-up capital (median start-up capital of male-owned enterprises is five times higher than that of female owned ones). Therefore, women’s non-farm activities are characterized by being smaller and having a lower level of productivity than those managed by men, particularly in rural areas. According to the World Bank, the median revenue of female owned enterprises is 5.6 times lower than male-owned enterprises in rural areas. Women’s firms also have lower value added per worker than men’s firms.10

In the formal urban sector, women entrepreneurs have a profile of education, economic circumstances and access to financial services quite different from either rural or urban small scale entrepreneurs. Women entrepreneurs with businesses in the formal urban sector are much more educated and successful in running their businesses than their male counterparts. For instance, 37 percent of managers in female-owned businesses have a graduate degree compared to only 18 percent in male-owned businesses. This suggests that to succeed women undergo a more difficult selection process in the market.

When women manage to establish a business, their activities also tend to exhibit better performance than male-owned enterprises. In fact, female-owned enterprises have a significantly larger size (measured by the number of employees) at start-up and grow faster than male owned enterprises. Overall, the average number of employees at start-up and at the time of the survey was 24 and 54 for female-owned enterprises compared to 13 and 20 for male-owned enterprises.

Evidence on the severity of constraints that women face in the entrepreneurial world point to a variety of obstacles, such as: Obstacles at start-up: Women entrepreneurs are few, and rather than running their firms in sole proprietorship they mostly concentrate in partnership enterprises. The constraints which might particularly affect women in sole proprietorship include lack of networks, poor access to finance to start a business, or other factors such as gender-specific differences in propensity to take risks, social expectations about gender roles, family trade-offs and time constraints.

Operational constraints: Female-owned enterprises are more vulnerable to corruption and crime than those owned by men. Moreover, a survey of firms in Ethiopia found that

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in female- owned businesses, 4.9 percent of senior management’s time was spent in dealing with requirements imposed by government regulations compared to 3.6 percent in male-owned businesses.11 Although corruption does not have a statistically significant impact on the productivity of businesses, it does have a statistically significant negative impact on the productivity of female entrepreneurs.

Financial constraints: Access to finance affects women entrepreneurs disproportionately. The performance of female entrepreneurs is highly and negatively affected by access to and costs of finance. In securing financing, women face somewhat higher interest on their loans and collateral requirements. Furthermore, banks often require women to provide indications of support from their husbands, such as marriage certificates or joint signatures on the loans, while men do not face similar requirements.12

DO 1 – Food Security and Rural Incomes Improved.

DO1 answers to the US President’s Initiative to Feed the Future (FtF) that aims to transform agriculture and respond to the nutritional deficiencies found around the world. It also responds to one of the GOE Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) 2010/2011-2014/15 that prioritizes agricultural development and sets the steps and parameters to achieve this through their five year Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to end Poverty (PASDEP).

FTF is at its core an agriculture strategy for both market oriented production (value chain-oriented) and a sustainable small-holder subsistence farming program for small farmers in more challenging environments. For the programs proposed by the FTF to be successful will require an enabling environment that promotes greater participation by the private sector. This would include more private sector actors having access to and the capacity to compete within the entire value chain, a financial sector with the willingness and ability to meet the demands for new lending and new credit instruments, a trade regime capable of supporting and promoting Ethiopian exports as well as reducing barriers for needed imports, and a market information system capable of providing timely and accurate information. 13

The Ethiopia FtF strategy proposes two interlinked focus areas that will drive food security and nutrition objectives. The first is an Agricultural Growth Program (AGP), a GOE/multi-donor project to promote broad-based agricultural growth in the productive parts of Ethiopia. The program will strengthen marketing and agribusiness development of key value chain commodities thru the private sector. USAID will focus on specific marketing and agribusiness interventions such as post-harvest aggregation, quality standards, access to finance, private sector-led aggregation, and private sector-led technology transfer.

The second program, will aim to link vulnerable populations into economic opportunities and provide sustainable livelihoods for the chronically poor. This program will reach at least 50,000 smallholder farmers or pastoralists, through innovative approaches, and aims for sustainability in three years. The incentives for the participants will follow a push-

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pull approach to keep the smallholders motivated and reward them for their efforts. This program has many aspects in common with the Food for Peace programs that the mission also manages.

