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Fukushima I nuclear accidents 1

Fukushima I nuclear accidents

Fukushima I nuclear accidents

Satellite image of the Unit 3 moments after the second explosion on 14 March, 11:04 JST

Date 11 March 2011

Time 14:46 JST (UTC+9)

Location Ōkuma, Fukushima, Japan

Coordinates 37°25′17″N 141°1′57″E

Outcome Level 4 (Accident with local consequences) on the International Nuclear Event Scale[1]

Reported injuries 15 (injuries), 3 (radiation sickness)[2]

 [3]

The Fukushima I nuclear accidents are a series of ongoing events at the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant,

following the 11 March 2011 Sendai earthquake and tsunami. Commencing 13 March, other incidents have

developed at the Fukushima Daini plant 11.5 kilometres (7.1 mi) to the south.

On 11 March 2011, the Japanese government declared a "nuclear power emergency" due to a loss of coolant andevacuated thousands of residents living close to Fukushima I. About 170,000 – 200,000 people were evacuated after

officials voiced the possibility of core damage.[4] [5] Twenty-two residents near the plant showed signs of radioactive

contamination exposure, and three workers from the plant reported symptoms of radiation sickness, according to a

statement in the New York Times,[6] but only one worker was confirmed by Tokyo Electric Power Company

(TEPCO) as ill.[7] The release of fission products from the damaged nuclear reactor core, notably radioactive

iodine-131, led Japanese officials to distribute iodine to the people living around Daiichi and Daini, because taking a

dose of iodine can help protect the thyroid gland.[6]

The next day, while evidence of partial meltdown of the fuel rods in Unit 1 was growing, a hydrogen explosion

destroyed the upper story of the building housing Reactor Unit 1. The explosion injured four workers, but the

container of the reactor remained intact.[8]  [9] The explosion is believed to be the result of hydrogen reacting with

atmospheric oxygen. Hydrogen is formed when the zircaloy cladding of the fuel rods oxidizes with water under high

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Fukushima I nuclear accidents 2

temperatures,[10] which was vented along with steam from the containment vessel into the building in order to

reduce pressure within the containment.[11] [12]

On 13 March 2011, a partial meltdown at Unit 3 appeared also possible. As of 13:00, 13 March, JST, both reactors 1

and 3 had been vented and were being filled with water and boric acid to both cool and inhibit further nuclear

reactions.[13] Unit 2 was reported to have lower than normal water level but to be stable, although pressure inside the

containment vessel was high.

[13]

The Japan Atomic Energy Agency announced that it was rating the situation atUnits 1 and 3 as Level 4 (accident with local consequences) on the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES). [14]

170,000 – 200,000 people were evacuated after officials voiced the possibility of a meltdown.[4] [15]

On 14 March, the reactor building for Unit 3 exploded as well,[16] injuring eleven people. It appears there was no

release of radioactive material and TEPCO has said it was contained within the reactor bunker. [17] TEPCO shares

dropped 24% in this first day of trading after the tsunami. [18] The president of the French nuclear safety authority,

Autorité de sûreté nucléaire (ASN), said that the accident should be rated as a 5 or even a 6 on INES. [19]

On 15 March, it was apparent problems with the vents on Unit 2 meant pressure in its containment vessel had

impeded water flow into it to the extent that Unit 2 was in the most severe condition of the three reactors, and an

explosion occurred at 06:14 Japan time.[20] The explosion in Unit 2 happened in the "pressure suppression room",

causing some damage to the reactor’s containment system.[20] [21] A fire broke out at Unit 4 and radiation levels at

the plant rose significantly.[22] The Nikkei 225 stock index plunged more than 1200 points, or 13% in the first few

hours of trading, as the government warned of elevated radiation risks.[23]

Overall assessment of risks by scientists

David A. Lochbaum of the Union of Concerned Scientists pointed to the fact that pools holding spent fuel rods in the

top level of the reactor buildings could release even bigger quantities of hazardous substances than a meltdown and

blow them high up into the atmosphere, if those rods should not be managed to be kept cooled at their position close

to the affected reactors so that the old rods would ignite. [24] [25]

Masashi Goto, a former Toshiba reactor researcher and designer, warned that mixed oxide (MOX) fuel used inreactor 3 of the Fukushima I (Daiichi) plant contained plutonium —a dangerous threat already in tiny doses —and

was, therefore, much more toxic than the fuel used in the other reactors. [26]

Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant

Cutaway drawing of a typical BWR Mark I

Containment, as used in units 1 to 5

The Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant is located in the town of Okuma

in the Futaba District of Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. It consists of six

light water, boiling water reactors (BWR) with a combined power of 

4.7 GW, making Fukushima I one of the 25 largest nuclear power

stations in the world. Fukushima I was the first nuclear plant to beconstructed and run entirely by the Tokyo Electric Power Company

(TEPCO).

