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Te nctiona properties o sar – on a tecnica eve



Dear Reader,

In tis brocre, we ave atered soe o or deeper knowede reardin

te nctiona properties o sar.

Besides sweetenin, sar as any nctiona roes in ood.

Witot sar, a wod soon o o, ice crea wod crystaise, and bread

wod ose its resness and dry ot. In addition, te taste o oods wod be

disappointin witot te abiity o sar to rond o and enance natra

taste coponents. Sar as one or ore nie, aity enancin proper-

ties to oer aost a types o ood prodction invovin bot soid and

iid oods.

A tese nctiona properties are not aways we known and soeties

even orotten, despite o te iportance sar actay do pay in te

dierent appications.

Yo can aso ind inoration abot te nctiona properties o sar on or

web site www.nordicsar.co

Nordic Sar

2



Tabe o ContentsSwtnss

Sweetness 4-10

Flavo

Interaction wit oter tastes and avors 11-15

Volm

Bkin 16-19

Sobiity 20-24

TxtCrystaisation 25-26

Eect o sar and sweeteners on pectin e oration 27-30

Partice sie 31-34

Sobiity 20-24

Viscosity

Slf lf

Scrose ydroysis 40-42

Water activity and its ipications in sar-ric oods 43-47

Fmntaton

Ferentation eedstocks 48-49Scrose ydroysis 40-42

Fzn-pont dpsson

Sobiity 20-24


Colo

Brownin reaction 50-53


Most tnton

Sobiity 20-24Scrose ydroysis 40-42


3



Sceatic Overview

4

FREEzINgShElF FERmEN- POINT mOISTuRE

SWEETNESS FlAVOuR VOlumE TExTuRE lIFE TATION DEPRESSION COlOuR RETENTION

Sweetness

Interaction wit oter tastesand avors

Bkin

Sobiity

Crystaisation

Eect o sar and sweetenerson pectin e oration

Partice sie

Viscosity

Scrose ydroysis

Water activity and itsipications in sar-ric oods

Ferentation eedstocks

Brownin reaction

•

•

•

• •

•

•

•

• •

• • • • •

•

•

•

•



Nodc Sa A/S | Lanboad 1 | P O Box 2100, 1014 Copnan K, Dnmak | Pon +45 3266 25 00

-mal [email protected] | www.nodcsa.com

Sweetness

SWEETNESS5

Figure 1. Approximate sweetness o selected sweeteners.

Frctose

0.1 1 10 100 1 000 10 000

hFCS

Scrose

Sorbito

gcose syrp

hFCS

Cycaate Scraose

Twinsweet

Saccarin

Neotae

Aspartae

Acesae-K Taatin

NhDC

Scrose is te standard sweetener to wic a oter

sweeteners are copared. Te reative sweetness o

scrose is set to 1 or 100%. Te ony way to easre

te sweetness o a sbstance is to taste it. Wen a

sbstance is paced on te tone, te taste bds

deciper te ceica coniration o te sbstance

and a sina o te taste is sent to te brain.

A rowin nber o aternative sweeteners eist

on te arket; a wit soewat dierent sweetness

copared to scrose. Te iteratre oers ires or

te sweetness o te varios sweeteners bt in ostcases tese ires are reated to st one appication.

It is necessary to know in wat edi te prodct

was tested becase te sweetness o any sweeteners

depends on concentration, ph, teperatre and te

se o oter inredients, or eape oter sweeteners

or avors. In soe cases, psycooica eects aso

inence te taste sensation: reen ey is perceived as

ess sweet tan red ey ato tey contain eacty

te sae aont o sweetener.

Fire 1 sows soe o te sweeteners avaiabe today

and teir approiate eve o sweetness.

Sweeteners are divided into two ain rops: bksweeteners, wit a reative sweetness ower or sity

ier tan scrose, and i intensity sweeteners

(hIS) wit a reative sweetness consideraby above 1.



SWEETNESS6

40°C 60°C

Figure 2. Eect o temperature on the relative sweetness

o ructose. Source: Shallenberger RS, Taste Chemistry, 1993

RElATIVE SWEETNESS

0°C 20°C

1.4

1.0

0.6

Teperatre

NATuRAl SWEETENERS

Scrose, cose and rctose are te ost coon

sweeteners in natre. gcose is aways ess sweet

tan scrose, wereas te sweetness o rctose is

iy dependent on teperatre. Fire 2 sows

tat rctose is sweeter tan scrose at ow tepera-

tres, wereas te sweetenin eect decreases as te

teperatre rises.

Nordic Sar as investiated beveraes sweetened

wit scrose, cose and rctose aone and in

dierent cobinations. Tabe 1 sows te reative

sweetness deterined ro tese tests. Invert sar is

a 50:50 i o rctose and cose derived ro

inversion o scrose.

Te ratios 30:70, 90:10, 80:20 and 50:50 in te

tabe indicate te weit percentaes o te sweeten-

ers as dry sbstances. Te aont o sweeteners added

to te beveraes corresponds to 6-10% scrose.

SWEETENER RElATIVE SWEETNESS

Scrose 1.0

Invert sar 0.8

Scrose: Invert sar 30:70 0.9

gcose 0.5-0.6

Frctose 0.9-1.2

Scrose: Frctose 90:10 1.0

Scrose: Frctose 80:20 1.1-1.2

Scrose: Frctose 50:50 1.1-1.2

Table 1. Relative sweetness o raspberry-blackcurrant sot drinks.



SWEETNESS7

Figure 3. Sweetness related to the DE equivalent o glucose syrup.

BASIC SWEETNESS OF gluCOSE SYRuPS

gluCOSE SYRuPS

gcose syrp eists in any dierent versions de-

pendin on te deree o starc ydroysis. Tere are

aso soe variants wit dierent eves o rctose de

to isoerisation o te cose oece. gcose

syrps witot rctose are ess sweet tan scrose.

gcose syrps are iven a DE nber (cose eiv-

aents) based on te deree o breakdown. Te ier

te nber, te ore starc as been ydroysed, see

ire 3.

Starc

matodetrin DE4-20

gcose Syrp DE30

gcose Syrp DE40

gcose Syrp DE60

gcose Syrp DE90

gcose / gcose DE100

0

0.1

0.2

0.35

0.54

0.62

0.65



Figure 4. Sweetness in resh and stored sot drinks.

SWEETNESS

Te iteratre ses any dierent vaes or te rea-

tive sweetness o cose syrps. Danisco tereore

ade tests wit dierent ies o scrose and cose

syrp to evaate te perception o sweetness. In te

oowin eape we copared non-carbonated

raspberry and wid strawberry sot drinks and a car-

bonated sot drink caed rit soda (sae type as

Sprite) sweetened wit eiter scrose ony (S 100) or

a 50:50 i o scrose and a cose syrp wit 9%

rctose at two dierent eves: S:F9 123 and S:F9 111

(123 and 111 indicate te aont o sweetener,

conted as a dry sbstance copared to te aont

o scrose).

A taste pane ranked te sweetness o te sapes on

a scae ro 1-9, were 1 was east sweet and 9 was

sweetest. Soe sapes were tested bot res ro

prodction and ater or onts o storae. Fire 4

istrates te reation between te sweetness o te

tree sapes and sows tat or te res sapes

S:F9 123 is cosest to te scrose-sweetened sape in

two appications, wie S:F9 111 coes coser in te

appication. Ater or onts’ storae a dose o

S:F9 123 is aso necessary in tis appication. Tis is

probaby de to inversion o scrose drin storae,

wic increases te sweetness. Te tests deonstrate

tat dosae tests st be ade or eac appication to

ake sre tat te prodct is sweetened optiay.

RaspberryFres

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1 Wid straw-berry Fres

Frit sodaFres

Wid straw-berry

4 onts

Frit soda4 onts

S:F9123 S:F9111S100

SWEETNESS8



Figure 5. Relative sweetness o selected sugar alcohols (polyols).

RElATIVE SWEETNESS

POlYOlS

Tere are any dierent poyos avaiabe today, bt

a ecept one is ess sweet tan scrose. Te reative

sweetness o te poyos appears ro ire 5. A

poyos ave a ore or ess prononced cooin eect

de to neative eat sobiity, wic ay add vae

to soe prodcts bt case probes in oters.

hIgh INTENSITY SWEETENERS (hIS)

Tere are any dierent hIS prodcts on te arket.

Tabe 2 ists te ones aowed in te Eu. Restrictions or

se in varios appications appy to a o te, see te

Eu’s sweetener directive (ttp://eropa.e.int/co/

ood/ood/ceicasaety/additives/co_eis_en.

t) or ore inoration on restrictions.