At the higher levels of the value chain, women face innumerable obstacles related to their lack of capacity to maneuver the systems, lack of knowledge of business practices and lack of networks to facilitate their actions at start-up. They also face innumerable operational and financial constraints. For instance, women have difficulty accessing funds and permits for start-up, often have to present marriage licenses and documents indicating husband support in order to get loans, and their costs and levels of harassment in securing permits is usually higher than men’s.

The value chains selected, dairy, meat and maize, were chosen for their market growth potential, highest number of farmers involved in production, nutritional impact, job creation potential especially for women, and links to vulnerable populations.14 These are also highly concentrated in regions with a potential for linking productive and vulnerable Ethiopia, such as Oromia, Amhara, and SNNP.

Comments Regarding Gender Aspects of DO1:

Most of the issues that rural women face, both those engaged in subsistence farming as those in commercial farming have already been discussed throughout the literature.15 It is not that the issues women face are not known, but that most of the solutions are difficult to achieve and require time, patience, and resources to be solved. At the household level, women do the bulk of the work but have little say on the gains from that work. We also know that women are time and resource poor. Apart from their agricultural work, women are responsible for their families and households, as well as work in the community. Any new activities, such as attending trainings or meetings, will add to their time burden. In addition, gender dynamics in the household denote a power system in which the male is dominant and any change would be perceived as a threat to male power, often with dire consequences for women.

A key point related to women’s constraints and needs is that these are all interdependent, meaning that they depend on one another for their fruition. Thus, lack of land tenure often means women cannot offer collateral for loans, join rural producer organizations, and therefore cannot take part in decision-making processes. Women entrepreneurs face daunting and difficult constraints, ranging from constraints at start-up and accessing financing, to a variety of operational constraints. For women transitioning from agricultural producers to higher levels in the value chain, the obstacles include accessing market information and obtaining support from networks such as marketing associations to facilitate their performance.

There are a few examples of programs that have had some degree of success in integrating smallholder women farmers in agricultural programming or that have worked with rural households as a unit, to improve their livelihoods and their agricultural

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productivity. USIAD/Ethiopia’s EMPOWER Program had several components, including one to train female extension workers and agricultural researchers. The most significant component of the EM?OWER Program, ONFARM, addressed the needs of smallholder farmers through access to improved agricultural inputs, reduction of post- harvest and food processing losses, and efficient food management systems at the household level.16 USAID/Ethiopia’s Ethiopia Land Administration Project (ELAP) has provided rural farmers throughout the country with land certificates, allowing them security and encouraging investment. For women, ELAP provides them with stability, allowing them to focus on agricultural productivity without concerns about their property being taken from them. Similarly, female dairy farmers are able to improve their productivity through the Ethiopian Dairy Development Project, which offers trainings and technical assistance on dairy farming technologies and improved nutrition. This assistance has helped women dairy farmers take advantage of the assets they have access to, improve their productivity, and improve their status within their households and community.

The Gender Informed Nutrition and Agriculture Program, funded by USAID/W and implemented by the Food Science and Technology Department of Makerere University, in Uganda, demonstrated that an integrated nutrition education and agricultural development initiative, coupled with improved hygiene and food safety, could reduce prevalence of underweight children within a short time.17 The Agricultural Support Programme, funded by the Swedish International Development Agency and the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, promoted entrepreneurial approaches among smallholder farmers by working with the households, including the older children, and treating farmers as farm managers rather than beneficiaries. Variants of this program have been implemented in Malawi, Uganda and Zambia.18

To address some of the constraints in USAID’s efforts to increase agricultural productivity and improve the nutritional status of rural populations, and in consultation with others working on addressing gender issues in agriculture and food security programming, the following set of “gender equitable principles” have been developed as overall guidance for reviewing existing programs or designing new ones.

Principles for Gender Equitable Agricultural Growth and Nutrition Programming

Overcome gender-based constraints to agricultural productivityo Identify agricultural practices and technologies that will reduce producers’

and processors’ time, financial, and labor constraints, with special attention to constraints faced by women

o Promote approaches that foster equitable (though not equal) resource allocation practices between men and women in the family farm enterprises.19

Address the distinctive needs of womeno Design financial services to meet women’s savings and credit needs

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o Work with the private sector to facilitate the entry and retention of women workers.

o Encourage the private sector to invest in upgrading women’s skills (e.g., literacy, management training).

o Design systems of resource allocation to explicitly reward women’s unpaid contributions to household production.

o Encourage men and women partnership in development interventions/enterprises done in the household or community level to foster mutual support.

