Functional Supply Functional Supply for Thinking and for Thinking and Language Language FunctionFunction

The first signaling systemThe first signaling system

The analysis and synthesis of the direct The analysis and synthesis of the direct stimuli from surroundings first signal system stimuli from surroundings first signal system performs. This includes impressions, performs. This includes impressions, sensations. sensations.

This functional mechanism is common in This functional mechanism is common in human and animals. In the course of his human and animals. In the course of his social development and labor activity second social development and labor activity second signal system, which based on using verbal signal system, which based on using verbal signals, develop. This system includes signals, develop. This system includes perception of words, reading and speech. perception of words, reading and speech.

The second signaling The second signaling systemsystem

The development of the second signaling system was The development of the second signaling system was incredibly broadened and changed by quality of higher incredibly broadened and changed by quality of higher nervous activity of cerebral hemispheres. Words are nervous activity of cerebral hemispheres. Words are signals of other signals. Man uses verbal signals for signals of other signals. Man uses verbal signals for everything he perceives through the receptors. Words everything he perceives through the receptors. Words are abstraction of reality and allow generalization, are abstraction of reality and allow generalization, processing of surrounding primary information. This processing of surrounding primary information. This gives the first general human empiricism and finally gives the first general human empiricism and finally science, the instrument of man's higher orientation in science, the instrument of man's higher orientation in the environment and its own self. the environment and its own self.

So, second signaling system is socially determined. So, second signaling system is socially determined. Outside the society, without association with other Outside the society, without association with other people second signaling system is not developed. people second signaling system is not developed.

Wernicke's area is a Wernicke's area is a part of auditory part of auditory associative cortex, associative cortex, that makes possible that makes possible to the person to to the person to interpret the interpret the meanings of words. meanings of words. This Wernicke's area This Wernicke's area is located in dominant is located in dominant hemisphere, which is hemisphere, which is usually the left. usually the left.

The process of The process of speech includes two speech includes two principle stages of principle stages of mentation: formation mentation: formation of thoughts to be of thoughts to be expressed and motor expressed and motor control of vocalization.control of vocalization.

Motor control of speech functionMotor control of speech function The skilled motor patterns for control of the larynx, lips, mouth, The skilled motor patterns for control of the larynx, lips, mouth,

respiratory system and other accessory muscles of speech respiratory system and other accessory muscles of speech are all initiated from this area. Articulation means movements are all initiated from this area. Articulation means movements of mouth, tongue, larynx, vocal cords, and so forth that are of mouth, tongue, larynx, vocal cords, and so forth that are responsible for the intonations, timing, and rapid changes in responsible for the intonations, timing, and rapid changes in intensities of the sequential sounds. The facial and laryngeal intensities of the sequential sounds. The facial and laryngeal regions of the motor cortex activate these muscles, and the regions of the motor cortex activate these muscles, and the cerebellum, basal ganglia, and sensory cortex all help control cerebellum, basal ganglia, and sensory cortex all help control the sequences and intensities of muscle contractions. the sequences and intensities of muscle contractions.

Transmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin and Transmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin and certain neuropeptides transmit their signals by what is referred certain neuropeptides transmit their signals by what is referred to as slow synaptic transmission. The resulting change in the to as slow synaptic transmission. The resulting change in the function of the nerve cell may last from seconds to hours. This function of the nerve cell may last from seconds to hours. This type of signal transmission is responsible for a number of type of signal transmission is responsible for a number of basal functions in the nervous system and is of importance for basal functions in the nervous system and is of importance for e.g. alertness and mood. Slow synaptic transmission can also e.g. alertness and mood. Slow synaptic transmission can also control fast synaptic transmission, which in turn enables e.g. control fast synaptic transmission, which in turn enables e.g. speech, movements and sensory perception.speech, movements and sensory perception.