SWEETNESS9

E NumBER SWEETENERS AllOWED IN ThE Eu

E 950 Acesae K

E 951 Aspartae

E 952 Cycaic acid, Na-Cycaate, Ca-Cycaate

E 954 Saccarin and its Na-, K- and Ca-sats

E 955 Scraose

E 957 Taatin

E 959 Neoesperidin DC

E 962 Twinsweet (sat o aspartae and acesae)

Table 2. Sweeteners allowed in all EU countries.

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.1

0

S u c r o

s e x y

i t o

C r y s t

a i n e

m a t

i t o

m a t i t

o S y

r u p

S o r b i

t o

m a n n

i t o

I s o a

t

l a c t i t o

P o y d

e t r o

s e



Figure 6. Dependence on concentration.

Source: ABC International Consultants

RElATIVE SWEETNESS OF SODIum SACChARIN

Te reative sweetness o a hIS prodcts is iy

dependent on concentration and ph, as eepiied

in ires 6 and 7.

SWEETNESS10

Reative sweetness

0 5

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Scrose (%)

10 15 20 25

Figure 7. Dependence on pH and concentration.

Source: Zannoni Low Calorie Foods 1993

RElATIVE SWEETNESS OF SuCRAlOSE

Reative sweetness

3 4

1000

800

600

400

200

Scrose (%)

6 7 9

ph 3.1 ph 7.6ph 2.75

5 8 10 11 12

0100

Figure 8. Example o synergy in HIS mixes.

Source: von Rymon Lipinsky 1991

SWEETNESS SYNERgY

SWEETNESS OF ACESulFAmE / ASPARTAmE BlENDS

% Scrose

1000

8020

10

8

6

4

2

0

% Acesae K% Aspartae

6040

4060

2080

300 / bend

miin dierent hIS prodcts oten creates synery

eects restin in ier sweetness tan wen

sed separatey. Fire 8 istrates te eect o iinaspartae and acesae K.



Oter ies o sweeteners aso enerate syneries.

Tabe 3 ists a nber o ies and teir syneristic

abiity.

SWEETNESS11

SWEETENER mIx SYNERgY

Aspartae + Acesae K Yes

Aspartae + Saccarin Yes

Saccarin + Cycaate Yes

Acesae K + Saccarin No

Scraose + Aspartae No

Scraose + Acesae K Yes

Scraose + Saccarin Yes

Table 3. Synergistic ability o selected HIS mixes.



Favor

FlAVOuR12

Figure 1. Time-intensity curves o ructose, glucose and sucrose.

Source: Shallenberger RS, Taste Chemistry, 1993

Sweetness

0Tie

Frctose

Scrose

gcose

INTERACTION WITh OThER

TASTES AND FlAVOuRS

Besides sweetness tere are tree oter basic tastes:

sat, sor and bitter. Soeties ai is incded as

a it basic taste. In any ood systes we se

sweetness to baance te basic tastes and to enance

and odiy avors.

So applcatons

Beveraes, as and araades are a ies o sweet

and sor coponents. It is iportant to create a ood

baance between sorness and sweetness, wic is oten

acieved by addin a i o sar and citric acid. Tis is

a ood i becase te tie-intensity crves or bot

coponents are aost identica, i.e. te sweet and sor

tastes reac teir ai aost sitaneosy.

Te tie-intensity crves or te natra sars,

scrose, cose and rctose, are istrated in ire 1.





FlAVOuR13

Te tie-intensity crves o dierent sweeteners vary

reaty. Te sweetness o, or instance, aspartae

and scraose asts oner tan tat o natra sars.

It aso otasts te sorness o citric acid to te eect

tat te sweet taste asts or too on. usin anoter

acid, e.. aic acid, can to soe etent copensate

or tis, as its sor taste asts oner. Te tie-intensity

crves o soe sweeteners, or instance Taatin

and Neoesperidin DC, are so dierent ro a acids

tat tey cannot be sed in sor appications becase

te sorness disappears even beore te sweetness is

perceived. Te sweetness is aso very on-astin,

see ire 2.

Figure 2. Time–intensity curves o selected sweeteners.

Source: Leatherhead Food RA Ingredients Handbook Sweeteners

Sweetness

0

Tie (s)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180

Saccarin Scrose NhDC Taatin gycyrriin



FlAVOuR14

Scrose is oten sed in rit preparations becase o

its abiity to enance te avors o te rit. Tis abi-

ity varies or dierent types o sweeteners. To ind te

optia sweetener i it is necessary to peror tests

or every appication. however, soe ies are pre-

erred in ost appications.

Fire 3 sows te rests o tests ade to rank te

preerence o seected sweetener ies in two appica-

tions: non-carbonated raspberry and wid strawberry

sot drinks. A ies wit sar or cose syrp re-

dced te enery by 40% copared to te drink

sweetened wit sar ony.

RASPBERRY DRINK: A/S < ISAST < A/A < gh < Scrose < ISAS < ISA40 < ISAS+

Figure 3. Preerence ranking or non-carbonated sot drinks with total

(A/A and A/S) or 40% (ISA40, ISAS, ISAS+, ISAST, GH) energy reductioncompared to the sugar-sweetened drink.

WIlD STRAWBERRY DRINK:

gh < ISAST < ISAS+ < ISAS < Scrose < A/A < ISA40

ISA40 Invert sar, scrose, aspartae

ISAS Invert sar, scrose, aspartae, saccarin

ISAS+ Invert sar, scrose, aspartae, saccarin, neoesperidin DC

ISAST Invert sar, scrose, aspartae, saccarin, taatin

gh gcose syrp, aspartae, saccarin, neoesperidin DC

A/A Aspartae, acesae K

A/S Aspartae, saccarin



FlAVOuR15

Btt applcatons

In bitter appications sc as cocoate and coee,

sar is oten sed to oderate or disise te bitter-

ness. usin taste panes, gavino eained te eect

o sar on coee and vice versa. Varyin aonts o

sar were added to a standard coee (100% coee)

prepared ro 100 ras o coee ade wit 1 itre

o water. It appears ro ire 4 tat sar does ave

a stron inence on te perception o te coee

avor and tat te eect increases wit increasin

aonts o sar, ato not ineary. likewise, te

bitterness o coee as a siniicant inence on te

sweetness perceived, as istrated in ire 5.

Figure 4. Eect o sugar on perceived coee taste.

Data rom Galvino et al, Chemical Senses, 1990.

Eperienced coee taste

Coee concentration

0 20 40 60 80 100

25

20

15

10

5

0

Back Coee

3 ra

6 ra

12 ra

sar/100



FlAVOuR16

Figure 5. Eect o coee bitterness on perceived sweetness.

Data rom Galvino et al, Chemical Senses, 1990.

Eperienced sweetness

Sar (/100 )

2 4 6 8 10 12

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

hot water

Coee concentration

10%

40%

100%



BulKINg

Tere are two ain rops o sweeteners: bk sweet-

eners and i intensity sweeteners (hIS). Bk sweet-

eners not ony add weit and voe to te prodct,

tey aso ave a bi ipact on otee and tetre.

hi intensity sweeteners are sed in sc sa

aonts tat tey aect neiter te voe nor te

otee o te prodct. Natra sars, cose

syrps and sar acoos are a bk sweeteners.

Wt/Volm

Bk sweeteners aways add soe weit to te prod-

ct. At ow concentrations, te voe is ony sity

aected, wereas tey contribte a sbstantia part o

te voe in prodcts wit a i sweetener content,

e.. a and araade. Bk sweetener sotions ave

sity dierent speciic density (k/3). Density aso

depends on concentration and teperatre, as istrat-

ed in tabes 1-2 and ires 1-2. Tabe 3 and ire 3

sow te voe acieved at dierent concentrations

o sar or cose syrp.

In dry appications, te weit/voe reation de-

pends on partice sie and partice sie distribtion.

For ordinary caster sar, te density is approiatey880 k/3. Te vae ay vary dependin on andin.

Voe

VOlumE17

DeNSiTy OF AqueOuS SugAr AND gLuCOSe SyruP SOLuTiONS AT 20°C

gcose gcoseW % Scrose Invert Frctose gcose syrp DE42 syrp DE63

0 998.20 998.20 998.20 998.20 998.20 998.20

10 1038.10 1038.10 1038.50 1037.70 1039.07 1038.57

20 1080.97 1080.74 1081.74 1079.85 1083.17 1081.90

30 1127.03 1126.30 1127.76 1124.81 1130.68 1128.36

40 1176.51 1174.95 1177.07 1172.74 1181.73 1178.11

50 1229.64 1226.82 1229.65 1223.79 1236.48 1231.35

60 1286.61 1282.00 1285.55 1278.05 1295.01 1288.26

70 1347.49 1340.49 1344.67 1335.57 1357.34 1349.00

80 1412.2 1402.20 1406.78 1396.30 1423.43 1413.76

Table 1. Density (kg/m3) o aqueous sugar and glucose syrup solutions at 20°C.

Source o data: Leatherhead Food RA Scientic & Technical Surveys.