Improve the resiliency of vulnerable rural populationso Strengthen the ability of households to manage their multiple agro-

enterprises to meet both food and cash needs. o Design agricultural programs to build women’s and men’s access to

productive assets (e.g., land and other natural resources, equipment, and buildings).

o Include safeguards in activities to protect and sustain women’s ownership and management of productive assets, e.g., providing guarantees of tenure security or ensuring that women’s groups directly control access to their property.

Design equitable access to the rewards from agricultural enterprises o Design commercial payment mechanisms to ensure that both men and

women have access. o Foster approaches that improve household budgeting practices and

encourage savings. Engage men and women in improving nutrition of all household members

o Encourage behavior change activities to improve household nutrition through better allocation of household income.

o Design programs to improve women’s nutritional knowledge and practices and enhance men’s awareness of improved practices.

Foster equitable participation in decision-making processes at all levels (e.g., community organizations, producer associations, local government)

o Engage women’s advocacy groups in policy reform.o Improve participation of women in the full range of association leadership

roles.o Reform organizational or community governance structures (e.g., bylaws

and constitutions) to promote women’s substantive participation and/or substantive attention to their needs.

Promote the use of gender analysis by policymakers and policy analysts as a tool to improve the enabling environment

o Ensure that attention to gender inequalities is integrated into agricultural policy research.

o Offer trainings to assist policy makers in understanding the differential gender impacts of policy.

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Improve knowledge of the performance of USG investments in supporting women and reducing gender inequalities in agricultural and nutrition programs.

o Require baseline surveys that collect sex-disaggregated information.o Require identification of a set of impact indicators in project monitoring

and evaluation plans.o Monitor progress (or reversals) of program impacts on men and women.o Conduct impact assessments to measure how USG investments have

affected women and men differently. Strengthen capacity and confidence of USAID personnel in all offices to lead

gender-equitable agriculture and nutrition programs.o Build requirements for gender integration into new assistance and

acquisition requests (contracts and grants). o Develop substantive core training in regions or in Washington for all

USAID staff to understand the gender analysis, gender equality, and the characteristics of gender aware development programming.20

Recommended Interventions to Consider in the Context of FTF

In a recent report by the Gates Foundation on agriculture in Ethiopia, several gender-based recommendations were proposed, which are very pertinent and direct:

Promote gender-based equity in access to, and control of, productive resources. Enhance women’s participation in decision- and policy-making processes at all

levels. Promote actions to reduce rural women’s workload and enhance their

opportunities for remunerated employment and income. 21

Along with the above, we propose some more specific recommendations in areas that are directly related to the FtF programs:

Strengthen women’s voice in household decision-making over expenditures and assets

Strengthen women’s access to land and ownership of assets Ensure equitable membership policies for producer organizations Develop the capacity of rural producer organizations to represent women’s

interests in the market and to allow them a voice in the organization Improve the available infrastructure and services, such as processing and storage

facilities, transportation, information and communication technologies (ICTs), and facilities at retail and wholesale markets to meet women’s needs.

Some of the opportunities to promote gender integration and empower smallholder farmers can be addressed through the provision of different types of training, extension services, schemes to allow women access to credit, land, and other productive assets, and through research.

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Training:

In terms of gender approaches, there is awareness of the fact that women often lack knowledge of market issues and other areas in the higher reaches of the value chain. Likewise, one of the most effective ways of empowering women is to have them participate in cooperatives and associations, and attain leadership roles in the directives of such groups. But women and men need training that will provide them with the know-how to engage in some of these activities. However, the most basic type of training is one of literacy and numeracy, and many farmers, especially women farmers are illiterate. Therefore, training in various areas, starting from the most basic of literacy and numeracy, and continuing to the more specialized areas of bulking, storing, marketing, should be made available through these programs. Although this may be expensive, it will provide the foundation needed for growth and enhancement of the population we are trying to help. Recommend training includes:

Literacy and numeracy training. This is the most basic and critical of all training and it is needed by both men and women, but especially by women farmers since their illiteracy rates are higher than men’s.