The reactors for units 1, 2, and 6 were supplied by General Electric,

those for units 3 and 5 by Toshiba, and unit 4 by Hitachi. All

construction was done by Kajima.[27] Unit 1 is a 439 MWe type

(BWR3) reactor constructed in July 1967. It commenced commercial

electrical production on March 26, 1971, and was scheduled for

shutdown in March, 2011.[28] It was designed for a peak ground

acceleration of 0.18 g (1.74 m/s2) and a response spectrum based on

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Fukushima I nuclear accidents 3

the 1952 Kern County earthquake.[29] Units 2 and 3 are both 784 MW type BWR-4 reactors, Unit 2 commenced

operating in July 1974 and Unit 3 in March 1976. All units were inspected after the 1978 Miyagi earthquake when

the ground acceleration was 0.125 g (1.22 m/s2) for 30 seconds, but no damage to the critical parts of the reactor was

discovered.[29]

Units 1 – 5 have a Mark 1 type (light bulb torus) containment structure, unit 6 has Mark 2 type (over/under)

containment structure.

[29]

From September 2010, unit 3 has been fueled by mixed-oxide (MOX) fuel.

[30]

Earthquake and tsunami

Diagrammatic representation of the

cooling systems of a BWR

An earthquake categorised as 9.0MW

on the moment magnitude scale occurred

on 11 March 2011, at 14:46 Japan Standard Time (JST) off the northeast coast of 

Japan. On that day, reactor units 1, 2, and 3 were operating, but units 4, 5, and 6

had already been shut down for periodic inspection.[31] When the earthquake was

detected, units 1, 2 and 3 underwent an automatic shutdown (called scram).[32]

After the reactors shut down, electricity generation stopped. Normally the plant

could use the external electrical supply to power cooling and control systems, butthe earthquake had caused major damage to the power grid. Emergency diesel

generators started correctly but stopped abruptly at 15:41, ending all AC power

supply to the reactors. The plant was protected by a sea wall, but tsunami water

which followed after the earthquake easily topped this sea wall, flooding the low

lying generator building.[33]  [34] Article 10 of the Japanese law on Special

Measures Concerning Nuclear Emergency Preparedness, heightened alert 

condition requires authorities to be informed of such an incident: TEPCO did so

immediately and also issued a press release declaring a "First Level

Emergency".[32]

Cooling is needed to remove decay heat even when a plant has been shut down.

Nuclear fuel releases a small quantity of heat under all conditions, but the chain reaction when a reactor is operating

creates short lived decay products which take several days to entirely cease releasing heat at above the shutdown

level (typically 5% of operating power, here 20MW.). Boiling water reactors have steam-turbine driven emergency

core cooling systems that can be directly operated by steam produced after a reactor shutdown and can inject water

directly into the reactor. Using these pumps, boiling water reactors can provide water without electrically driven

pumps but only while the reactor is at pressure. This results in less dependence on emergency generators but only

operates so long as the reactor is safely producing steam, and some power is still needed to operate the valves and

monitoring systems. Achieving cold shutdown still requires motor-driven pumps to remove decay heat.

After the failure of the diesels, emergency power for control systems was supplied by batteries that would last abouteight hours.[35] Batteries from other nuclear plants were sent to the site and mobile generators arrived within 13

hours,[36] but work to connect portable generating equipment to power water pumps was still continuing as of 15:04

on 12 March.[37] Generators would normally be connected through switching equipment in a basement area of the

buildings, but this basement area had been flooded by the tsunami.[33]

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Fukushima I nuclear accidents 4

Reactor unit 1

Cooling problems at unit 1

Aerial view of the plant area before accident. Unit

1 is rightmost of block of four reactors centre left.

