2

Fuel Cells Development in India

The Way Forward

Report

3

© Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), 2010

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored, adapted, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, or translated in any language or performed or communicated to the public in any manner whatsoever, or any cinematographic film or sound recording made there from without the prior written permission of the copyright holders.

The information presented in this publication has been compiled from various published and

electronically available primary and secondary sources. CII has made every effort to ensure

the accuracy of information presented in this report. However, neither CII nor any of its

office bearers or analysts or employees can be held responsible for any financial

consequences arising out of the use of information provided herein.

4

Contents

Preface

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

Executive Summary

1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 14

2. The State of the Art...................................................................................... 15

3. Fuel Cell Technologies................................................................................. 17

4. Fuel Cells Cost Analysis ............................................................................... 27

5. Analysis of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells ............................................................... 30

6. Analysis of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) .................. 34

7. Fuels & Sources ........................................................................................... 37

8. Market Segments ......................................................................................... 41

8.1 Distributed Power Generation .................................................................... 42

8.2 Transport Sector .......................................................................................... 43

8.3 Stationary Power ......................................................................................... 46

8.4 Portable Power ............................................................................................ 47

9. Global Road-map ........................................................................................ 47

9.1 The Major Global Players in Development of the Technology ................... 49

10. International Policy for Market Development ............................................ 51

10.1 Summary of Future Trends ......................................................................... 55

11. Leading Global Players in Automotive Applications .................................. 57

11.1 Fuel Cell Technology Challenges.................................................................60

11.2 Challenges: Transportation System Applications .......................................60

11.3 Stationary / Distributed Generation and Other Fuel Cell Systems ............ 62

11.4 Challenges concerning Materials Critical for Fuel Cells ............................. 62

12. Research Highlights in India ...................................................................... 66

12.1 Research and Demonstration Projects ....................................................... 68

12.2 R&D Institutions working on Fuel Cells in India ....................................... 69

13. Policy Landscape in India ........................................................................... 79

14. Financial Landscape .................................................................................... 83

15. Models for India’s Fuel Cell R&D ............................................................... 85

16. The Way Forward ........................................................................................ 87

5

Preface Clean Energy Technology Platform (CETF) is the key driver in combating climate change challenge facing the earth. The major focus of CETF is two fold viz. a) high efficiency conversion system and b) maximising use of renewable energy resources. Fuel cells eminently fit in both in terms of its capacity to generate electricity at much higher efficiency than conventional ranking cycle driven systems and its capacity to integrate with the energy from renewable. Fuel cells can indeed meet the demands of energy for powering small mobile phones and laptops to large size power generation. Transport is another sector where fuel cells find application and has the potential to completely substitute the current IC engine based systems, saving substantial crude oil consumption. The versatility of fuel cell applications is therefore truly mind boggling. When the world will switch over to hydrogen based energy source and when adequate hydrogen infrastructure is built, automobile traction applications would find the most efficient energy conversion device in fuel cells. Development of fuel cell for India is therefore, very important and critical. Government’s declared objective on “Power For All” will find fuel cell based distributed generation systems using renewable energy sources like biomass based biogas as a clear winner for the vast expanse of rural India. CII rightfully commissioned a study to evaluate the current status and future course of action for the development of fuel cell technology for India. Experts from industry, academia, research institutes and policy-makers were consulted and it was deduced that the development of such an important technology is critical for India and we have to integrate all the work happening in various pockets into mission driven projects necessarily driven by the public-private-partnership platform. The contents of the report have undergone several rounds of deliberations and conclusions were drawn from as to how India should take up fast pace development of fuel cell technology. An appropriate policy has been worked out eloquently and presented in the report. We would like to thank the Steering Committee members for their kind support and cooperation. We are extremely happy to acknowledge the kind support and valuable inputs received for this report from various government officials, experts, institutions and the office bearers of CII. R R Sonde (Dr) Jugal Kishore (Dr) Co-Chair – Steering Committee, CII Co-Chair–Steering Committee, CII Executive Vice President Director Thermax Ltd. Ministry of New & Renewable Energy

6

Acknowledgements CII greatly appreciates the financial support provided by its member organisations towards preparing this report. Sponsors

Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.