VOlumE18

Figure 1. Density o aqueous sugar and glucose syrup solutions at 20°C.

DENSITY OF AquEOuS SugAR AND gluCOSE SYRuP SOluTIONS AT 20°C

Table 2. Density o aqueous sucrose solutions.


Density k/3

Weit %

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

1500

1400

1300

1200

1100

1000

gcose

Invert

gcose syrp 63DE

FrctoseScrose

gcose syrp 42DE

DENSITY (k/3) OF AquEOuS SuCROSE SOluTIONS

Teperatre°C 10% scrose 20% scrose 40% scrose 65% scrose

10 1040.15 1083.58 1180.22 1321.46

20 1038.10 1080.97 1176.51 1316.56

30 1035.13 1077.58 1172.25 1311.38

40 1031.38 1073.50 1167.52 1305.93

50 1026.96 1068.83 1162.33 1300.21

60 1021.93 1063.60 1156.71 1294.21

70 1016.34 1057.85 1150.68 1287.96

80 1010.23 1051.63 1144.27 1281.52



VOlumE19

VOlumE/WEIghT (/k) FOR SugARS AND gluCOSE SYRuPS AT 20°C

gcose gcose W % Scrose Invert Frctose gcose syrp DE42 syrp DE63

0 1.002 1.002 1.002 1.002 1.002 1.002

10 0.963 0.963 0.963 0.964 0.962 0.963

20 0.925 0.925 0.924 0.926 0.923 0.924

30 0.887 0.888 0.887 0.889 0.884 0.886

40 0.850 0.851 0.850 0.853 0.846 0.849

50 0.813 0.815 0.813 0.817 0.809 0.812

60 0.777 0.780 0.778 0.782 0.772 0.776

70 0.742 0.746 0.744 0.749 0.737 0.741

80 0.708 0.713 0.711 0.716 0.703 0.707

Figure 2. Density o aqueous sucrose solutions.

DENSITY OF AquEOuS SuCROSE SOluTIONS (k/3)

Table 3. Volume/weight (l/kg) or sugars and glucose syrups at 20°C.

Source data: Table 1; 1/X * 1000.

Density k/3

Weit %

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

1400

1300

1200

1100

1000

10% scrose 40% scrose20% scrose 65% scrose



VOlumE20

Figure 3. Volume/weight (l/kg) or sugars and glucose syrups at 20°C.

VOlumE/WEIghT (/k) FOR SugARS AND gluCOSE SYRuPS AT 20°C

Voe/weit /k

Weit %

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

Motfl

At as ow dosaes as 7-10%, bk sweeteners provide

a dierent otee in beveraes or yort tan

i intensity sweeteners. In prodcts tat reire

even ier aonts o sweeteners, e.. stard and

ketcp, a tetriser is needed to obtain te sae te-

tre wit a i intensity sweetener as wen sin a

bk sweetener. In as and araades, were te

sar content noray is 35-60%, bk sweeteners not

ony add weit, voe and otee, tey aso in-

ence te eation process and, conseenty, ave a

bi eect on tetre. Dierent bk sweeteners ave

a sity dierent eect on eation and tetre.

gcose

Invert

gcose syrp 63DE

FrctoseScrose

gcose syrp 42DE



VOlumE21

Figure 1. Solubility o sucrose in pure water.

Weit % Scrose

Teperatre °C

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

100%

95%

90%

85%

80%

75%

70%

65%

60%

55%

50%

Scrose Water

SOluBIlITY

Basicay, teperatre and te ceica interaction

between a iven coponent and te water oece

deterine te coponent’s sobiity in water. Fire

1 sows ow c scrose can be kept in sotion in

pre water at teperatres between 0 and 140°C. At

teperatres above 100°C, pressrisation is necessary

to acieve te sobiity sown.

Te reativey i sobiity o scrose is an iportant

paraeter or its bkin eect in any oods and bev-

eraes. Te dissoved sar increases te viscosity o

water-based sotions or itres, restin in en-

anced otee.

Dissoved sar owers te reein point o ice

crea by preventin te water oeces ro co-

binin to or ice crystas, wic sows down te

reein process. Te roen water crystas no oner in

sotion increase te sar concentration in te re-

ainin sotion and ower te reein point even

rter.



In bakery prodcts, te sobiity, or yroscopicity, o

sar akes it copete wit or proteins and starc

ranes or te avaiabe water, wic iniises -

ten oration and decreases eatinisation o te

starc. Tis akes te ina prodct ore oist and

tender, and te yroscopicity o te sar ensres

tat it reains tat way oner.

Te sobiity o scrose is ower tan rctose bt

ier tan cose, as sown in ire 2.

Te presence o oter inredients in te sotion or

prodct aects te sobiity and te potentia crystai-

sation. gcose syrps and invert sar are typicay

sed to avoid crystaisation o scrose, bt oter in-

redients sc as proteins, tetrisers and stabiisers

aso inence crystaisation.

Figure 2. Solubility o selected sugars.

Weit %

Teperatre °C

0 20 40 60 80 100

100

80

60

40

20

0

FrctoseScrose

lactose

VOlumE22

gcose



VOlumE23

gcose 0 20 40 60 80 100

Scrose 100 80 60 40 20 0

Fire 3 sows te sobiity o cose, scrose and

ies o scrose and cose, and ire 4 sows te

sobiity o scrose, invert sar and ies o te two

sars. miin cose or invert sar wit scrose

increases te sobiity o te cobined sar atri

and aows or prodction o prodcts wit ier

tota sar soids tan wen sin sine coponents.

Te sobiity crves aso sow tat cose crystaisa-

tion is ikey to occr in i cose/ow scrose sys-

tes wit i tota soids. Since te ost coony

sed cose syrps contain ony a iited aont o

cose, cose crystaisation is ost ikey to occr

in systes wit i aonts o invert sar or iso-

cose, or in prodcts were are aonts o scrose

are converted into invert sar de to ow ph.

Figure 3. Solubility o selected sugars.

Weit % soids

40°C

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

Figure 4. Solubility o mixtures o sucrose and invert sugar.

Data rom Keysers, H. Zucker und Süsswaren Wirtschat. (1982); 35:147.

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

50°C

mIx OF SuCROSE AND gluCOSE – SATuRATION CuRVES

30°C

23°C

Scrose 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Invert sar 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Weit % soids

mIx OF SuCROSE AND INVERT SugAR – SATuRATION CuRVES

40°C

30°C

20°C gcosesatration

Scrosesatration



VOlumE24

Scrose 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

DE42 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Figure 5. Solubility o mixtures o sucrose and glucose syrup DE42.

Data rom Birch, G.G., Green, L.F., Coulson, C.B., ‘Glucose Syrups and Related Carbohydrates’,

London, 1970.

Weit % soids

85.0

82.5

80.0

77.5

75.0

72.5

70.0

67.5

65.0

mIx OF SuCROSE AND gluCOSE SYRuP DE42 SATuRATION CuRVES AT 20°C

miin scrose wit cose syrp prodces even

ier weit % soids in sotion at ower tepera-

tres, as sown in ire 5. here 84 weit % soids in

sotion is reaced at 20°C by iin 23.7% scrose

wit 76.3% cose syrp DE42.

Reference:

harod mcgee, ‘On Food and Cookin – Te Science and lore o te Kitcen’, Scribner, 1984.



Tetre

TExTuRE25

Figure 1. Phase diagram o the crystallisation o sucrose.

Scrose, % (w/w)

90

80

70

60

CRYSTAllISATION

Crystaisation o sars is desirabe in prodcts sc

as ondant, draees, de etc., bt not in any oter

prodcts ike a and eies. Crystaisation occrs

wen te sobiity iit o te sar, typicay scrose

or cose, as been eceeded and a spersatrated

environent as been created, as sown or scrose

in ire 1.

Te ter ‘spersatrated’ reers to te sitation were

ore sar tan teoreticay possibe ro te sobi-

ity data is in sotion. As indicated in ire 1, te

spersatrated sotion as been reaced eiter by

owerin te teperatre or by increasin te scrose

concentration, or bot. A etastabe reion eists

were te sotion is in act spersatrated bt in

practice no crystaisation is ikey to occr.

Teperatre °C

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Spersatrated reion

metastabe iit

metastabe reionundersatrated reion

Sobiity iit

Evaporation

Cooin





In te spersatrated state, above te etastabe

iit, crystaisation in iids is cataysed by te pres-

ence o sa partices, ro edes in te eipent,

stirrin or sakin. At very i viscosity, and in es,

te onset o crystaisation reires a ier deree

o spersatration, wic can occr wen a a is

cooed in te rerierator or te srace o a conec-

tionery e dries ot. Typicay i viscosity eans

sow crystaisation rates. gcose syrps and invert

sar are typicay sed to avoid crystaisation o

scrose, bt aso inredients ike proteins, tetrisers

and stabiisers inence crystaisation.

unwanted crystaisation o sars in prodcts ike

as and conectionery eies ay aect te appear-

ance o te prodcts, ivin te a rainy ook anda reyis coor, and te tetre o conectionery

prodcts can appear ’sort’ and crispy. Frterore,

te water activity o te prodct ay increase, as

water is ’seeed ot’ wen te sar soids are

concentrated in crystas. Increased water activity ay

aect te se ie o te prodct.