Assertiveness and leadership training. Women have to learn and practice speaking in public, participating in meetings, and articulating their views. They also have to learn to lead, especially so they can compete for positions on the boards of producer associations and so they can function at higher levels of the value chain. This type of training may be offered along with other more specific entrepreneurship trainings, but it is very important to help tear down some of the social barriers that have conditioned women throughout their lives.

Entrepreneurship training. Encouraging the link between agriculture and business is critical to enable competitiveness. Women farmers and agriculture entrepreneurs need a better understanding of contracts, standards, export processes and other business aspects. They also need to learn how to negotiate and how to interact in the business world.

Extension services:

Most of the extension services go to the head of the household; thus, women who perform the planting, cultivating, and harvesting, do not receive key information. Women do not ask for information that they do not know is available; because the primary outreach is to the male farmer.22 While the GOE recently increased the number of extension workers to 63,000, only 12 percent of those are women. Men extension workers can work with women farmers but they have to be sensitized to the needs and the time limitations that women have. The same goes for community animal health workers (CAHWs), who are often, but do not have to be, men. Funding should be provided for this sensitization training, which should be repeated on a regular basis.

Other approaches to extension programs include:

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Have both men and women farmers attend sessions with the extension workers; Ensure that extension workers visits take place at times when women can attend; Encourage the availability of community agriculture extension volunteers and

women extension workers; Encourage husband/wife teams as lead farmers that can work with other farmers

in the community; Provide guidelines to extension workers about expectations regarding gender

issues and monitor them to ensure they adhere to the guidelines; Promote the recruitment and retention of female extension workers and CAHWs.

Access to credit:

Credit comes in many forms and with many different types of strings attached. The USAID programs should be vigilant in ensuring that the credit schemes they support are fair and the requirements to access them are within reach of their clients. Listed below are some of the many types of credit and of lending modalities that can be made available to farmers and agricultural entrepreneurs, along with some recommendations.

Linking village savings and loan associations with savings and credit Cooperatives;

Embedded services where buyers provide farmers with in-kind credit; Project-supported lines of credit from local banks and micro-financing

institutions; Partnerships between banks and processors; Availability of new banking technologies, such as mobile banking; Availability of innovative financing, such as leasing arrangements; Assist women in opening bank accounts or insist on joint bank accounts;23 and Conduct a gender review of the financial sector, focusing on agricultural credit

and finance, to establish the real situation regarding constraints in lending and potential alternatives.24

Access to land and other productive assets:

Do an analysis of land ownership in areas where programs will be based; Help women farmers to get land certificates. USASID/Ethiopia is encouraged to

conduct an evaluation of work-to-date on innovative approaches such as joint titling; and

Support programs to facilitate women’s access to machinery, farm tools, and other assets that they can handle.

Messaging

Messaging is an important avenue to reach farmers and get information disseminated. Messaging usually uses mass media. There are many studies that point out that women have very little access to the media. A recommendation, especially for rural areas, is that

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much more use be made of community and traditional groups, women’s groups, community chiefs, and of local means, such as community radio. Teachers or healthcare workers, as well as extension agents of CAHWS, are another avenue for disseminating messages.

Research25:

Women need income-generating, labor-saving and productivity-increasing technologies;

Women perform an important role in seed selection, land preparation, dairy production and marketing, small ruminant husbandry, poultry management, and other aspects of good farming. Research should capture women’s local knowledge in the management of gene flows, the production and storage of food, and in the use and conservation of biodiversity;26

Provide scholarships and fellowships for women scientists (such as the African Women in Agricultural Research and Development (AWARD) program, funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and USAID);

Include women in research trials; and Target research on crops and livestock where women are likely to benefit.27

Two final recommendations:

Support changes to the policy environment to make it more women-friendly.

Consider making gender a cross-cutting issue along with ICT.

Monitoring & Evaluation

The FtF is providing a list of required indicators. We offer some additional guidelines on indicators. First of all, we recommend that any indicator related to income, production, participation, etc. be directed to the individual farmer (men/women) rather than to the household. Using the household masks the individual contributions and does not provide an adequate source for comparison.