NTPC Ltd.

TATA Motors Ltd. Thermax Ltd.

7

CII would like to thank all the members of the Steering Committee for their guidance

in preparing the report.

Steering Committee Members:

Dr R R Sonde (Co-Chair) Thermax Ltd.

Dr Jugal Kishore (Co-Chair) Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

Mr Shailendra Sharma Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.

Prof S Basu Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi

Mr V Gnanagandhi Indian Space Research Organisation

Dr B M S Bist Former Advisor, Ministry of New &

Renewable Energy

Mr S K Dave NTPC Ltd.

Dr G Sasi Kumar SPIC Science Foundation

Dr Raja Munusamy TATA Motors

This report was prepared under the guidance of the steering committee members by

Mr InderRaj Gulati, CII, and the CII Energy division team. While preparing this

report valuable inputs were received from a number of experts and institutions. CII

would like to offer its appreciation to all the participants and contributors,

specifically to the following contributors:

Alliance for an Energy Efficient Economy

Dr Nagesh Kini, Thermax Ltd.

Dr Suman Roy Choudhury, Naval Materials Research Laboratory, DRDO

Dr R N Basu, Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, CSIR

8

Abbreviations

AFC Alkaline Fuel Cell

APU Auxiliary Power Unit

ARCI International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy & New

Materials

BHEL Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited.

BHU Banaras Hindu University

BITS Birla Institute of Technology & Science

BoP Balance of Plant

BTU British Thermal Unit

CCP Combined Cooling and Power

CECRI Central Electrochemical Research Institute

CFCT Centre for Fuel Cell Technology

CGCRI Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute

CHP Combined Heat and Power

CI Compression Ignited

CIDI Compression Ignited Direct Injection

CMET Centre for Materials for Electronics Technologies

CNG Compressed Natural Gas

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

CWP Combined Water and Power

DAFC Direct Alcohol Fuel Cell

DG Distributed Generation

DMFC Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

DOE Department of Energy

DST Department of Science and Technology.

FCEV Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle

FCF Fuel Cell Finland Industry Group

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GM General Motors

H2ICE Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine

HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle

ICE Internal Combustion Engine

IEA International Energy Agency

IICT Indian Institute of Chemical Technology

IIT Indian Institute of Technology

IMMT Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology

IOC Indian Oil Corporation

ISRO Indian Space Research Organisation

kPa Kilopascal

kW Kilowatt

9

LDV Light Duty Vehicle

LHV Lower Heating Value

LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas

MCFC Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

MCRC Shri A M M Murugappa Chettiar Research Centre

MEMS Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

MFC Microbial Fuel Cell

MNRE Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

MoU Memorandum of Understanding

MW Megawatt

NCCR National Centre for Catalysis Research

NCL National Chemical Laboratory

NHERM National Hydrogen Energy Road Map

NMITLI New Millennium Indian Technology Leadership Initiative

PAFC Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

PBI Polybenzimidazoles

PCFC Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cell

PEM Proton Exchange Membrane

R&D Research and Development

RD&D Research, Development and Demonstration

RE Renewable Energy

RFC Regenerative Fuel Cell

SECA Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance

SI Spark Ignited

SIDI Spark Ignited Direct Injection

SME Small and Medium Enterprise

SOFC Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

SPIC SF Southern Petrochemical Industries Corporation Science Foundation

UPES University of Petroleum & Energy Studies

UPS Uninterrupted Power Supply

ZAFC Zinc Air Fuel Cell

10

Executive Summary

Emphasis on green energy and concern for conservation of fossil-energy is growing

world over. Fuel cells assume significance on two counts: They not only produce

clean energy from fuels but also do it more efficiently than conventional energy

conversion devices.