Unit 3 is second from left. (north is to the right)

On 11 March 2011 at 16:36 JST, a nuclear emergency situation

(Article 15 of the Japanese law on Special Measures Concerning

Nuclear Emergency Preparedness) was declared when "the status of reactor water coolant injection could not be confirmed for the

emergency core cooling systems of Units 1 and 2". The alert was

cleared "when the reactor water level monitoring function was restored

for Unit 1." However, it was reinstated at 17:07 JST. [38] Potentially

radioactive steam was released from the primary circuit into the

secondary containment area to reduce mounting pressure.[39]

In the early hours of 12 March TEPCO reported that radiation levels were rising in the turbine building for Reactor

Unit 1[40] and that it was considering venting some of the mounting pressure into the atmosphere, which could result

in the release of some radiation.[41] Chief Cabinet Secretary Yukio Edano stated later in the morning that the amount

of potential radiation would be small and that the prevailing winds are blowing out to sea.[42] At 02:00 JST, the

pressure inside the reactor containment was reported to be 600 kPa (6 bar or 87 psi), 200 kPa higher than under

normal conditions.[34] At 05:30 JST the pressure inside Reactor 1 was reported to be 2.1 times the "design

capacity",[43] 820 kPa.[8] Rising heat within the containment area would have led to increasing pressure, with both

cooling water pumps and ventilation fans for driving gases through heat exchangers within containment dependant

on electricity.[44] Releasing gases from the reactor is necessary if pressure becomes too high and has the benefit of 

cooling the reactor as water boils off, but this also means cooling water is being lost and must be replaced. [33] Water

inside the reactor should be only very slightly radioactive, but this assumes no damage to the fuel elements.

In a press release at 07:00 JST 12 March, TEPCO stated, "Measurement of radioactive material (iodine, etc.) by

monitoring car indicates increasing value compared to normal level. One of the monitoring posts is also indicating

higher than normal level."[45] The gamma ray radiation recorded on the main gate was increased from

69 nanogray/hour (nGy/h, 1 gray ≡ 1 sievert for human exposure) (04:00 JST, 12 March) to 866 nGy/h 40 minutes

later and reached the peak of 385.5 μSv/h at 10:30 JST.[46] [45] [47] [48] At 13:30 JST, radioactive caesium-137 and

iodine-131 was detected near reactor 1,[49] which indicates that some of the core was exposed due to a

partial-meltdown or other damage of the nuclear fuel.[50] The NHK website reported that cooling water had lowered

so much that parts of the nuclear fuel rods were exposed. [51] Radiation levels at the site boundary exceeded the

regulatory limits.[45] Kyodo News Service later reported that partial melting may have occurred. [52] [53] [54] [55] On

14 March 2011, Kyodo News reported radiation levels had continued to increase on the premises, measuring at 02:20

an intensity of 751 μSv/hour on one location and at 02:40 an intensity of 650 μSv/hour at another location on the

premises.[56]

Explosion of reactor building

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Fukushima I nuclear accidents 5

First explosion at Fukushima power plant, Unit 1.

Before and after images of the Unit 1 explostion.

At 15:36 JST on 12 March 2011 there was an explosion at Unit 1. Four

workers were injured, and the upper shell of the reactor building was

blown away leaving in place its steel frame.[57] [58] The outer building

is designed to provide ordinary weather protection for the areas inside,

but not to withstand the high pressure of an explosion or to act as

containment for the reactor. In the Fukushima I reactors the primarycontainment consists of "drywell" and "wetwell" concrete structures

immediately surrounding the reactor pressure vessel.[8] [59]

Experts soon agreed that the cause was a hydrogen explosion.[9]  [60]

[61] Almost certainly the hydrogen was formed inside the reactor

vessel[9] because of falling water levels, and this hydrogen then leaked

into the containment building.[9] Exposed metal fuel rods become very

hot and can then react with steam oxidising the metal and releasing

hydrogen. Safety devices should ignite the hydrogen when it is vented

before explosive concentrations are reached but apparently these

systems failed, or could not be operated due to the shortage of 

electrical power.