To avoid nwanted crystaisation in as and eies

te oowin isses sod be considered:

• Sucrose/glucosesyrupratiointherecipe

• Crystallisationofglucoseduetoincreasinginvert

sar content

• Tooheavymechanicalhandling:mixing,kneading

and pin

• Insufficientmixingofingredientsaddedafter

cookin

• Recyclingofproductsorintermediariesinthe

prodction ine

• Notoptimalstorageconditionsoffinishedproducts:i teperatre and varyin idity

Fzn-pont dpsson

Sars are eective in owerin te reein point o a

sotion. Tis is iportant in te anactre o ice-

crea prodcts and roen desserts. Froen prodcts

containin sars can be ade soter and easier to

scoop at a iven teperatre tan te sae prodcts

witot sars. Sars are sed to contro or prevent

te oration o ice crystas in tese prodcts. Te

ower te reein point, te ore diict or te icecrystas to or.

Te reein point is reated to te nber o oe-

ces in sotion. Te reater te nber o sote

oeces present, te reater te depression o te

reein point. monosaccarides are ore eective

tan scrose at owerin te reein point.

42 DE gcose syrp

0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0

-2.5

-3.0

-3.5

-4.0

-4.5

-5.0

-5.5

-6.0

-6.5

-7.0

-7.5

Concentration (%)

Scrose gcose

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

°C

TExTuRE26

Figure 2: Freezing-point depression o 42 DE glucose syrup,

sucrose and glucose



EFFECT OF SugAR AND SWEETENERS

ON PECTIN gEl FORmATION

In as, araades and eies te on, strin-ike

pectin oeces convert iid into a soid-ike strc-

tre by bondin and orin a ine-esed network

tat ods te iid in its cavities. Pectin is a poyer-

ic carboydrate o i oecar weit and is ond

in a pants. Protopectin and ceose or te strc-

tre o te pant ce was. Soe rits, typicay ber-

ries, contain so c pectin tat tey can or es

on teir own, wie oter rits need sppeentary

ein aents wen sed or as and eies. Co-

ercia pectin or tis prpose is derived ro te

pee o citrs rits (eon, ie, orane and rape- rit), or ro appe poace.

Pectin consists priariy o a cain o aactronic

acid nits inked by α-1,4 cosidic bonds. Pectin

oeces ave a oecar weit o p to 150,000

and a deree o poyerisation o p to 800 nits.

Te aactronic acid cain is partiay esteriied as

ety esters. hi ester pectins (i deree o es-

teriication o te aactronic acid cain) can or

es wit te presence o sar at ow ph, wie ow

ester pectins (ow deree o esteriication) typicay

need caci ions present or orin es, bt can

work at ow sar contents or witot any sar at a.For akin a i ester (hE) pectin e certain

conditions are needed. Wen dissoved in water te

neativey cared pectin oeces irst need a ow

ph to redce te care and ereby redce one

barrier or akin te oece bond to itse. Net,

te avaiabiity o water oeces st be redced, as

te pectin oece wi oterwise tend to bond to

water rater tan to itse. Sar’s reat ydropiic

properties ake it idea or tis appication, so by add-

in sar in adeate antities te water is kept away

ro te pectin oeces, aowin te to interact

and or te network, i.e. te e. Typica conditions

or a akin are: ph o 2.8-3.4, pectin concentra-

tion o 0.5-1% and sar content o 60-65%.

Te ecanis beind ow ester (lE) pectin ein

is as oows: Wen positivey cared caci

ions are present, tey or brides between te nea-

tivey cared points o te pectin o e ces and a

network, or eswork, is ored.I scrose is sbstitted wit cose syrp, rctose,

poyos or bkin aents, te conditions or eation

and te caracter o te e dier. Te distribtion and

orientation o te -Oh rops appear to be te isse,

not teir eects on te coiative properties o water.

Frterore, dierent carboydrate sweeteners ave

dierent abiities to or stabe copees wit cati-

ons. Tis interaction can be navorabe to te ora-

tion o pectin e de to te decrease o caci ions

avaiabe to associate wit pectin oeces and, tere-

ore, decreasin e riidity. In ow ester pectin es,

te riidity essentiay depends on te capacity o tecarboydrate sar to copete wit pectin or caci

ions. Te interaction between carboydrates and water

is a secondary eect. Tis beavior it be o con-

siderabe iportance in dietary es.

TExTuRE27



hE-PECTIN lE-PECTIN

gcose syrp DE40

gcose syrp DE60 – –

hFCS 42 –

hFCS 55

Frctose

Invert sar

In i ester pectin es, sipe sars ike cose,

scrose and atose tend to ive better tre e

strents tan i oecar weit oiosaccarides

ond in cose syrps. Te are oeces tend to

ive a i deoration e strent, bt wit ow

easticity and wit syneresis. Wen coosin cose

syrps or i ester pectin es, i eves o atose

and cose and ow eves o i oecar weit

oiosaccarides are iportant. Tabe 1 sarises

te eect on pectin e settin teperatre wen

sbstittin scrose wit oter sars. Te sbse-

ent eect on e strent is sown in tabe 2. Table 1. Eect o sugar composition on pectin gel setting

temperature (relative to sucrose).

Te ier averae oecar weit o te sweeten-er, te ier te tendency to increased settin

teperatre.

hE-PECTIN lE-PECTIN



hFCS 42 –

hFCS 55

Frctose

Invert sar –

Table 2. Eect o sugar composition on pectin gel strength

(relative to sucrose).

TExTuRE28



ph °B DS% aw

Scrose 3.6 80.6 81.0 0.67

Frctose 3.6 79.9 80.6 0.66

gcose 3.6 80.4 81.2 0.65

Sorbito 3.6 79.1 80.7 0.65

xyito 3.6 78.1 81.2 0.63

Te eect o varios carboydrate sweeteners on te

e strent o pectin eies is istrated in te oow-

in case stdy in wic pectin eies were ade ac-

cordin to ora x1, see tabe 3. One tird o te

scrose, on a weit basis, was sbstitted by a iven

aternative carboydrate sweetener, and te e

CASE STuDY : gEl STRENgTh FROm BASIC SugARSBASE : FORmulA x1

Force (N)

Distance ()

Scrose

Frctose

gcose

Sorbito

xyito

strent o te restin pectin eies was easred.

Fire 1 sarises te rests or soe o te basic

sars, and ire 2 sows te correspondin rests

or te cose and rctose syrps isted in tabe 4.

TExTuRE29

Figure 1. Case study o gel strength – basic sugars.

Restin paraeters



Figure 2. Case study o gel strength – glucose / ructose syrups.

gEl STRENghT OF PECTIN jEllIES WITh VARIOuS gluCOSE/FRuCTOSE SYRuPS

– FORmulA x1

Distance ()

gcose syrp DE40

gcose syrp DE60

Isocose

gcose syrp DE45

hi atose

Force (N)

BASIC FORmulA FOR CASE STuDY WITh PECTIN jEllIES WITh VARIOuS gluCOSE/FRuCTOSE SYRuPS – FORmulA x1

A. Water 30.0 k

Sodi 0.4 k

Citric acid 0.37 k

B. Pectin 1.5 kgrindsted xSS 100

Sar 5.0 k

C. Sar 46.0 k

gcose syrp 24.0 kWater evaporated to 100 k tota (as DS)

D. Citric acid 50% 0.74 k

Starc oded, 24-25 ors

Table 3. Basic ormula or case study o pectin jellies.

ph °B DS% aw

DE25 3.5 78.6 78.5 0.73

DE40 3.3 76.5 78.9 0.72

DE60 3.4 78.4 78.9 0.70

hm 3.4 78.0 78.5 0.72

ISO-gl 3.5 78.5 78.9 0.67

Table 4. Parameters or pectin jellies with glucose/

ructose syrups. Case study o ormula X1.

Parameters or pectin jellies with various glucose/

ructose syrups.

Reference:

mcgee, h.,’On Food and Cookin’, Scribner, 2003.

TExTuRE30



PARTIClE SIzE FOR 90% OF ThE SugAR BulK DENSITY /

1.0-2.20 822

0.5-1.25 864

0.2-0.75 887

0.2-0.50 894

0.1-0.35 902

80%<0.1 565

PARTIClE SIzE

Sa patcl sz

An iportant stae in sar prodction is te crystai-

sation o scrose. Drin te crystaisation process a

speciic crysta sie and crysta sie distribtion are

obtained by strict contro o te nceation and

rowt paraeters o te scrose crystas.