In India, there have been many broad based programmes for the promotion and

development of fuel cell technology with participation from industry, research,

scientific and academic institutions, and non-governmental organizations. With

power generation and transport applications as the focus, several organizations

have pursued RD&D activities for development of processes, materials,

components, sub-systems, and systems for fuel cells. Though large knowledge-

base, technological-expertise and research-infrastructure have been developed due

to years of sustained support from Indian government and some private industries,

this important technology is still at its infancy in India.

This paper provides an overview of the ongoing RD&D activities around the world

and provides a comprehensive list of organizations undertaking various

development activities to understand the technology development at the global

level and to facilitate India to position itself in terms of the technology

development.

A comparative analysis of various fuel cell technologies and its applications across

various market segments is provided with emphasis on Proton Exchange

Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) technologies.

PEMFC and SOFC are identified to be most relevant in the Indian context with its

immediate application in power generation and transport sector. A technical

analysis is, further, provided for PEMFC and SOFC technologies and thrust areas

are suggested to make the technologies competitive and commercially viable.

Though hydrogen is perceived to be the primary source of fuel to power fuel cells,

RD&D activities both internationally and domestically have led to the

diversification of fuels being used to power fuel cells. The different sources and

future prospects of such fuel cells are detailed in the paper. The paper also

addresses various fuel cell challenges in terms of application acceptability in

different segments, critical materials, balance-of-plant, catalysts, membranes, and

plates.

International models for successful technology development are analysed and an

India specific strategy is suggested. The strategy entails greater involvement of the

Government, prioritising technology development, thrust areas for the technology,

11

regulatory intervention to monitor and manage the technology development and

the need for financial and fiscal incentives as key areas for the immediate uptake of

the technology.

12

1. Introduction

India has experienced dramatic economic growth over the past decade, with GDP

growth of around 6% per year since the early 1990’s, when market liberalisation

began. This led to a peak GDP growth of 9.7% in January 2007 and current GDP

growth of 7.2% Jan 20101. Some analysts have predicted 10-12% growth per year over

the next decade. To continue the GPD growth2, the quantity and quality of energy

should be scaled up substantially. This has to be coupled with efficient use of energy

if the energy-demand from growth sectors of industry, commerce, transport and

infrastructure, as well as the pent up demand for energy and services from rural

India are to be contained.

Access to electricity has not been uniform across regions, between urban and rural

areas, and even across income groups. Even though 85% of villages are considered

electrified, around 57% of the rural households and 12% of the urban households in

the country did not have electricity in 2000.3 Per capita energy consumption in India

is one of the lowest in the world. Improvement in human development is also

strongly associated with access to electricity. Hence, Distributed Generation of power

attains central importance in order to meet the needs of India’s population with its

growing aspiration of an improved quality of life and access to social services.

According to the Integrated Energy Policy of the Government of India (2006), the

main challenges are to ensure adequate supply of energy at the least possible cost

and to provide clean and convenient lifeline energy to the poor even when they may

be able to fully pay for it. Hence, evolving the delivery mechanisms for energy and

services become all important. Fuel Cell, as a concept can ensure clean energy with

low CO2 emissions. Fuel Cells range from watts to mega watts (MW) in scale, it is

modular, capacity can be added as needs grow, and can run on a variety of fuels. Fuel

Cell technology can be a highly efficient solution for stationary and portable

application or to power transport vehicles. The electrical efficiencies vary from 35%

to 65% for different Fuel Cells and the CHP efficiency can go up to 90%. There is a

strong trend of cost reduction with increasing R&D, technology adaptation and

commercialisation. Government support and direct subsidies are presently playing a

vital role in ensuring the growth of the market, and in commercialising the

technology.