Officials indicated that the container of the reactor had remained intact and there had been no large leaks of 

radioactive material,[8]  [9] although an increase in radiation levels was confirmed following the explosion. [62]  [63]

ABC news reported that according to the Fukushima prefectural government, the hourly radiation from the plant

reached 1,015 µSv.[64] Two independent nuclear experts cited design differences between the Chernobyl Nuclear

Power Plant and the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant,[65]  [66] one of them saying he did not believe that a

Chernobyl-style disaster will occur.[65]

Seawater used for coolingAt 20:05 on 12 March 2011, according to the nuclear regulation act and to the directives of the Prime Minister, the

Japanese government ordered seawater to be used in Unit 1 in an effort to cool down the degraded reactor core.[37]

At 21:00 JST TEPCO announced that they planned to cool the leaking reactor with seawater (which started at 20:20

JST), then using boric acid to act as a neutron absorber to prevent a criticality accident.[67] [68] The water would take

five to ten hours to fill the reactor core, after which it would need to stay for cooling for around ten days. [9] At 23:00

JST TEPCO announced that due to the quake at 22:15[69] the filling of the reactor had been temporarily stopped but

has been resumed after a short while.[8]  [70] Filling the reactor with seawater will contaminate the reactor with

impure water, a substance not usually allowed in reactors, meaning the reactor will likely be decommissioned, since

it is not cost effective to decontaminate.[71]

NISA reported that injection of sea water into the primary containment vessel through the fire extinguisher system

commenced at 11:55 on 13 March. At 01:10 on 14 March injection of sea water was halted because all available

water in the plant pools had run out (similarly, feed to unit 3 was halted). Water supply was restored at 03:20.

Radiation levels around the plant were measure at around 0.03 µSv/hr at 05:00 and 15:00 on 14 March. [72]

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Fukushima I nuclear accidents 7

Reactor unit 3

Unlike the other five reactor units, reactor 3 runs on mixed uranium and plutonium oxide, or MOX fuel, making it

potentially more dangerous in an incident due to the neutronic effects of plutonium on the reactor and the

carcinogenic effects in the event of release to the environment.[52] [93] [94]

Cooling problems at unit 3

Early on 13 March 2011, an official of the Japan Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency told a news conference that

the emergency cooling system of Unit 3 had failed, spurring an urgent search for a means to supply cooling water to

the reactor vessel in order to prevent a meltdown of its reactor core. [95] At 05:38 there was no means of adding

coolant to the reactor due to loss of power. Work to restore power and vent pressure continued.[96] At one point, the

top three meters of mixed oxide (MOX) fuel rods were exposed. [97]

At 07:30 JST, TEPCO prepared to release radioactive steam, indicating that "the amount of radiation to be released

would be small and not of a level that would affect human health"[98] and manual venting took place at 08:41 and

09:20.[73] At 09:25 JST on 13 March 2011, operators began injecting water containing boric acid into the primary

containment vessell (PCV) via a fire pump.[99]  [100] When water levels continued to fall and pressure to rise, the

injected water was switched to sea water at 13:12.[96] By 15:00 it was noted that despite adding water the level in the

reactor did not rise and radiation had increased.[101] A rise was eventually recorded but the level stuck at 2m below

the top of reactor core. Other readings suggested that this could not be the case and the gauge was

malfunctioning.[73]

Injection of sea water into the PCV was discontinued at 01:10 on 14 March because all the water in the reserve pool

had been used up. Supplies were restored by 03:20 and injection of water resumed. [100]

Explosion of reactor building

At 12:33 JST on 13 March 2011, the chief spokesman of the Japanese government, Yukio Edano said that hydrogen

was building up inside the outer building of unit 3 just as it had in unit 1, threatening the same kind of explosion. [102]

At 11:15 JST on 14 March 2011, the envisaged explosion of the building surrounding Reactor 3 of Fukushima 1

occurred, presumably due to the ignition of the built up hydrogen gas. [103]  [104] There is no health risk reported,

though 600 people have been ordered to stay indoors. Within minutes, it was reported that as with Reactor 1, the

outer reactor building was blown apart, but the inner containment vessel was not breached. Eleven people were

reported injured in the blast.[105] [106] On the morning of 15 March 2011 (JST),Chief Cabinet Secretary Yukio Edano

announced that according to the Fukushima prefectural government, the hourly radiation from the reactor unit 3

reached 400,000 μSv.[107]

Reactor unit 4At 09:40 JST on 15 March 2011, the Unit 4 structure caught fire, likely releasing radioactive contamination from the

spent fuel stored there.[108] [109] TEPCO said workers extinguished the fire by 12:00. As radiation levels rose, some

of the fifty employees still at the plant were evacuated.[110] [111]