Varios coercia rades o crystaised sar wit

dierent partice sies are obtained by screenin or

iin o te crystaine sar. By passin sar

tro vibratin ti-deck screens, te crystas are

separated into dierent sie ractions. Sie redction

can be obtained by rindin te sar crystas.

Sar partice sie is noray deterined by wayo a sieve anaysis in wic te partices are sorted by

sie, and te reations between te aonts o te

dierent ‘ractions’ are cacated. For crystaine,

non-screened sar it is assed tat te sie distri-

btion oows a nora distribtion. Based on tis

Table 1. Infuence o particle size on bulk density

(van der Poel et al., 1998).

assption te ean partice sie is cacated as te

ypotetica es apertre o a sieve tat aows 50%

o te sar to pass. Te standard deviation is sed as

a easre or te partice sie distribtion and is nor-

ay stated as te coeicient o variance, wic is te

standard deviation reated to te ean partice sie.

Te ean partice sie and te partice distribtion

deterine te pysica beavior o te sar, e..

bk density, ow properties and abrasion. Ceica

properties sc as prity and dissotion rate are aso

inenced by te crysta sie.

Bk density priariy depends on te partice sie

and increases wit decreasin partice sie, see tabe 1.

A narrow partice sie distribtion – i.e. te partices

are reativey nior in sie – eans a ower bkdensity tan or a wide partice sie distribtion.

In te atter case, te voids between te are partices

can be ied by saer partices, restin in ier

bk density.

TExTuRE31



Te bk density deterines te space reired or

bk storae o sar in sios, and it aects voetric

dosin. In cobination wit te oistre content, te

partice sie distribtion deterines te ow proper-

ties o te sar. I crystaine sar is stored correcty

(above 10°C and at 40-65% Rh) it wi reain ree-

owin and can easiy be conveyed by eans o ravi-

ty, vac or copressed air.

As reards prity, non-scrose sbstances are ain-

y ond in te syrp i coverin te crysta srace.

Since te speciic srace area decreases arkedy wit

increasin crysta sies, sar wit a coarse crysta sie

is prer tan sar wit a ine crysta sie. Te prity

o icin sar and oter ied prodcts o corse de-

pends on te prity o te startin ateria. In ostcases, te prity o coercia sars is above 99.9%

wit te aor non-sar present bein water.

Te dissotion rate o sar depends on te sie o

te partices (oter conditions reainin constant),

as ine partices dissove ore rapidy tan coarse parti-

ces. however, wen partices becoe very sa tey

are diict to oisten and disperse and tend to p.

In practice tis is observed wen ore tan 5% o te

partices are ess tan 200 icron. Teperatre aso

aects te dissotion rate, since increasin tepera-

tre increases dissotion rates, see ires 1-2. Instant

Sar is ade ro iney ied sar spray-dried

onto water dropets. Tis process prodces aoer-

ates wit a poros strctre tat akes te prodct

rapid dissovin. Te averae partice sie o Instant

Sar is 200-400 icron. Te averae partice sie

o Icin Sar and Standard granated Sar is20 icron and 500-600 icron, respectivey.

Figure 1: Dissolution time o dierent sugars at 5°C.

DISSOluTION TImE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SugAR AT 5°C

% dissoved

Seconds

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Icin sar < 250 icron 250-400 icron

Instant sar Std. ranated 500-850 icron

TExTuRE32



Sa patcl sz and applcatons

Te crysta sie distribtion aects te aity o te

oods in wic sar is ony partiay dissoved and it is

te ain contribtor to te strctre or consistency o

te prodct. Fine partices ive a soot tetre and,

as a re-o-tb, te otee is soot and no

partices are sensed wen ess tan 5% o te partices

are bier tan 30 icron.

In oded cocoate, sar is ond ainy in te

crystaine state, ato soe aorpos sar is

ored drin te precedin sar iin and coco-ate ass reinin. most o te aorpos scrose,

owever, recrystaises drin te concin process.

Te ain prpose o te reinin process is to redce

te partice sie to avoid a sandy-ritty otee in

te ina prodct. Partice sie aso inences te ow

and soid oration o cocoate.

In cookies and sweet biscits, were ost o te

sar is dispersed in te at pase, te partice sie

aects te do spread drin bakin and as sc

te diaeter and eit o te ina prodct. Te iner

te sar, te ore spread. Sar partice sie aso

aects te tetre o te cookie or sweet biscit and

ts te otee. A coarser sar prodces a crisper cookie.

TExTuRE33

Figure 2. Dissolution time o dierent sugars at 80°C.

DISSOluTION TImE AT 80°C

% dissoved

Seconds

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Icin sar < 250 icron 250-400 icron

Instant sar Std. ranated 500-850 icron

120

100

80

60

40

20

0



Te tetre and otee o at/sar-based biscit

iins, toee/de and aripan are oter eapes

o ow sar partice sie inences te nctiona

properties o ood.

Sar partice sie is aso essentia or te tetre

and otee o icins, rostins and ondants.

In cassica ondant anactre te sie o te crys-

tas precipitated ro te spersatrated sotion

aects te otee. Soe o te actors aectin

te rain sie are te presence or introdction o

ndissoved sar crystas, te teperatre at wic

te aitation starts drin cooin, and te presence

o invert sar. Te ondant coor is aso inenced

by te sar partice sie, as sa partices ive a

witer icin or ondant de to a dierent reection

o it. A i aity ondant as a partice sie o

abot 10 icron.

In dry bends, were scrose is sed as a carrier or

oter inredients, incdin coors and avors,

crysta sie is an iportant property. Te risk o sere-

ation o inredients can be iniised by sin

screened sar wit a partice sie cose to tat o te

oter inredients or by sin Instant Sar, were te

poros strctre o te aoerates ensres ood

bindin o oter inredients.

TExTuRE34

References:

P.W. van der Poe, h. Sciweck, T. Scwart (1998): Sar Tecnooy, Beet and Cane Sar manactre (Bartens).

m. matoti, P. Reiser (1995): Scrose, properties and appications (Backie Acadeic & Proessiona).



VISCOSITY

Te viscosity o scrose sotions and oter bk

sweeteners is iy dependent on te dry sbstance

and teperatre.

Pre scrose, rctose and cose sotions, and

ies o te, are a Newtonian, eanin tat te

viscosity is independent o te sear rate. however,

iy concentrated cose syrps can be sity

psedopastic, i.e. te viscosity decreases wen te

sear rate increases.

Te viscosity as been easred, sin ow crves

on a Boin VOR Reoeter, at dierent concentra-

tions and teperatres or seected sars, sar

ies and cose syrps. Te rests are presented

in tabes 1-2 and istrated in ires 1-2.

Table 1. Viscosity o sucrose, invert sugar, glucose and ructose at dierent Rt and temperatures. 1 mPas = 1 cP.

rt 65 72 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 84

tep. °C Viscosity Pas

Scrose 50 31 110 243 500 702 850 1040Invert 50 16 69 171 270 330 411 560 709 1100 1480

gcose 50 20 55

Frctose 50 17 50 120 180 220 290 446 580

Scrose 40 56 200 454 900 1220 1700 2270

Invert 40 26 125 372 500 780 998 1500 1780 2800 4230

gcose 40 32 110

Frctose 40 27 90 240 390 510 700 1050 1700

Scrose 30 97 415 1040 2300 3220 4800 6660

Invert 30 46 269 904 1700 2100 2880 4000 5650 9500 15400

gcose 30 56 220

Frctose 30 48 190 580 1000 1500 2100 3240 5000

Scrose 20 176 1020 2840 7000 10300 15000 21200

Invert 20 87 664 2588 5000 7400 10400 21000 42800 59000 72600

gcose 20 105 500

Frctose 20 92 490 1600 2300 4800 7000 11900 19000

TExTuRE35



Table 2. Viscosity o glucose syrup DE40 and DE60 at dierent Rt and temperatures. 1 mPas = 1 cP.

rt 65 72 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 84

tep. °C Viscosity Pas

DE40 50 48 238 600 992 1130 1320 2500 3900 5460

DE60 50 32 99 230 401 516 686 945 1300 1860 2420

DE40 40 102 460 1120 1860 2800 3540 6500 11100 15000

DE60 40 51 184 370 836 1140 1540 2150 3020 4660 6840

DE40 30 207 987 2900 5080 7500 9590 20000 32000 49800

DE60 30 91 378 1120 2710 2880 4100 6180 8720 14900 21800

DE40 20 400 2370 8000 15300 24000 30700 70000 114000 219000

DE60 20 176 894 2800 6180 8870 12800 21100 32800 57900 93800

Figure 1. Viscosity o sucrose, invert sugar, glucose and ructose at dierent

Rt and temperatures.