Fuel Cells are sold and installed with guarantees and compliant with national

standards and codes, and are used in a variety of applications, as varied as with

sporting gear, outdoor remote applications, where conventional power is out of

reach, and for emergency back-up applications. In India too, Fuel Cells are on the

1 http://www.tradingeconomics.com/Economics/GDP-Growth.aspx?Symbol=INR

2 http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/media/pdf/surveys/2008-india-free.pdf

3 http://mnes.nic.in/pdf/rerl-project.pdf

13

verge of much wider deployment, in view of the emphasis laid by the Ministry of New

& Renewable Energy.

2. The State of the Art

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity and heat by

converting free energy of fuel often hydrogen and oxygen through electro-oxidation

and reduction reaction. Electricity is generated inside a cell through reactions

between a fuel and an oxidant, triggered in the presence of catalyst and electrolyte.

The reactants flow into the cell, and the reaction products flow out of it, while the

electrolyte remains within it. Depending on electrolyte used fuel cell is categorised

into different types of fuel cells. Fuel cells can operate virtually continuously as long

as the necessary flows are maintained. Unlike a conventional device, it does this

without burning the fuel and can therefore be more efficient and cleaner as free

energy of fuel, often hydrogen or hydrogen rich compound, is directly converted to

electrical energy.

Fuel Cells have a vast advantage compared to most other alternative energy sources,

as they can be developed to run on technologies powered by different fuels. There are

several paths for production of Hydrogen, a prime fuel for Fuel Cells. This provides

flexibility, both in terms of multiple technology options as well as long-term linkages

for energy security. Hydrogen Fuel Cells generate electricity with little or no

pollutants. Fuel Cells produce less CO2 per unit of work. The CO2 emission of

different fuels is Gasoline -193 gm/km, CNG-148 gm/km, Diesel-146 gm/km and

Fuel Cells-86.8 gm/km.4 (Weighted average emissions of different types of fuel cells)

Fuel Cells could gain traction in the industrialised world because of its potential to

transform automotive technology. While the efficiency of the Internal Combustion

engine has been consistently increasing, the uncertainty of fuel supplies, and the

rising stringency of environmental norms is preparing the ground for a revolution in

energy technology. Fuel Cells are the leading edge of available and relevant

technologies to fill this gap. Electric vehicles too can only be considered as a

transition technology, as electricity is still dependent on fossil fuels, oil and coal.

A strong indication of where Fuel Cells would emerge as the power source is how the

technology is being spurred in different regions.

Over the last decade much attention has been directed at the motor industry, where

hydrogen Fuel Cells has been touted as the successor to the petrol engine. One hurdle

here has been the need for a network of hydrogen filling stations to match that of

4 http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~pu4i-aok/cooldata2/hybridcar/hybridcare.htm

14

gasoline stations. While this is not going to happen soon at a national level, it can do

so at a local level. The PEMFC require pure hydrogen in which CO content should be

less than 20 to 30 ppm.

London’s mayor Boris Johnson has promised six hydrogen filling stations in the

capital by 2012. This should be sufficient to keep up to fifty taxis and one hundred

and fifty hydrogen-powered buses on the road. Already a taxi cab that runs on the

latest fuel cell technology has been developed and the aim is to have it in use for the

Olympic Games.5

India set up the National Hydrogen Energy Programme in 2004, under the Ministry

of New & Renewable Energy, and a National Hydrogen Energy Road Map launched

in 2006.6 The Road Map projected that one million hydrogen fuelled vehicles would

be on the Indian roads and 1000 MW aggregate hydrogen based power generating

capacity to be set up in the country, by 2020.7 The programme to be implemented in

Public-Private-Partnership mode, it would develop and demonstrate

environmentally benign processes / technologies for the production of hydrogen, a

prime fuel for Fuel Cells. Support R&D in materials, alloys and methods developed

for storage of hydrogen as metal hydrides. The programme would develop and

demonstrate research into hydrogen based two-wheelers, three wheeler and catalytic

combustion systems, Fuel Cell power systems. Fuel Cells hold the key to

transforming both the transport and energy scenario in India.