Nerve substrate of Nerve substrate of speech speech

There are two aspects of communication: sensory, There are two aspects of communication: sensory, involving reading, hearing of speech, and second, involving reading, hearing of speech, and second, the motor aspect, involving vocalization and its the motor aspect, involving vocalization and its control. control.

The formation of thoughts is the function of The formation of thoughts is the function of associative areas in the brain. Wernicke's area in the associative areas in the brain. Wernicke's area in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus is most posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus is most important for this ability. Broca's speech area lies in important for this ability. Broca's speech area lies in prefrontal and premotor facial region in the left prefrontal and premotor facial region in the left hemisphere.hemisphere.

The skilled motor patterns for control of the larynx, The skilled motor patterns for control of the larynx, lips, mouth, respiratory system and other accessory lips, mouth, respiratory system and other accessory muscles of speech are all initiated from this area.muscles of speech are all initiated from this area.

Development of signaling Development of signaling systems in children systems in children

The ability of a full-term baby to develop temporary The ability of a full-term baby to develop temporary connections of the first signaling system arises in a few connections of the first signaling system arises in a few days after the birth. In the first six months of life speech days after the birth. In the first six months of life speech sounds mean little to a child. They are simply stimuli to sounds mean little to a child. They are simply stimuli to the auditory analyzer like any other sounds. the auditory analyzer like any other sounds.

The first signs of development of the second signaling The first signs of development of the second signaling system appear during the second half of the first year system appear during the second half of the first year of life. If a person or an object is named and shown to of life. If a person or an object is named and shown to a child many times, reaction to this name develops. a child many times, reaction to this name develops.

Later after leaning a few words, a child begins to name Later after leaning a few words, a child begins to name objects itself. Finally, at a later time he uses a stock of objects itself. Finally, at a later time he uses a stock of words to communicate with other people. words to communicate with other people.

Language development

The process by which children acquire their first language in early childhood.

Human infants are acutely attuned to the human voice, and prefer it above all other sounds. In fact, they prefer the higher pitch ranges characteristic of female voices. They are also attentive to the human face, particularly the eyes, which they stare at even more if the face is talking.

These preferences are present at birth, and some research indicates that babies even listen to their mother’s voice during the last few months of pregnancy.

Babies who were read to by their mothers while in the womb showed the ability to pick out her voice from among other female voices.

Functions of speech Functions of speech Main functions of speech are communicative, regulatory, Main functions of speech are communicative, regulatory,

programming and gives general notion about surroundings. programming and gives general notion about surroundings. Communicative function permits exchange of information between Communicative function permits exchange of information between people. Such a function is also present in animals, which use for people. Such a function is also present in animals, which use for this aim vocalization of different intensity to warn about danger or this aim vocalization of different intensity to warn about danger or express positive and negative emotions. People use verbal express positive and negative emotions. People use verbal signals for everything he perceives through the receptors. Words signals for everything he perceives through the receptors. Words are abstraction of reality and allow generalization, processing of are abstraction of reality and allow generalization, processing of surrounding primary information. surrounding primary information.

Verbal instructions may direct human activity, give suggestion Verbal instructions may direct human activity, give suggestion about proper mode of behavior. This is programming function of about proper mode of behavior. This is programming function of speech. Programming function of speech involves emotional speech. Programming function of speech involves emotional component also, which may influence to emotional status of a component also, which may influence to emotional status of a person. person.

As limbic system, which controls emotions, has direct connection As limbic system, which controls emotions, has direct connection with autonomic nervous systemwith autonomic nervous system,, sso speech through emotions may o speech through emotions may influence to functions of visceral organs. Physician may use this influence to functions of visceral organs. Physician may use this effect for psychotherapy. It is necessary remember about effect for psychotherapy. It is necessary remember about jatrogenic disorders also. jatrogenic disorders also.