On the morning of 15 March 2011 (JST), Secretary Edano announced that according to the Fukushima prefectural

government, the hourly radiation from the reactor unit 4 reached 100,000 μSv.[107]

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Fukushima I nuclear accidents 9

the whole core suffers a meltdown”.[102] Soon after, Edano disclaimed that a meltdown was in progress. He stated

that the radioactive fuel rods had not partially melted and he emphasized that there was no danger for the health of 

the population.[126]  [127] Cabinet Secretary Edano said around 17 UTC on March 14 that there were signs that the

fuel rods were melting in all three reactors. "Although we cannot directly check it, it's highly likely happening". The

government does not use the term "meltdown", because that term could be misunderstood to mean radioactive

material had breached containment.[128] [129]

Evacuations

After the declaration of a nuclear emergency by the Government at 19:03 on 11 March, the Fukushima prefecture

ordered the evacuation of an estimated 1,864 people within a distance of 2km from the plant. This was extended to

3 kilometres (1.9 mi) and 5,800 people at 21:23 by a directive to the local governor from the Prime Minister,

together with instructions for residents within 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) of the plant to stay indoors.[37]  [35] The

evacuation was expanded to a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) radius at 5:44 on 12 March, and then to 20 kilometres (12 mi)

at 18:25, shortly before ordering use of sea water for emergency cooling. [37] [130]

Evacuations were also ordered around the nearby Fukushima II (Daini) plant. Residents within 3 kilometres (1.9 mi)

were ordered to evacuate at 07:45 on 12 March, again with instructions for those within 10km to stay indoors.Evacuation was extended to 10km by 17:39.[37] A journalistic investigation was stopped 60 kilometres (37 mi) from

the plants by police.[116] Over 50,000 people were evacuated during 12 March.[131] The figure increased to

170,000 – 200,000 people on 13 March, after officials voiced the possibility of a meltdown. [4] [5]

On the morning of 15 March, the evacuation area was again extended, as well as the area in which residents should

stay indoors. Prime Minister Naoto Kan stated, "The last remaining people within a 20km (12 mile) exclusion zone

around the plant had to leave, and that those living between 20km and 30km from the site should remain

indoors."[132] [133]

Reactions of nuclear authoritiesAt 01:17 JST on Sunday 13 March 2011, the Japan Atomic Energy Agency announced that it was rating the

Fukushima accidents at 4 (accident with local consequences) on the 0 – 7 International Nuclear Event Scale (INES),

below the Three Mile Island (TMI) accident in seriousness[14] which was at 5, a rating that would make the severity

of the Fukushima event comparable to Sellafield accidents between 1955 and 1979 that were also at 4.

This has been questioned by the French ASN nuclear safety authority. They say the accident can be classed as a 5 or

6, which would be comparable to or worse than the Three Mile Island accident.[134]

International reaction

As a result of the incident, many energy companies reliant on non-renewable sources and listed on stock exchangeshave seen drops in their stock prices, while, conversely, renewable energy companies have had dramatic increases in

value.[135]

Germany

During the chancellorship of Gerhard Schröder, the social democratic-green government had decreed Germany's

final retreat from using nuclear power by 2022, but the phase-out plan was delayed in late 2010, when during the

chancellorship of Angela Merkel the conservative-libertarian government decreed a 12-year delay of the

schedule.[136] This delay provoked protests, including a human chain of 50,000 from Stuttgart to the nearby nuclear

plant in Neckarwestheim. This protest had long been scheduled for March 12, which now happened to be the day of 

the explosion of reactor block 1.[137] Merkel on 14 March 2011 about-faced and declared a 3-months moratorium onthe reactor lifespan extension passed in 2010.[138] It is not yet clear what Merkel's moratorium will mean in practice,

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Fukushima I nuclear accidents 10

but there is a possibility that older nuclear plants like Neckarwestheim I might be shut down - for just three months

or for good.[138]

Switzerland

Switzerland was considering replacing a nuclear plant. By March 14, Federal Councillor Doris Leuthard, stopped the

assessment process for this replacement.[139]

USA

President Obama went on the air and stated that he was "heartbroken" by the images of devastation and pledged any

support Japan might need. The US Navy dispatched aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan and other vessels flew a

series of helicopter operations.[140] [141] A spokesman for 7th fleet naval personnel stated that monitoring equipment

indicated that the warship had been exposed to radiation. Separate hand-held equipment also picked up the

contamination on 17 crew members, (presumably those who had participated in rescue operations). Commander Jeff 

Davis said that the exposure was low enough that after the crew washed with soap and water, follow-up tests were

negative. Davis minimized the exposure as comparable to routine civilian activities and reiterated the US Navy's

committment to the relief operation. [142]

The U.S. Marines are sending the USS Tortuga amphibious dock ship to transport 300 Japanese civil defense

workers from the island of Hokaido to the island of Honshu with 90 vehicles. [143]

Operation Tomodachi is being sent by the U.S. Marines to aid Japan.