5 http://www.fleetstreetinvest.co.uk/energy/alternative-energy/fuel-cell-shares-investing-00908.html

6 http://mnes.nic.in/prog-hydrogen.htm

7 http://mnes.nic.in/pdf/abridged-nherm.pdf

15

Figure 1: Basic Diagram of a Fuel Cell

3. Fuel Cell Technologies

World over, various Fuel Cell technologies are simultaneously being experimented.

Some of these technologies actually mark the historical progression of experiments

with developing commercially viable fuel cells while others exist because they target

somewhat different market segments. What all fuel cells have in common is that they

release electrical energy by means of a chemical reaction on either pure hydrogen or

a hydrogen rich fuel. Various types of fuel cells differ in terms of the minimum

operating temperature, flexibility of the fuel that they can process and the

compactness of the fuel cell.

The operating temperature greatly influences the kind of applications that the fuel

cell can be used for. While table 3 has more details about the operating temperatures

of the various types of fuel cells, basically they can be broken up into two categories.

The first would be those that operate at operating temperatures of between 50-100°C

and the second would be those that operate at very high temperatures between 500-

1000°C.

16

The more moderate operating temperature fuel cells include PEM fuel cells that are

largely used for automotive applications and also Direct Methanol Fuel cells which

are being developed for use as miniature fuel cells for consumer electronic

applications. High temperature fuel cells like SOFC and MCFC are usually the

technology of choice for power generation applications.

In terms of the flexibility of the fuel that they can use, SOFC fuel cells score over

other types of fuel cells since they can work with a whole host of hydrogen rich fuels

rather than just pure hydrogen.

In terms of compactness, DMFC have been miniaturised to the point that they can be

made into cartridges that can be used as substitutes for batteries in consumer

electronic applications. At the other end, MCFC are large and are generally used for

power generation applications in the 1MW type range.

As Fuel Cells generate electricity directly from fuel through an electrochemical

reaction, they are amenable to a wide range of applications. When combustion

engines generate power, a large portion of the energy of combustion is lost to waste

heat and friction, resulting in their low efficiency. The lack of friction within a Fuel

Cells coupled with the lack of moving parts contribute greatly to the low maintenance

needed by Fuel Cells. Other by-products of combustion include pollutants such as

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx). Fuel Cells, because of their

operating mechanism, produce little or no pollutants.

Fuel Cells using Natural Gas could potentially reduce Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

emissions by 60% compared to a conventional coal plant and by 25% compared to

today's Natural Gas plants. In fact, Fuel Cells running on Hydrogen derived from a

renewable source would emit nothing more than gaseous water.8 9

3.1 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

SOFC relies on natural gas and is considered to be a promising technology for

stationary applications. SOFCs can operate on hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas,

diesel fuel, and jet fuel with minimal fuel processing. SOFCs can provide electrical

efficiencies of 50 - 55%. Due to their high operating temperatures 800 -1000°C,

cogeneration cycles can be effectively employed, with the resulting efficiencies of

these cogeneration power plants approaching 90%.10 The cell elements are

constructed from ceramic materials. The raw ingredients for these ceramics are

relatively inexpensive. Given the high operating temperatures of SOFCs, the need for

expensive precious metal catalysts is negligible. The SOFC units can be scaled up,

8 http://www.che.sc.edu/centers/PEMFC/about_fuelcell_1.html 9http://www.unc.edu/~mccarty/onsite.htm 10 http://www.acumentrics.com/index.htm

17

installed anywhere, subject to the availability of gas and be connected to an electrical

grid just as simply as connecting the PC to the Internet.

These Fuel Cells are best suited for large-scale stationary power generators. Since

these Fuel Cells operate at high temperatures reliability is a major area of concern, as

parts of the Fuel Cell can break down after cycling on and off repeatedly at its high

operating temperature. However, SOFCs are very stable when in continuous use.