Attention as psychical Attention as psychical function function

Attention is selectiveness of psychical Attention is selectiveness of psychical processes or any kind of mental activity, which processes or any kind of mental activity, which helps in getting and processing the information. helps in getting and processing the information. There are sensory, motor, intellectual and There are sensory, motor, intellectual and emotional forms of attention, depending to kind emotional forms of attention, depending to kind of activity of a person. of activity of a person.

There are voluntary and involuntary levels of There are voluntary and involuntary levels of attention. Involuntary attention is present from attention. Involuntary attention is present from the birth of man. Voluntary attention develops the birth of man. Voluntary attention develops in life course, due to mental activity, formation in life course, due to mental activity, formation of speech function and studying languages. of speech function and studying languages.

Physiological Physiological mechanisms of attention mechanisms of attention

Involuntary attention is controlled by lower Involuntary attention is controlled by lower portion of brain stem and midbrain, where portion of brain stem and midbrain, where centers of roof reflexes are locates. Voluntary centers of roof reflexes are locates. Voluntary attention appears as a result of higher cortical attention appears as a result of higher cortical activity in visual, auditory, motor areas and so activity in visual, auditory, motor areas and so on. on.

Lesion of these cortical areas leads to such Lesion of these cortical areas leads to such disturbances in processing special sensory disturbances in processing special sensory information as ignore of stimuli of different information as ignore of stimuli of different modality. Intellectual attention appears modality. Intellectual attention appears because of function of prefrontal associative because of function of prefrontal associative cortical area. The limbic system of the brain is cortical area. The limbic system of the brain is responsible for emotional attention. responsible for emotional attention.

Thinking process as psychical functionThinking process as psychical function The prefrontal association area is essential to carrying out The prefrontal association area is essential to carrying out

thought processes in the mind. This presumably results from thought processes in the mind. This presumably results from some of the same capabilities of the prefrontal cortex that some of the same capabilities of the prefrontal cortex that allow it to plan motor activities. allow it to plan motor activities.

The prefrontal association area is frequently described as The prefrontal association area is frequently described as important for elaboration of thoughts to store on a short-term important for elaboration of thoughts to store on a short-term basis “working memories” that are used to analyze each new basis “working memories” that are used to analyze each new thought while it is entering the braine. The somatic, visual, thought while it is entering the braine. The somatic, visual, and auditory association areas all meet one another in the and auditory association areas all meet one another in the posterior part of the superior temporal lobe. This area is posterior part of the superior temporal lobe. This area is especially highly developed in the dominant side of the brain especially highly developed in the dominant side of the brain – the left side in almost all right-handed people. – the left side in almost all right-handed people.

It plays the greatest single role of any part of cerebral cortex It plays the greatest single role of any part of cerebral cortex in the higher comprehensive levels of brain function that we in the higher comprehensive levels of brain function that we call intelligence. This zone is also called general call intelligence. This zone is also called general interpretative area, the gnostic area, the knowing area, interpretative area, the gnostic area, the knowing area, tertiary association area. It is best known as Wernike’s area tertiary association area. It is best known as Wernike’s area in honor of the neurologist who first describes it. in honor of the neurologist who first describes it.

Brain activity recorded with PET in Brain activity recorded with PET in examenee, watching the rotating examenee, watching the rotating lettersletters

FORGETTINGFORGETTING Ineffective initial encoding, usually occurs because of ineffective Ineffective initial encoding, usually occurs because of ineffective

attention in the acquisition phaseattention in the acquisition phase DECAYDECAY:  forgetting occurs because memory fades with time.:  forgetting occurs because memory fades with time. INTERFERENCEINTERFERENCE: forgetting occurs because of competition from : forgetting occurs because of competition from

other informationother information Retroactive InterferenceRetroactive Interference: new: new information interferes with what information interferes with what

has already been learnedhas already been learned Proactive InterferenceProactive Interference: old information interferes with what is : old information interferes with what is

being learnedbeing learned RETRIEVAL FAILURERETRIEVAL FAILURE: sometimes we can not remember : sometimes we can not remember

something which at another time we can remember it; perhaps something which at another time we can remember it; perhaps this is because of the context cues or retrieval cues present at the this is because of the context cues or retrieval cues present at the timetime

motivated forgetting:  we may tend to forget things that we do not motivated forgetting:  we may tend to forget things that we do not wish to remember (Freud)wish to remember (Freud) ( (Repressed MemoriesRepressed Memories ) )