VISCOSITY AT DIFFERENT Rt AND TEmPERATuRES

Viscosity Pas

Rt %

64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84

100000

10000

1000

100

10

Scrose 50°C Invert 50°C gcose 50°C Frctose 50°C




TExTuRE36



Figure 2. Viscosity o sucrose, glucose syrup DE40 and glucose syrup DE60 at

dierent Rt and temperatures.

VISCOSITY AT DIFFERENT Rt AND TEmPERATuRES

Viscosity Pas

Rt %

64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84

100000

10000

1000

100

10

DE40 50°C DE60 50°C Scrose 50°C




TExTuRE37



Table 3. Dierences between reractometric dry substance (Rt) and true dry substance (Ds).

FruCTOSe rt Ds DiFFereNCe De60 rt Ds DiFFereNCe

65.4 66.9 1.5 65 65.0 0.0

75.8 77.7 1.9 76 76.0 0.0

80.3 82.5 2.2 80 80.0 0.0

82.4 84.8 2.4 84 84.0 0.0

gLuCOSe rt Ds DiFFereNCe De40 rt Ds DiFFereNCe

62.4 63.7 1.3 78 76.6 -1.4

64.5 65.9 1.4 80 78.5 -1.5

66.4 67.9 1.5 84 82.4 -1.6

70.7 72.4 1.7

iNVerT rt Ds DiFFereNCe

65 66.3 1.3

76 77.9 1.9

80 82.1 2.1

84 86.3 2.3

Rt stands or reractoetric dry sbstance. Rt is te

sae as rea dry sbstance (Ds) or scrose, wereas

tere is a dierence between Rt and Ds or rctose,

cose, invert sar and soe types o cose

syrps. Tabe 3 sows te dierence between Rt and

Ds vaes o seected sars.

TExTuRE38



Table 4. Viscosity o sucrose, glucose and ructose at 20°C.


% WeighT ViSCOSiTy mPasSuCrOSe gLuCOSe FruCTOSe

1 1,028 1,021 1,028

2 1,055 1,052 1,054

5 1,146 1,145 1,134

10 1,336 1,330 1,30915 1,592 1,566 1,533

20 1,945 1,904 1,837

30 3,188 2,998 2,817

40 6,161 5,491 5,045

50 15,432 11,891 10,823

60 58,479 37,453 32,573

64 120,480 58,140

68 285,710 119,048

70 476,190 178,571

Fires 1-2 cover iy concentrated sar sotions

and can be sed by te ood indstry to coose te

rit pp or sar sotions.

In ood, sars are osty sed in ow concentra-

tions. Te viscosity o scrose, cose and rctose

at 20°C and at concentrations between 1% and 70%

appears ro tabe 4 and ire 3.

In as and araades, wic say contain i

aonts o sar, te viscosity o te sar as a bi

ipact on te otee o te prodct. Ato te

viscosity o beveraes is ite ow (say arond

10%), te viscosity provided by te sar is ite

iportant or te overa otee o te beverae.

Figure 3. Viscosity o sucrose, glucose and ructose at 20°C.

VISCOSITY OF SuCROSE, gluCOSE AND FRuCTOSE AT 20°C

Viscosity Pas

Weit %

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

1000

100

10

1

Scrose gcose Frctose

TExTuRE39



SuCROSE hYDROlYSIS

intodcton

Inversion o sar reers to te ydroysis o te disac-

caride, scrose, to te onosaccarides, rctose

and cose, in ea proportions (1:1). Te inversion

is cataysed by ydroen ions (acids) or enyes.

Frctose and cose are reerred to as invert sar.

invson of scos, fst od kntcs

Ater te inversion o scrose, te rotation ane o poarised it passin tro te sotion is

easred. Scrose is detrorotatory (ro latin

deter, rit), bt te restin itre o cose

and rctose is sity aevorotatory (ro latin

aevs, et). As te concentration o scrose is

ower and te cose-rctose itre as been

ored, te rotation ane is to te et. Te rotation

o te it is directy proportiona to te concentra-

tion o scrose (c) in te sotion, and te inversion

oows te eation:

n (c/c0) = - k t

wic is o irst order kinetics wit k as te rate

constant.

Te easred scrose concentration is potted verss

tie (t) on a sei-o pot ivin a strait

ine wit te sope –k.

Te deree o inversion, x, can be cacated by

te oowin eation:

x = 100(1 - ct/c

0)

k: rate constant ( . -1 . in –1)

c: sar concentration ( . -1)x: deree o inversion (%)

t: tie (intes)

Se lie

ShElF lIFE40

Figure 1. Inversion o sucrose.

Ch2Oh Ch

2Oh

hO hO

hOOh

Oh Oh

C12

h22

O11

Scrose

h20

h20

water

C6h

12O

6

gcose

Ch2Oh

hO

Oh

Oh

hOCh2

hO

Oh Ch2Oh

C6h

12O

6

Frctose

Oh

Oh





rat of nvson n soft dnks,

jc concntat and mamalads

We ave stdied te rate o inversion in seected sot

drinks, ice concentrates and araades and te

iportance o ph and te concentration o scrose

and invert sar. Frit soda and sot drinks contained

abot 9% scrose, wid strawberry and raspberry

concentrates abot 47% and araades abot 65%.

A prodcts were sweetened wit eiter scrose (S)

onyor a i o scrose and invert sar (SI) in a

40:60 ratio.

Te concentration o scrose sowed a inor ipact

on te rate o inversion, wereas ph ad a very bi

inence (see ire 2). At ph 2.4 ony abot 10% o

te scrose was et ater 100 days, wie at ph 3.1

ore tan 60% o te scrose reained ater te sae

period o tie. Prodcts wit a ph eve o 2.9 and 3.0

sowed reativey sa dierences in te rate o inver-

sion. A coparison o ire 2 (te indins o or

stdies) wit ire 3 (tie reired or a 50% inver-

sion o scrose at dierent ph eves and teperatres)

sows reativey ood areeent between te rests.

ShElF lIFE41

Figure 2. Rate o inversion in sot drinks, juice concentrates and marmalades

at dierent pH.

Scrose % o start vae

Days o storae

0 50 100 150 200 250

100

80

60

40

20

0

Sodaso. SI ph 2.4

Sodaso. S ph 2.4

Sodaso. SI ph 3.0

Sodaso. S ph 3.0

Wid strawberry S ph 3.1

Wid strawberry SI ph 3.1

Raspberry S ph 2.6

Raspberry SI ph 2.6

maraade S ph 3.0

maraade SI ph 3.0

Frit soda S ph 2.9

Fritsoda SI ph 2.9



Popts of nvt sa

Invert sar as severa properties tat pay an ipor-

tant roe in any ood appications.

It as a i ainity or water and is sed to ake

prodcts retain oistre. Tis is iportant in, or e-

ape, te bakin indstry were invert sar epsbakery prodcts retain oistre and proon se ie.

Since invert sar as a tendency to absorb oistre

ro te atospere, it keeps bread and cakes res

or a oner tie.

Invert sar inibits crystaisation and retains ois-

tre, and it is tereore sed in prodcts sc as

icin, cake iin and conectionery.

Addin invert sar to a scrose sotion ay increase

te dry sbstance content o te sotion de to i-

er sobiity o te cobined sar sotion copared

to a pre scrose sotion. Invert sar as ower water

activity tan scrose. low water activity as a preserv-

ative eect, restin in oner se ie.

gcose and rctose case a maiard reaction wen

eated wit protein-ric ood inredients. Te maiard

reaction rests in brownin and avor deveopent

in te prodct.

Invert sar aso aects te caraeisation process,

prodcin a brownin eect.

ShElF lIFE42

Figure 3. Time required or a 50% inversion o sucrose at dierent pH and temperature.

day

2 3 4 5

1000

100

10

1

2.4

14.4

1.44

or

in

20°C

40°C

60°C

80°C

100°C

ph



WATER ACTIVITY AND ITS ImPlICATIONS

IN SugAR-RICh FOODS

most peope know tat a ba o sar can be et in

te kitcen cabinet or years witot any sin o spoi-

ae wie a sice o sot bread noray ods in a

ew days. Tis is to a are etent de to te very ow

water activity (aw) o pre ranated sar as co-

pared to tat o bread.

Water is a prereisite or ie on eart, and an

as tried or tosands o years to preserve ood by re-

dcin te water content o oodsts by way o dry-

in, sokin etc. however, te water content is not a

very ood easre o se ie. Fire 1 sows tat

te water content o oods at a certain water activity

varies consideraby. Dried rits, or instance, are

icrobiooicay stabe p to a water content o

18-25% wie te correspondin iit or nts can be

as ow as 4%. As a water activity o 0.7 is oten taken

as an pper iit or sae se ie it is very iportant

to know te acta water activity and not ony te

water content.