The Gender Analysis for the AGP VCE28 recommended the following indicators: Increase percentage of women with access to agricultural inputs; Access to production and market information (including extension); Access and completion of skills training; Increased number of women with access to and using financial services; Risk management mechanisms; Increased number of women with control of productive assets; Increased income earned by women (compared to men) employed in

agricultural and non-agricultural labor; Increased percentage of women earning an income from agribusiness and

food processing;

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Increased adoption by women to land management practices that mitigate the effects of climate change;

Increased number of women in leadership positions within farmer organizations.

Another source of illustrative indicators for gender and food security programs from various contributions to the World Bank Gender and Agriculture Sourcebook:29 These indicators and the ones above may serve as guidelines if programs require or wish to use indicators additional to the ones required by the FtF.

Agricultural Production:

Change in control of assets (sex-disaggregated) [assets listed individually]; Adoption of recommended practices and technologies among men and women farmers,

before and after program activity; Percentage of men and women farmers who have access to high quality, locally adapted

seeds, or improved livestock breeds; and Percentage of men and women farmers who implement seed saving and participate in

local seed supply systems.

Income Change and Access to Credit:

Percentage increase in incomes of individual men and women farmers from crop-based activities;

Number of persons accessing credit for food production annually, disaggregated by sex.

Organizational Participation:

Number and percentage of women and men holding management positions in natural resource management groups;

Number and percentage of women and men holding management positions in water user associations/groups;

Number and percentage of women and men members of producer groups and cooperatives;

Number and percentage of women and men holding positions in management committees and boards of producer groups and cooperatives; and

Number and percentage of women holding positions of leadership in agribusiness and/or private sector organizations.

Agricultural Markets:

Participation by women and men in small business incubators; Number of newly registered businesses started per year, disaggregated by sex of owners; Farmers holding supply contracts for contract farming disaggregated by sex; Percentage of women and men among farmers involved in organic, fair trade, or certified

marketing schemes; Percentage of businesses owning motorized or electrical equipment, disaggregated by sex

of owners; Percentage of women and men (and percentage changes) among market traders per year;

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Level of satisfaction among women and men with access to and quality of extension and training services;

Change in access to food markets of women and men farmers before and after infrastructure development.

Sexual Harassment:

Change in women’s perceptions of levels of sexual harassment or violence, or need to exchange sex for products, experienced before and after program activities.

Finally, and of a more general nature:

All people level indicators must be sex-disaggregated; All programs must have indicators to measure their reach to men and women, as

well as gender impacts; Issues such as empowerment and participation, require qualitative indicators; Require contractors to write a Gender Action Plan before they start work and hold

them accountable to it; All programs need to establish baselines at the start of the program; Ensure that desired outcomes are reflected in the targets; A mid-term evaluation should be conducted to ascertain that attention is being

paid to the gender approaches recommended in this assessment; and Consonant with the Agency’s new Evaluation Policy, the impact evaluations

conducted for FTF at the end of the program, should pay special attention to the proposed gender results, and document whether these results were achieved as well as their most significant impacts.

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1 “Voluntary national presentation of the United States of America: implementing the internationally agreed goals and commitments in regard to gender equality and the empowerment of women,” U.N. Economic and Social Council, Substantive session of 2010.

2 World Bank, Gender Stats. 3 Ethiopia Ministry of Women Affairs (MoWA), 2005, cited in Wabekbon Development Consultant PLC. 2006.

“Ethiopia: Country Gender Profile.” Prepared for JICA. December 2006, p. 6.4 Holden, Stein. 2008. “From Being Property of Men to Becoming Equal Owners? Early Impacts of Land Registration

and Certification on Women in Southern Ethiopia.” UNHABITAT, Shelter Branch, Land Tenure and Property Administration Section. p. 59.