BRAIN INJURYBRAIN INJURY:: ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA (injury prevents new memories ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA (injury prevents new memories

from occurring):from occurring): RETROGRADE AMNESIARETROGRADE AMNESIA: (: (injury prevents old memories from injury prevents old memories from

occurring)occurring)

Thinking an ReasoningThinking an Reasoning Thinking includes a wide range of mental activities. It is the language Thinking includes a wide range of mental activities. It is the language

of our mind, and it can be presented in different ways or of our mind, and it can be presented in different ways or modes. modes. These include: These include: Propositional Propositional Thought, Thought, Imaginal Imaginal thought, and the thought, and the Motoric Motoric thought.thought.

((I) PROPOSITIONAL THINKINGI) PROPOSITIONAL THINKING:: 1)1) Three important aspects of proposition thinking can be Three important aspects of proposition thinking can be

studied: its studied: its Content, its OrganizationContent, its Organization, and its way of , and its way of CommunicationCommunication..

2)2)ContentContent : : refers to how we form or build blocks of thought and how refers to how we form or build blocks of thought and how we use them to classify objects.we use them to classify objects.

-This is done through the development of CONCEPT FORMATION.-This is done through the development of CONCEPT FORMATION. -A concept is a set of properties that we associate with classes of -A concept is a set of properties that we associate with classes of

objects. It is the basis of categorizing items to their shared properties, objects. It is the basis of categorizing items to their shared properties, e.g. e.g. classes of antibiotics, or antipsychotic. classes of antibiotics, or antipsychotic. It also helps us to predict It also helps us to predict information that is not accessible to us, e.g. a cat, a lion etc.information that is not accessible to us, e.g. a cat, a lion etc.

PROPOSITIONAL THINKINGPROPOSITIONAL THINKING

3)3) OrganizationOrganization of thought refers to the ways and types of of thought refers to the ways and types of reasoning we use. In reasoning our sequence of thoughts often take reasoning we use. In reasoning our sequence of thoughts often take the form of an argument, in which one proposition correspond to a the form of an argument, in which one proposition correspond to a Conclusion, and the remaining correspond to the premises.Conclusion, and the remaining correspond to the premises.

-- There is two type of reasoning: There is two type of reasoning: DeductiveDeductive, and , and inductiveinductive reasoning.reasoning.

-- DeductiveDeductive reasoning are the strongest types of logical reasoning are the strongest types of logical reasoning. It means that it is impossible for the conclusion of an reasoning. It means that it is impossible for the conclusion of an argument to be false if its premises are true. argument to be false if its premises are true. Here we go from the Here we go from the general to the specificgeneral to the specific; we deduce a particular consequence from ; we deduce a particular consequence from set of general rules, set of general rules, we Infer the conclusion from the premises.we Infer the conclusion from the premises.

-- InductiveInductive reasoning represents the reversed process of reasoning represents the reversed process of reasoning; here we try to induce a general rule from particular reasoning; here we try to induce a general rule from particular premises. Here it is improbable that the conclusion is false if the premises. Here it is improbable that the conclusion is false if the premises are true.premises are true.

Communicating our Communicating our ThoughtsThoughts

4)4) CommunicatingCommunicating our our Thoughts is achieved Thoughts is achieved through language.through language.

Languages are organized as Languages are organized as a hierarchy of structures.a hierarchy of structures.

The highest level is The highest level is SENTENCE UNITS, including SENTENCE UNITS, including phrases that can be related phrases that can be related to units of proposition. The to units of proposition. The phrases of a sentence are phrases of a sentence are built of words, or parts of built of words, or parts of words that have meaning, words that have meaning,

Next level is that of WORDS Next level is that of WORDS and parts of words that carries and parts of words that carries meanings a MORPHEME.meanings a MORPHEME.