SOFC's are suitable for stationary applications as well as for auxiliary; the steam

produced from high operating temperature of Fuel Cell can be used for cogeneration

to increase the overall efficiency of the system

It is expected that as the SOFC market will move towards becoming more

commercialised and the sector activities will be streamlined. The level of

diversification found within the SOFC industry is extremely high indicating that it is

still research oriented. Please refer to section 5 for further detail.

3.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

PEMFC is one of the most promising Fuel Cell technologies because of its high power

density and a relatively low operating temperature (about 80°C). While SOFCs score

well in stationary applications, PEMFC which can vary its output quickly to meet

shifts in power demand, are best suited for automotive applications, where quick

start-ups are required. PEMFC are also preferred for light-duty vehicles, for

buildings, and for portable applications as a replacement for rechargeable batteries

because of its fast start-up time and favourable power-to-weight ratio. However,

PEMFC have limitation of being expensive and being sensitive to fuel impurities.

Please refer section 6 for further detail.

3.3 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)

AFC is one of the first fuel cell technology developed, and is the first type widely used

in the U.S. space programme to produce electrical energy and water on spacecrafts. It

was used on Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity and drinking water. The

disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that they are very susceptible to contamination;

hence require pure hydrogen and oxygen. It is easily poisoned by CO2; even small

quantity of CO2 in the air can affect this cell's operation, making it necessary to purify

both the hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. AFC can achieve power generating

efficiencies between 45% and 60%. AFC use potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte

and usually operate between 60 to 90°C. As a result of the low operating

temperature, it is not necessary to employ a platinum catalyst; nickel is commonly

used as a catalyst.

3.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

18

PAFC is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of the most

mature cell types and the first to be used commercially. This type of fuel cell is

typically used for stationary power generation, but some PAFCs have been used to

power large vehicles such as city buses. 11

Since the 1970s, they have improved significantly in stability, performance, and cost.

Such characteristics have made PAFC a good candidate for early stationary

applications. 12

PAFCs are operated at the upper end of the temperature range of 150ºC–220ºC. The

PAFC operates at greater than 40% efficiency in generating electricity. When

operating in cogeneration applications, the overall efficiency is approximately 85%.

Furthermore, at the operating temperature of PAFCs, the waste heat can be used for

heating water or generating steam at atmospheric pressure. Typical installations

include buildings, hotels, hospitals, and electric utilities.

3.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

MCFC is best suited for stationary power generators. MCFC is currently being

developed for natural gas and coal-based power plants for electrical utility,

industrial, and military applications. Since they operate at extremely high

temperatures of 650°C (roughly 1,200°F) and above, non-precious metals can be

used as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing the fuel cell cost. MCFC's

operate on a variety of fuels hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane,

landfill gas, marine diesel, and simulated coal gasification products.

3.6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)

DMFC does not have many of the fuel storage problems typical of some fuel cell

because methanol has a higher energy density than hydrogen - though less than

gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is easier to transport and supply to the public using

our current infrastructure because it is liquid. DMFC technology is relatively new

compared with that of fuel cells powered by pure hydrogen, hence the research and

development is comparatively behind than that of other fuel cell types in terms of

power density per unit weight and volume. However, with current range of power

density the DMFC is most suitable for application in portable electric equipment e.g.,

laptop, mobile phone, camera.

DMFC are comparable to PEMFC as they both use a polymer membrane as the

electrolyte and have similar operating temperature. However, DMFC is not as

efficient as PEMFC and is comparatively expensive due to the large amount of

platinum required to act as a catalyst. DMFC does not need a fuel reformer as the

11 http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html 12http://www.fctec.com/fctec_types_pafc.asp

19

anode catalyst draws the Hydrogen from liquid methanol. Improvements in catalysts

and other recent developments have increased power density 20-fold and the

efficiency may eventually reach 40%. DMFC typically operates at a temperature

between 50- 120oC making it attractive for small to mid-sized applications.