ShElF lIFE43

Figure 1. The water content o oods at a w

0.70, i.e. the upper limit or sae storage.

(Data rom L. R. Beuchat)

5 10 15 20 25

Dried rits

Dried sop ies

Weat or, pasta

Dried veetabes

Rice

Roed oats

Dried ean eat and fs

Ski ik powder

Dried woe e

Soya beans

Cocoa Woe ik powder

Nts

Water content (% w/w)

lower upper



DEFINITIONS AND mEThODS

OF mEASuREmENT

Water activity is a easre o te aont o water

avaiabe or icrooranis etabois or oter

ceica reactions in a ood prodct. It is deined as

te ratio o te water vapor pressre o te ood (p)

to tat o pre water (p0) at te sae teperatre.

aw

= p / p0

As water vapor pressre decreases wen a ood dries,

aw

as, ts ranin ro a ai vae o 1 or

pre water to 0. Te aw

o ases or air, say reerred

to as te eiibri reative idity (ERh), is reatedto a

was:

%ERh = 100 * aw

Te epression Rh is sed wen te air is not in ei-

ibri wit its srrondins. Te reein point, boi-

in point and osotic pressre aso reate to aw.

Water activity can be deterined by a nber o

etods: direct easreent o te vapor pressre,

ravietric etods or by way o varios eectronic

devices. however, it is essentia tat te water activity

o a ood is easred wen te ood is in eiibri

wit te air above te ood and at a constant tep-

eratre. An increase in teperatre say akes

aw

o p.

I a oodst is aowed to adsorb water and te

increase in water content is potted aainst te corre-

spondin aw, te restin crve is caed a water sorp-

tion isoter. I te process is reversed and te

oodst is dried, te restin desorption crve wi

dier ro te previos one. Tis penoenon

is caed ysteresis and is sown or scrose in ire 2.

Scrose, as oter sobe crystaine coponds, is in

dierent pases at dierent aw

vaes: a crystaine

pase, an aorpos pase and a sotion. hysteresis

can be o reat iportance wen, or instance, a y-roscopic ood is stored nder ctatin idity/

teperatre conditions in a wareose. Tabe 1 sows

te concentration o soe sars at varios aw

vaes.

Copter proras or cacatin sorption iso-

ters or pre oodsts and itres are coer-

ciay avaiabe. Tey are based on ateatica

odein and eaborations o te reationsip be-

tween concentration and vapor pressre o idea

sotions iven by Raot’s aw, wic epresses

aw

= n1 / n1 + n2 were n1 is te oes o sovent and

n2 te oes o sote.

ShElF lIFE44



Table 1: Concentration o sugars at various values o water activity at 25°C

Based on data rom: a Robinson and Stokes (1959), b Taylor and Rowlinson (1955),c Grover (1947), and d Cleland and Fetzer (1944).

CONCeNTrATiON OF SugArS AT VAriOuS VALueS OF WATer ACTiViTy AT 25°C

Scosa glcosb invt sac glcos spd De42

aw

(%, w/w, °Bri) (%, w/w) (%, w/w) (%, w/w)

1.000 0 0 0 0

0.995 8.52 4.45 2.05 1.670.990 15.45 8.90 4.11 3.34

0.980 26.07 15.74 8.22 6.68

0.960 39.66 28.51 16.43 13.36

0.940 48.22 37.83 24.65 20.03

0.920 54.36 43.72 32.87 26.71

0.900 58.45 48.54 41.09 33.39

0.880 62.77 53.05 49.30 40.07

0.860 65.63 58.45 57.52 46.75

Figure 2. Sorption isotherm o sucrose.

Based on data rom Labuza, 1984, Maurandi & Mantovani, 1975, and J. Vindeløv, 2001.

Water content %w/w

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Crystaine scrose Water content <0.06%

Scrosesotion

Aorposscrose

Desorption Adsorption

Satratedscrosesotion

ShElF lIFE45



Slf lf

One o te ost siniicant eects o water activity is

its ipact on se ie. As water activity in a oodst

decreases, te nber o icrobia species abe to

row in tat environent aso decreases, as do teir

rowt rate. Beow te iit o 0.60, no icrobia

proieration occrs and te prodct becoes y

stabe in tat respect. At east as on as te prodct

is kept dry! Ony very ew speciaised yeasts and

ods are abe to row beow aw

0.70. Tereore,

tis iit is in practice say rearded as sae or

prooned storae.

Te inia aw

vae or soe icrooraniss and

te correspondin oodsts at te speciic vae is

istrated in ire 3. Te water content, and encete a

wo soe o te oodsts in te ire, ay

vary siniicanty, so it sod be rearded as indica-

tive ony. microbia rowt is o corse aso reaty

aected by oter actors ike teperatre, ph and te

avaiabiity o oyen and ntrients (e.. te type o

sars). Tis is wy a pre iid sar (e.. a sotion

o scrose at 65% dry atter), de to its ack o oter

ntrients and te inabiity o any yeasts to tiise

scrose, is ite stabe in spite o an aw

vae o abot

0.87 were any yeasts are oterwise abe to row.

In oodsts sc as carbonated beveraes, pickes

and as, not ony te redced aw

cased by a i

sar concentration, bt aso te ow ph o sc pro-

dcts contribte to prooned se ie. Tis is in con-

trast to any bakery and dairy prodcts, saces and

dressins were preservatives st be added to

acieve siiar se ie. Te iportance o bein care-

wen redcin te sar content o a oodst sod be pointed ot in order to avoid an increase in

aw

above te critica eve (0.90) or rowt o pato-

enic icrooraniss.

Figure 3. Minimum water activity or the growth o some microorganisms.

WATER CONTENT %W/W

ShElF lIFE46

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

Cl. botin

Saonea

most bacteria

most yeasts

Stapyococcs

most ods

haopiic bacteria

Etree osopies

e.. soe ods and yeasts

No icrobia proifration

Fres veetabes, rits, eats,

potry, fs, ik

Cred eats (e.. a), certain ceeses

saai, soe dry ceeses

For, cakes, rice, beans, cereas,

rit ice concentrates

jas, oney, araade, aripan,

soe arsaows

jey, nts

Soe sar syrps, dried rits, oasses,

caraes, toee, de, raw cane sar

Cookies, crackers

ranated sar

aw



Sporation and toin prodction is aso aected by

aw. mycotoin prodction is say inibited at a

ier aw vae tan is rowt, and erination o

spores say occrs at a ier aw vae tan spor-

ation.

Ot ffcts of wat actvt

Not ony icrooraniss are aected by water activi-

ty. Aso enyatic activities in enera as we as any

oter ceica reactions are aected, e.. te rancidi-

ication o at or te nonenyatic brownin o ood-

sts (maiard reaction). however, tese non-biooi-

ca reactions cease at a water activity beow 0.2.

more practica ipications o dierences in water

activity are o corse te oistre iration ro are-

as o ood coponents wit a i vapor pressre

(i aw or ERh) towards areas wit a ower vapor

pressre. Tis is o reat iportance in, or instance,

preservin te crnciness and crispness o dry cereas

or crackers as we as or te we-known oistre

iration ro war to cod areas in wareoses and

te probes tis ay create.

ShElF lIFE47



Ferentation

FERmENTATION48

FERmENTATION FEEDSTOCKS

Fmntaton tcnolo

Ferentation tecnooy is te odest o a biotec-

nooica processes. Stricty speakin, erentation is

an anaerobic enery-yiedin etaboic process in

wic oranic coponds, sc as sar, serve bot

as eectron donors and as eectron acceptors. In

enera, owever, erentation is considered as any

process for the production of a prod uct by means of

mass culture of microorganisms , ts aso incdinte aerobic etaboic processes.

Ancient erented ood processes sc as te

akin o wine, bread, ceese, beer etc. are noray

ecded ro te concept o indstria erentation,

wic rater coprises te akin o prodcts ike

antibiotics, oranic acids, enyes, vitains, aino

acids, biopoyers etc.

Tere are severa types o erentation o wic te

ost coon are batc, ed-batc and continos

erentation. A specia type desined or soid edia is

te Soid State Ferentation (SSF).

Te ain process steps are:

T fdstocks

Te desin o te ntrient edi or rowt and

prodct oration is a key step. Te constitents o

te edi st satisy te eeenta reireents

or ce bioass, prodct oration and enery.

Ntrients are cassiied as acrontrients (e.. a

carbon sorce, nitroen, posporos, spr,

potassi, anesi) and icrontrients (traceineras, vitains and oter rowt actors). usay

te cost o te carbon sorce deterines te prodc-

tion cost, and tis is especiay prononced or i

voe/ow vae prodcts (e.. etano, sine ce

protein, enyes, oranic acids, aino acids) were

tey ay accont or te aority o te tota prodc-

tion cost. Wen prodcin ow voe/i vae

prodcts (e.. antibiotics, orones, vaccines),

owever, te aity o te carbon sorce becoesore iportant copared to te price.