Morphemes Morphemes are words, suffix are words, suffix or prefix that are added to or prefix that are added to words. words.

The lowest level contains The lowest level contains SPEECH SOUNDS.SPEECH SOUNDS.

A A phoneme phoneme is a category of is a category of speech sounds. Every speech sounds. Every language has its own set of language has its own set of phonemes and rules that phonemes and rules that combining them into words.combining them into words.

Understanding and Understanding and Expressing LANGUAGEExpressing LANGUAGE A language also has syntactic rules for combining words A language also has syntactic rules for combining words

into phrases and phrases into sentences.into phrases and phrases into sentences. ProducingProducing language language is a process of translating is a process of translating

propositional thoughts into the phrases and morphemes propositional thoughts into the phrases and morphemes of the sentence, and then translating this into phonemes.of the sentence, and then translating this into phonemes.

PHRASES-------- MORPHEMES------- PHONEMES PHRASES-------- MORPHEMES------- PHONEMES UnderstandingUnderstanding a sentence requires not only analyzing a sentence requires not only analyzing

phonemes, morphemes, and phrases, but also using the phonemes, morphemes, and phrases, but also using the context and understanding the intention of the speaker. context and understanding the intention of the speaker. In In understanding language understanding language the process is reversed. That the process is reversed. That is, we use phonemes to construct morphemes, and then is, we use phonemes to construct morphemes, and then phrasesphrases

TYPES OF APHASIATYPES OF APHASIA

OTHER TYPES OF OTHER TYPES OF THINKINGTHINKING

IMAGINAL THOUGHTSIMAGINAL THOUGHTS:: 1)1) Not all types of our Not all types of our

thoughts are presented in thoughts are presented in proposition. Some are proposition. Some are presented in visual images. presented in visual images. Such images contains the Such images contains the kinds of details found in kinds of details found in visual perceptionvisual perception

2)2) Imagery can be like Imagery can be like perception because it is perception because it is mediated by the same part of mediated by the same part of the brain. Thus, brain the brain. Thus, brain damage that results in damage that results in certain perceptual problems, certain perceptual problems, e.g., visual neglect, also e.g., visual neglect, also results in comparable results in comparable problems in imagery.problems in imagery.

THOUGHTTHOUGHT INACTION:INACTION: PROBLEMPROBLEM SOLSOL VINGVING::

1)1) Problem solving Problem solving involves decomposing a involves decomposing a goal into subgoals that are goal into subgoals that are easier to obtain.easier to obtain.

2)2) We use different We use different strategies to solve daily strategies to solve daily problems That why experts problems That why experts are superior to novice in are superior to novice in problem solving. problem solving.

The IDEAL problem solver The IDEAL problem solver refer to effective strategy refer to effective strategy and planning for problem and planning for problem solving.solving.

Aphasia

Aphasia means loss of speech .Aphasia means loss of speech .There are several types of aphasia :There are several types of aphasia : 1) Broca's Aphasia 1) Broca's Aphasia 2) Wernik's Aphasia 2) Wernik's Aphasia 3) Anomic Aphasia 3) Anomic Aphasia 4) Conducting Aphasia 4) Conducting Aphasia 5) Global Aphasia 5) Global Aphasia 6) Transcortical Sensory Aphasia 6) Transcortical Sensory Aphasia 7) Transcortical Motor Aphasia 7) Transcortical Motor Aphasia

Broca's Aphasia

Broca's area is usually found in the Frontal Broca's area is usually found in the Frontal Lobe Lobe

In 90% of the people , it is found in the Lt In 90% of the people , it is found in the Lt hemisphere hemisphere