DMFC systems are used to power portable applications and in some niche transport

sectors (such as marine and submarine vessels, scooters and motorbikes and as APU

for niche transport vehicles). The military accounts for a significant part of DMFC

development programmes for portable electronic products. Military investment for

the development of fuel cell powered equipment remains a high priority, particularly

in North America and Europe and this can go some way to explaining why these

regions dominate DMFC activity at the global level. In addition, consumers in these

two regions tend to be affluent and can therefore afford to purchase the newest

technological products. This consumer pull for top end products might also explain

why DMFC activity in North America and Europe is high.

DMFC remains to be the technology of choice in a sector that will one day be fully

commercialised. There is a strong technology pull from both the public sector and

the military (where sufficient funding can be provided for development programmes)

to continue with the development of DMFC solutions for powering portable

electronic.

3.7 Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)

MFC use the catalytic reaction of micro-organisms such as bacteria to convert

virtually any organic material into fuel. Some common compounds include glucose,

acetate, and wastewater. Enclosed in oxygen-free anodes, the organic compounds are

oxidized by the bacteria or other microbes. MFC's operate well in mild conditions,

20-40°C, compared to other types of Fuel Cells and are capable of producing over

50% efficiencies. Performance of MFCs is limited by their internal resistance derived

from proton mass transfer and poor oxygen reduction kinetics at the cathode. As

proton transfer through the aqueous phase is slow, the depth of proton transfer

should be minimized to reduce internal resistance through improvement of proton

mass transfer from the anode to the cathode. This might be possible through the use

of hollow fibre-type reactors. Inorganic compounds added to the anodic

compartment as nutrients result in high cation concentrations that can inhibit

proton transfer through the cation specific membrane. Development of a proton

specific membrane can prove to be a solution to solve this problem.

3.8 Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cell (PCFC)

PCFC are based on a ceramic electrolyte material which has high protonic

conductivity at high temperatures which is essential to achieve high electrical fuel

efficiency with hydrocarbon fuels. PCFCs share the thermal and kinetic advantages of

20

high temperature operation at 700°C with MCFC and SOFC, which exhibiting all of

the intrinsic benefits of proton conduction in PEM and PAFC.

3.9 Regenerative Fuel Cell (RFC)

This type of Fuel Cells is an additional build up on the PEM Fuel Cells. RFC operate

as a closed-loop form of power generation operating on renewable energy such as

wind, solar, or geothermal. These Fuel Cells generate electricity, heat and water from

Hydrogen and oxygen which could be used to power factories, vehicles and houses.

RFC's are still in the R&D stage.

3.10 Zinc Air Fuel Cell (ZAFC) In a typical ZAFC, there is a gas diffusion electrode (GDE), a zinc anode separated by

electrolyte, and some form of mechanical separators. The GDE is a permeable

membrane that allows atmospheric oxygen to pass through. The hydroxyl ions will

travel through an electrolyte, and reach the zinc anode. Here, it reacts with the zinc,

and forms zinc oxide. This process creates an electrical potential; when a set of ZAFC

cells are connected, the combined electrical potential of these cells can be used as a

source of electric power. This electrochemical process is very similar to that of a PEM

fuel cell, but the refuelling is very different and shares characteristics with batteries.

ZAFCs contain a zinc "fuel tank" and a zinc refrigerator that automatically and

silently regenerates the fuel. In this closed-loop system, electricity is created as zinc

and oxygen are mixed in the presence of an electrolyte (like a PEMFC), creating zinc

oxide. Once fuel is used up, the system is connected to the grid and the process is

reversed, leaving once again pure zinc fuel pellets. The key is that this reversing

process takes only about 5 minutes to complete, so halts in battery recharging time is

not an issue. The chief advantage zinc air technology has over other battery

technologies is its high specific energy, which is a key factor that determines the

running duration of a battery relative to its weight.