Operation Tomodachi (“friendship” in Japanese) was confirmed by U.S.

Marine officials in a news statement this weekend. Initial resources

being deployed include personnel and services.

U.S. Marines stationed in Okinawa will be sent including to the Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 265, the 3rd

Marine Expeditionary Brigade and the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit utilizing KC-130J cargo aircraft and CH-46E

transport helicopters. The effort is being headed out of the Yokota Air Base in Japan which has also sheltered 600

people.

The III Marine Expeditionary Force said in its news statement that it was promptly “prepositioning forces and

supplies in support of humanitarian assistance and disaster relief operations. ”

[144]

The New York Times editorialized that "the unfolding Japanese tragedy also should prompt Americans to closely

study our own plans for coping with natural disasters and with potential nuclear plant accidents to make sure they

are, indeed, strong enough. We've already seen how poor defences left New Orleans vulnerable to Hurricane Katrina

and how industrial folly and hubris led to a devastating blowout and oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico" [145]

Mark Hibbs, a senior associate at the Carnegie Endowment's Nuclear Policy Program, reiterated the theme that

"[T]his was a wake-up call for anyone who believed that, after 50 years of nuclear power in this world, we have

figured it out and can go back to business as usual." [146]

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Fukushima I nuclear accidents 11

References

[1] "INES, the international nuclear and radiological event scale" (http://www. iaea. org/Publications/Factsheets/English/ines. pdf). IAEA. .

Retrieved 13 March 2011.

[2] NISA. "Seismic Damage Information (18th Release)".

[3] "Japan quake: live report" (http://news. smh.  com. au/breaking-news-world/japan-quake-live-report-20110314-1buhg.  html). Sydney

Morning Herald. 15 March 2011. . Retrieved 14 March 2011.

[4] Associated, The. "The Canadian Press: IAEA says 170,000 people evacuated from area near damaged Japan nuclear plant" (http://www.google. com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5h27to-uk4j6utkt4KKWlUQJX6AHA?docId=6230208). Google.com. . Retrieved

2011-03-13.

[5] Mufson, Steven (March 13, 2011). "Japanese nuclear plants' operator scrambles to avert meltdowns" (http://www.  washingtonpost. com/ 

wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/12/AR2011031205493. html). The Washington Post . . Retrieved 13 March 2011.

[6] Wald, Matthew (March 13, 2011). "Partial Meltdowns Presumed at Crippled Reactors" (http://www.  nytimes. com/2011/03/14/world/ 

asia/14nuclear. html?_r=1&hp). The New York Times. . Retrieved 13 March 2011.

[7] http://www. nytimes. com/2011/03/14/world/asia/14nuclear. html?pagewanted=2&_r=2&hp

[8] World Nuclear News (12 March 2011). "Battle to stabilise earthquake reactors" (http://www. world-nuclear-news. org/ 

RS_Battle_to_stabilise_earthquake_reactors_1203111. html). World Nuclear News. . Retrieved 12 March 2011.

[9] "Japan to fill leaking nuke reactor with sea water" (http://www.  reuters. com/article/2011/03/12/ 

 japan-quake-reactor-idUSTKZ00680620110312?feedType=RSS&feedName=hotStocksNews&rpc=43). Reuters. 12 March 2011. .

[10]  Nuclear Fuel Behaviour in Loss-of-coolant Accident (LOCA) Conditions (https://www.  oecd-nea. org/nsd/reports/2009/nea6846_LOCA.

pdf). Nuclear Energy Agency, OECD. 2009. pp. 140. ISBN 978-92-64-99091-3. .