It is the most common type of Aphasia It is the most common type of Aphasia The patient understands what he hears but he The patient understands what he hears but he

can NOT speak !can NOT speak ! He speaks very few words , very difficult He speaks very few words , very difficult

Broca's Aphasia (NON-FLUENT AphasiaNON-FLUENT Aphasia ) )

The patient is minimizing the adverbs & adjectives The patient is minimizing the adverbs & adjectives It is really difficult to produce the words in such patients It is really difficult to produce the words in such patients He is laboring to produce only few words !He is laboring to produce only few words ! The patient doesn't talk much , he is almost silent The patient doesn't talk much , he is almost silent He will omit a lot of syntaxes .. The grammar is He will omit a lot of syntaxes .. The grammar is

simplified simplified The language is meaningful but it is hard to generate The language is meaningful but it is hard to generate

the words the words The words are produced very slow & with a lot of effort The words are produced very slow & with a lot of effort If you ask him a question he will answer you , He will If you ask him a question he will answer you , He will

follow your comments because he can understand follow your comments because he can understand what you say what you say

Wernik's Aphasia (FLUENT Aphasia)FLUENT Aphasia)

Wernik's area is usually found in the Temporal Lobe Wernik's area is usually found in the Temporal Lobe In 90% of the people , it is found in the Lt hemisphere In 90% of the people , it is found in the Lt hemisphere The patient speaks a lot but his sentences has NO meaning The patient speaks a lot but his sentences has NO meaning If you listen to him , He speaks very fluent sentences , he speaks If you listen to him , He speaks very fluent sentences , he speaks

all the time ..all the time .. His sound is normal , He uses correct grammar roles but if you His sound is normal , He uses correct grammar roles but if you

concentrate on what he is saying you would found meaningless concentrate on what he is saying you would found meaningless speech..speech..

Ex : Ex : The door is too salty , The book is extremely fast !The door is too salty , The book is extremely fast ! The patients are very confident , very elated & euphoric , they The patients are very confident , very elated & euphoric , they

think that they are fine !think that they are fine ! If you ask him to follow your comments , he will not be able to do it If you ask him to follow your comments , he will not be able to do it

because he can NOT understand what you say ( Lack of because he can NOT understand what you say ( Lack of comprehension) comprehension)

Anomic Aphasia (Angular Gyrus Lesion)

Anomic person can Not supply the proper word or the Anomic person can Not supply the proper word or the name of an object or any thing he talks about name of an object or any thing he talks about

Anomic person can Not find the proper word or the Anomic person can Not find the proper word or the name of an object he talks about so he keeps on name of an object he talks about so he keeps on describing that object without mentioning its name describing that object without mentioning its name

Ex : Ex : If you give him a picture of a computer for If you give him a picture of a computer for example he would say :example he would say :

Yes I have this , I have it on my office , above my disc , Yes I have this , I have it on my office , above my disc , I use it every day , it is like this & that …I use it every day , it is like this & that …

Yet , he can NOT say that this is a computer !!Yet , he can NOT say that this is a computer !! Anomic person is Alixic ! Anomic person is Alixic ! Anomic person can understand & read ! Anomic person can understand & read !

Conduction Aphasia(Arcuate Fasiculus Lesion)

Damage of the connection fibers between the Werniks Damage of the connection fibers between the Werniks area & Broca's area ..area & Broca's area ..

These patients will have problem in repetition .. They These patients will have problem in repetition .. They can Not repeat after you although they understand can Not repeat after you although they understand what you say ( bcz Werniks area is Normal ) ..what you say ( bcz Werniks area is Normal ) ..

They can follow your comments ..They can follow your comments .. Thy have problem in conjugation of the words ..Thy have problem in conjugation of the words .. Ex : Ex : If you give him a picture of a chair for example he If you give him a picture of a chair for example he

would say :would say : Tair … Flair … Sair …Tair … Flair … Sair … He can Not say the proper word or the name of the He can Not say the proper word or the name of the

object he sees ..object he sees ..