5 World Bank, 2009. “Ethiopia: Unleashing the Potential of Ethiopian Women, Trends and Options for Economic Empowerment.” Poverty Reduction and Economic Management 2: Africa Region. Report No. 49366-ET. Deininger, et al 2007. “Rural Land Certification in Ethiopia: Process, initial impact, and implications for other African countries,” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4218, April 2007; Suleiman, Abrar, et al, 2004. "Aggregate agricultural supply response in Ethiopia: a farm-level analysis," Journal of International Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 16(4), pages 605-620; Teklu, T, 2004, “Land Scarcity, Tenure Change And Public Policy in the African Case of Ethiopia: Evidence On Efficacy and Unmet Demands for Land Rights.” http://homepages.wmich.edu/~asefa/Conference%20and%20Seminar/Papers/2005%20papers/Tesfaye%20Teklu%20on%20Land%20Tenure%20in%20Ethiopia.pdf

6 African Development Bank, 2004, “Ethiopia: Multi-Sector Country Gender Profile,” March 2004; Hodgson, D.L. 2000. Rethinking Pastoralism in Africa: Gender, Culture and the Myth of the Patriarchal Pastoralist . Oxford: James Currey, Athens: Ohio University Press.

7 Joekes and Pointing, 1991, “Women in Pastoral Societies in East and West Africa.” Dryland Issues Paper No 28. 1991 London: IIED. www.iied.org ; Larsen, K. and Hassan, M., 2003. ‘Sedentarisation of Nomadic People: The Case of the Hawawir in Um Jawasir, Northern Sudan’. Drylands Coordination Group Report No. 24; Steinmann, S 1998"Gender, Pastoralism and Intensification: Changing Environmental Resource Use in Morocco" Yale Forestry and Environment Bulletin, 103: p. 81-107; Flintan, Fiona. 2006. “Combating marginalization of pastoralist women: SOS Sahel's experience in Ethiopia.” Gender & Development, Vol. 14, No. 2. , p. 226

8 MOARD-PADS (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development) 2004. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Pastoral areas Development Study MOARD-PADS livestock resources study 8, livestock production and marketing TECHNIPLAN in association with MCE, Agristudio Addis Ababa and Rome, 2004.

9 World Bank, Gender Stats10 World Bank, 2009. Op cit, p. 38.11 World Bank, 2009. Op cit, p. 38.12 World Bank, 2009. Op cit, p. 40-41.13 USAID/Ethiopia. Economic Growth and Private Sector Development 2010Support Strategy, p 1214 Interview with Gandensia Kenyasia, USAID Uganda, November 22, 2010.15 World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization, and International Fund for Agricultural Development. 2008.

Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook, http://worldbank.org/genderinag16 USAID, 2003. “Independent External Evaluation of EMPOWER Program for USAID/Ethiopia,” DevTech Systems,

Inc. USAID Contract #: GEW-I-01-02-00019-00, December 2003.17 Gender Informed Nutrition and Agriculture Program (GINA Program) 18 Farnsworth, Cathy Rozel, Vincent M. Akamandisa and Munguzwe Hichaambwa, Zambia Feed the Future Gender

Assessment, January 2011, p. 13-14.19 Equitable approaches would take into account the contributions of labor, cash, or other inputs made by men and

women in distributing benefits. Equal approaches would divide proceeds 50-50, regardless of level of contributions. We are not recommending an equal distribution, although some households may prefer that approach. We want to ensure that all contributions to the economic well-being of the household are acknowledged and appropriately rewarded.

20 Discussion with Cristina Manfre, Cultural Practice, 2010.21 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2010, “Accelerating Ethiopian Agricultural Development for Growth, Food

Security and Equity,” July 2010.22 USAID, Business Climate Legal and Institutional Reform, 2008. Uganda’s: Agenda for Action, December 2008.

http://www.bizclir.com/galleries/country-assessments/uganda.pdf23 Kristy Cook, Sylvia Cabus and Sharon Phillipps “Improving Gender Outcomes in Agriculture Programming: What

Can We Do?” USAID, October 2010.24 Cook, Kristy, 2010. “Agriculture has a Woman’s Face in Uganda.” 25 Recent research found that female-owned plots have the lowest productivity, controlling for other inputs, which

suggests that attention to issues of gender differences in control of resources and intra-household bargaining need to be further researched.

26 Farnsworth, et al, op cit, p 11.

27 Cook, Kristy, Sylvia Cabus and Sharon Phillipps, 2010. “Improving Gender Outcomes in Agriculture Programming: What Can We Do?” USAID, October 2010.

28 USAID/Ethiopia, Attachment D: Gender Analysis: Literature Review and Requirements of AGP VCE, 2010, p. 5.29 World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization, and International Fund for Agricultural Development. 2008.

Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook, http://worldbank.org/genderinag.