Inoc

preparation

media

preparation

Fina

prodctFerentation

Separation/

Isoation

Downstrea processin





FERmENTATION49

Soe iportant considerations in coosin eedstocks

or erentation processes incde price, avaiabiity,

consistency, stabiity, ease o andin and, o corse,

te eect on process prodctivity and downstrea

processin. Te eect on downstrea processin and

its interation wit te erentation step as becoe

an iportant area o deveopent to increase eicien-

cy and decrease costs.

Te ost siniicant carbon and enery sorces or

erentation are renewabe sars ond in pant

bioass, i.e. scrose and starc. Strctra poysac-

carides, e.. inoceose, are sti o secondary

iportance becase akin te carboydrates

accessibe is epensive and tie consin. however,

in recent years te tiisation o waste as a sorce o raw ateria as ained siniicance. Sc eedstocks

can be sed in Soid State Ferentations. generay,

te ier te cost o a iven ceica, te ower te

ipact cost o te eedstocks is ikey to ave on te

econoics o te process.

Sa bt dvd fdstocks

Scrose, wic is any o te eedstock reire-

ents entioned above, is one o te ost iportant

sbstrates or erentation at present. It is avaiabe as

iy priied ranated or iid sar. Te atter

cod be ore or ess inverted to cose and rctose

and a are especiay sitabe or deined edia. Bot

cose and rctose, te bidin bocks o scrose,

are readiy tiised by varios icrooraniss and

tereore can serve as ood erentation sbstrates.

Anoter sorce o scrose is oasses, te by-prod-

ct ro sar processin. moasses is sitabe or

cope sbstrates. Apart ro easiy tiised sars,

abot 44%, oasses aso contains any vaabe

icrontrients ike trace eeents, aino acids andvitains. Anoter advantae is te ow cost. In soe

cases to, a pre-treatent ay be necessary to

reove ndesirabe iprities.

Sar beet pp as been sed as a sbstrate in a

nber o Soid State Ferentations, e.. or enye

and avorins prodction.

Reference:

university o gep; ttp://www.oep.ca/~ee/426eedstocks.t



Coor BROWNINg REACTIONS

Mallad acton

One o te ost iportant ceica reactions tat

occr in ood is te maiard reaction. It is critica in

te prodction o te any avor and coor co-

ponds in processed ood prodcts, bot desirabe

and ndesirabe. Te maiard reaction is a type o

non-enyatic brownin wic invoves te reaction

o redcin sars, ainy D-cose, and a ree

aino acid or a ree aino rop o an aino acidtat is part o a protein cain. Oter coon redc-

in sars are rctose, atose and actose. Scrose is

not a redcin sar bt yeasts or acids can ydroyse

scrose to cose and rctose. Te maiard reaction

is naed ater te ceist wo irst eained it in

detai. It is aso caed non-enyatic brownin to

dierentiate it ro te enyecataysed brownin

coony observed in resy ct rits and veeta-

bes, sc as appes and potatoes.

Te maiard reaction coprises a series o reactions

tat are ar ro bein ceary ecidated: Te cassica

scee o te ceica reaction is tat o hode ro

1953. See ire 1. Te reaction is eneray divided

into tree staes:

(1) Te irst stae invoves te sar-aine conden-

sation and te Aadori rearraneent. Te reac-

tion steps ave been we-deined and no brown-

in occrs at tis stae.

(2) Te second stae invoves sar deydration and

raentation, and aino acid deradation via

te Strecker reaction especiay at i tepera-

tres as sed in candy anactre. At te end o

stae two tere is a beinnin avor oration.

(3) Te tird stae is te oration o eterocycic

nitroen coponds. Brownin occrs at tis

stae.

Te acta reactions are ar ore copicated tan

tose otined above, and tere are any variations in

te patway. Te prodcts o tese varios patways

rane ro cooress to intensey coored and any

are voatie aroa coponds.

Increasin teperatre, increasin ph and ower

water activity a increase te rate o maiard brown-

in. Water is prodced drin te maiard reaction.

Ts, as a conseence o te aw o ass action, te

reaction occrs ess readiy in oods wit a i aw

vae. In addition, te reactants are dited at i awvaes wie, at ow a

w, te obiity o reactants is i-

ited, despite teir presence at increased concentration.

In practice, te maiard reaction occrs ost rapidy

at interediate aw vaes (0.5-0.8), and aw

is o ost

siniicance to te reaction in dried and interediate-

oistre oods, wic ave aw vaes in tis rane.

Wie te maiard reaction is se in soe cases,

it aso as a neative side. Reaction o redcin sars

wit aino acids destroys te aino acid. Tis is espe-

ciay iportant wit l-ysine, an essentia aino acid,

wic can react wie te aino acid is a nit o a pro-

tein oece.

COlOuR50





COlOuR51

odose

sar

aono

copond

N-sbstitted

ycosyaine

s

s

A2h

2O

s

B

I - aono - I - deoy - 2 ketose

(1,2-eno or)

C-2h

2O

s

s

D

Aadori rearraneent

Sci base

o hmF or

rra

-3h2O

+ a-aono acids

s s

s

s

s

s

s s

E

Strecker deradation

CO2

adeyde

fssino

prodcts

(aceto,

pyrvadeyde

diacety etc.)

edctones

deydro

redctoneshmF or

rra

s

- aino cop’d+ h

2O

FFF

g

gg

g

gg

g

F

+ aino

copd.

wit or

witotaino cop’d

+ aino

cop’d

+ aino

cop’d

adiines

ados and

N-ree

poyers

+ aino cop’d.

adiines

or

ketiines

adiines

s s s

s s

s

s

s

m E l A N O I D I N S

(brown nitroenos poyers and copoyery

Figure 1. Hodge 1953.

maiard Brownin Patway

-2h +2h



COlOuR52

FEATuRES OF mAIllARD REACTION

Presence o redcin sars and aino coponds (proteins, aino acids)

Reires dry eat and i teperatre – bakin, ryin, toastin

Rapid at ph>7.0, sower at ph<6.0

Coor: cooress → yeow→ brown→ dark brown

Beneits: contribtes to avors in bread, crsts, ik cocoates, caraes, des and toees

Drawbacks: oss o aino acids: ysine, istidine, arinine; (prodction o taenic eterocycic aines)

Mltn pont

Te etin point is te teperatre at wic te so-

id crystaine and iid pases o a sbstance are in

terodynaic eiibri at nora pressre. A

soids, ecept te aorpos ors, ave a deinite

etin point. Pre, crystaine soids et over a nar-

row rane o teperatres, wereas itres et

over a broad teperatre rane. Te etin points

can be sed to identiy coponds. Tabe 1 sows te

etin points o soe ono-, di- and trisaccarides.

Caamlsaton

Caraeisation is deined as te tera deradation

o sars eadin to te oration o carae aroa

and brown-coored prodcts (carae coors). Te

process is acid or base cataysed and eneray reires

teperatres >120°C. Above etin point, eted

dry sar takes on an aber coor and deveops an

appeain avor and aroa. Tis aorpos sb-

stance restin ro te breakdown o sar is known

as carae. under eat, caraeisation transors s-

ars ro cooress, sweet coponds into sbstances

ranin in coor ro pae yeow to dark brown and

in avor ro id, carae-type to brnt and bitter.

I eatin is contined caraeised sars break down

into back carbon. Caraeisation occrs in ood, wen

ood sraces are eated strony, e.. te bakin and

roastin processes, te processin o oods wit i

sar content sc as as and certain rit ices, or

in wine prodction.



COlOuR53

Table 1. Melting points or some mono-, di- and trisaccharides.

Source: Sugar Technologists Manual, Z. Bubnik, P. Kadlec, D. Urban, M. Bruhns.

mONO- DI- AND ChEmICAl FORmulA mElTINg POINT °CTRISACChARIDES

Frctose C6h

120

6103-105

gcose C6h

120

6146

Scrose C12

h22

011

186 ± 4

matose C12

h22

011

160-165

lactose C12

h22

011

223

Ribose C5h

100

586-87

mannose C6h

120

6133

Rafnose C18

h32

016

118-120

Wen sar is eated te added eat enery can over-

coe te interoecar orces and sar ets to or a

iid. Tere is no teperatre cane drin te pase

cane. I te eted sar is rter eated, te sar is

caraeised beore it is ot eno to trn to vapor.



IndeBrownin reaction 55-53

Bkin 16-19

Crystaisation 24-26

Eect o sar and sweeteners on pectin e oration 27-30

Ferentation eedstocks 48-49

Interaction wit oter tastes and avors 11-15

Partice sie 31-34

Sobiity 20-24


Sweetness 4-10

Viscosity


functional prop on tech level uk

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