[11] Steve Mirsky Nuclear Experts Explain Worst-Case Scenario at Fukushima Power Plant (http://www.  scientificamerican. com/article.

cfm?id=fukushima-core) Scientific American 12 March 2011

[12] Grossman, Karl (12 March 2011). "Behind the Hydrogen Explosion at the Fukushima Nuclear Plant" (http://www. commondreams. org/ 

view/2011/03/12-3). Common Dreams NewsCenter. . Retrieved 14 March 2011.

[13] "press release 8" (http://www. tepco. co.  jp/en/press/corp-com/release/11031308-e. html). TEPCO. 13 March 2011. . Retrieved 13

March 2011.

[14] Maeda, Risa (12 March 2011). "Japan rates quake less serious than Three Mile Island, Chernobyl" (http://www. reuters. com/article/2011/ 

03/12/us-japan-quake-rating-idUSTRE72B2FR20110312). Reuters. . Retrieved 12 March 2011.

[15] Mufson, Steven (13 March 2011). "Japanese nuclear plants' operator scrambles to avert meltdowns" (http://www.  washingtonpost. com/ 

wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/12/AR2011031205493. html). The Washington Post . . Retrieved 13 March 2011.

[16] Justin McCurry (14 March 2011). "Explosion at Japanese nuclear plant" (http://www.  guardian. co. uk/world/2011/mar/14/ 

 japan-nuclear-explosion-second-reactor-fukushima). guardian.co.uk. .

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SB10001424052748704893604576200183092822382.  html). Wall Street Journal. . Retrieved 14 March 2011.

[118] US aircraft carrier reportedly sails into radioactive cloud (http://www.   jpost. com/International/Article. aspx?id=212057),  Jerusalem

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[119] 17 in U.S. Navy Treated for Contamination (http://www.  nytimes. com/2011/03/14/world/asia/14military. html?src=mv), New York 

TImes, Thom Shanker, March 14, 2011[120]  Japan fears damage to reactor container , ABC News. (http://www. abc. net. au/news/stories/2011/03/15/3164151. htm)

[121] Tokyo Shares Plunge 13% (http://online.  wsj. com/article/SB10001424052748703908304576201252426149320.  html) The Wall Street 

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[122] "Kan inspects quake-hit nuclear plant in Fukushima" (http://english. kyodonews.   jp/news/2011/03/77002. html). Kyodo News. 12

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[123] Tom, Watkins (13 March 2011). "Official: 'We see the possibility of a meltdown'" (http://www. cnn. com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/03/ 

12/japan. quake. nuclear. failure/). CNN.com. . Retrieved 2011-03-13. ""There is a possibility, we see the possibility of a meltdown," said

Toshihiro Bannai, director of the agency's international affairs office"

[124] "Japan earthquake: Meltdown may be occurring, Japanese nuclear official says" (http://www.  latimes. com/news/nationworld/world/ 

la-fgw-japan-quake-meltdown-20110312,0,2889362. story). latimes.com. 2011-02-27. . Retrieved 2011-03-13.

[125] Donn, Jeff; Yamaguchi, Mari (13 March 2011). "Japan quake causes emergencies at 5 nuke reactors" (http://www.  msnbc.  msn.  com/id/ 

42025478). MSNBC . Associated Press. . Retrieved 13 March 2011.[126] "Government: No meltdown in Japanese nuclear plant" (http://www. monstersandcritics. com/news/asiapacific/news/article_1625701.

php/Government-No-meltdown-in-Japanese-nuclear-plant). Monsters and Critics. 2011-03-13. . Retrieved 2011-03-13.

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[140] "Relief efforts still getting started days after earthquake (http://www.  stripes. com/news/ 

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[141] BBC

[142] http://www. kspr. com/sns-ap-us-japanupdate,0,4351563. story

[143] AP report cited by Idaho Times

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[145] http://www. bbc. co. uk/news/world-middle-east-12307698

[146] http://www. usatoday. com/money/industries/energy/2011-03-14-japan-nuclear-crisis-a-wake-up-call_N. htm

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Fukushima I nuclear accidents 16

External links

• TEPCO News Releases (http://www. tepco.co.jp/en/press/corp-com/release/index-e.html), Tokyo Electric

Power Company

• Official web site (http://www. nisa. meti.go.   jp/english/), Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA), the

nuclear safety authority of Japan

• Official web site (http://www.  jaea. go.  jp/english/), Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA)• Update on Japan Earthquake (http://www.iaea. org/newscenter/news/tsunamiupdate01.  html), International

Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

• Second "Explosion" at Reactor No. 3 (http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=LuQOFasEOhQ) on YouTube

• Anatomy of a meltdown (http://blogs. nature.com/news/thegreatbeyond/2011/03/ 

fukushima_crisis_anatomy_of_a. html), Nature

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Article Sources and Contributors 17

Article Sources and ContributorsFukushima I nuclear accidents  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418915544 Contributors: 84user, A. B., ACSE, Abductive, Adam Majer, Ancheta Wis, Andre.holzner,

Andycjp, Ardric47, Argos42, Asdfsfs, Atmoz, Azure777, BMT, Bdell555, Beagel, Berny68, Blelbach, Boardersparadise, Brandmeister, Brokendata, Bzee91, C628, Chaosprimus, Chaser,

Chingchingchingching1234, Chzz, Cjdobber01, Coffeepusher, Colfer2, Cs32en, Cwill151, Cybercobra, Cyberia23, Darrell Greenwood, Daytona2, Dwalin, Edison, Edward Vielmetti, Elen of the

Roads, Frandomar, Frank A, Frau Holle, Fsbr1908, Funandtrvl, Gatyonrew, Geni, Geofferybard, Hans Dunkelberg, Henk Poley, Henrik, Hydrox, Ingolfson, Itinerant1, Iwavns, JCDenton2052,

JPLeRouzic, JTSchreiber, Jjron, Joefromrandb, John, John KB, John Moss, Julesd, Jusses2, KDesk, KFP, Kaini, Kalin.KOZHUHAROV, Katharina giesler, Kenrick95, Knowledgekid87, Kolbasz,

Komap, Kslotte, Ksnow, L.tak, LarryMorseDCOhio, LemonMonday, Lilac Soul, LjL, LovesMacs, Lynntoniolondon, Marie Poise, MartinezMD, Mikael Häggström, Miss Madeline, Mjr162006,

Monty845, Mouramoor, Mr. D. E. Mophon, Mxn, N2e, Nergaal, Nihola, Now wiki, Numero4, Obankston, Oracleofottawa, Pasrich, Pmarshal, Pontificalibus, Porttimies, Prodego, Ptroxler,Qqchose2sucre, R. S. Shaw, RAN1, Raamin, Racerx11, Radical Edward2, Rdfox 76, Reebzz, Rememberway, Reywas92, RicHard-59, Roger.nkata, Rootover, Rtc, Rwendland, SKS2K6,

SamuelRiv, Sandpiper, Seaphoto, Serazahr, Sexandlove, Shadow Android, Shinkolobwe, SimonEdward, Skizzik, Slum125, Snori, Spitzl, Stageivsupporter, Stifynsemons, SuperSaiyaMan,

Supreme Deliciousness, Tallard, Tariqabjotu, Theanphibian, Thfledrich, Thunderbird, Topamo, Tpbradbury, Truthanado, U5K0, Xanthis, Zidane2k1, Zirconscot, 115 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Fukushima I 14 March 2011 satellite image by DigitalGlobe.jpg  Source:

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fukushima_I_14_March_2011_satellite_image_by_DigitalGlobe.jpg  License: unknown Contributors: Hydrox

Image:Locator Dot2.gif   Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Locator_Dot2.gif  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Rei-artur, STyx, Struthious

Bandersnatch, TwoWings

Image:Japan Nuclear power plants map.gif   Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Japan_Nuclear_power_plants_map.gif  License: Public Domain Contributors: Original

uploader was Calmos at f r.wikipedia

File:BWR Mark I Containment sketch.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BWR_Mark_I_Containment_sketch.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:84user

File:Bwr-rpv.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bwr-rpv.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: user:katana0182

File:Fukushima I NPP 1975 medium crop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fukushima_I_NPP_1975_medium_crop.jpg License: unknown Contributors:

User:Qurren

File:Fukushima explosion.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fukushima_explosion.jpg  License: unknown Contributors: F, Kiteinthewind, 1 anonymous edits

File:2011-03-12 1800 NHK Sōgō channel news program screen shot.jpg  Source:

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2011-03-12_1800_NHK_Sōgō_channel_news_program_screen_shot.jpg  License: unknown Contributors: Barrylb, Beao, Gotyear, King of Hearts,

L.tak, Misakubo, Nergaal, Oneiros, Optakeover, RadioFan, Rwendland, Wipsenade, 6 anonymous edits

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