FUNDAMENTAL OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

By

Dr. Anamika RayAssistant Professor in Mass Communication

Gauhati University, India

Concept of Research

Research:

Unfolds new dimensions of knowledge

Is systematic and scientific process

Based on relevant logic

Establishes the cause and effect relationship of an incident

depending upon the various discovered true facts

What is Research?

Research is-

asking questions

finding out the truth/fact

is a continuous process

can’t stop

is Communication

is investigation

is discovering a fact

We communicate every time we do research

On the other hand when we research, it is not completed until it is communicated

So we can say—

Communication = Research or vice versa.

As research is something to find out, we cannot find out the facts without

the help of communication. So, whatever the subject is for doing a

research, there is no other option except communication to accomplish it.

Common sense on Research

Research is to enlighten a new area or new dimension

To do a research we need necessary information

For research a new direction is needed to be shown

Research is identifying new facts

Research is to recognize the original facts

Research should not cross the common understanding level

Research should be complete in nature

Research should be explicable for the society for all total

development

Research is based on relevant and required logic

Something new should be explored through research

Significance of fact in Research

Facts should be authentic, correct, precise

Fact should not be at all misleading, wrong and irrelevant

How message is different from information-

Message is something to be communicated within a small audiencee.g.- from friend to friend

Information is disseminated in a large audienceHere various types of media are used.

Why Research is interesting?

Knowing the unknown

Establishing the cause- effect relationship in every incident

Unearthing the truth behind the truth

Testing the older doctrine, value and opinion

Lighting the dark

Research process step by step

The research process should be planned, deliberate and sustainable effort

1. Choosing the area of interest

2. Selecting the particular topic

3. Selecting the specific title

4. Analyzing the relevance and significance of topic in current

situation.

5. Establishing the purpose of the study

6. Fixing a particular research problem

7. Identifying the objectives of the study

8. Formulation of final hypothesis or research questions

9. Review of existing relevant literature

10. Framing the research design

11. Relevant required data collection

12. Analyzing the gathered data

13. Finding out the result

14. Preparation of required suggestions and recommendation

15. Research report writing

Discussed accordingly………

Research Title

Objective

Hypothesis

Literature Review

Research Method

Discussion on Research Title

Phases from Research Question to Final Title

1. Research Question: A question or set of questions carry the research root to its completion

E.g. Does the youth read newspaper?

2. Research problem:

Many come forward like:

Newspaper reading habit in rural youth

Newspaper reading habit in urban youth

But researcher will take the decision which research problem (s)he will take

3. Selecting Research Problem based on various aspects:

Usefulness to the society

Completion within pre fixed time frame

No over burden on affordable money

Interesting and explorative in nature

More scope of further study

4. Defining Research Problem:

One research question may have many research problems. Selecting one proper research problem out of those is important task. Proper understanding and planning is necessary for the same.

5. Deciding Research Topic:

The more focused Research problem out of others is called Research topic. E.g. Newspaper reading habit.

Then comes the question- which newspaper- Morning, Evening, Daily, Weekly or Fortnightly.

Proper observation, social relevancy, fulfillment of need, command over subject, background, own experience, literature review, understanding need of the hour- can help to decide a proper topic in a research process.

6. Title should be-

Interesting

Explorative

Simple

Focused

To the point

Crispy

Concise

Relevant

Meaningful

Discussion on Objective

Objective

After finalizing the research title, second phase is framing the relevant objectives. It means—

fixing a clear cut direction to study the research problem

helping to design the research

guiding the procedure of analyzing facts

assisting in report writing

Example of objective

If the research topic is ‘A study on science coverage in regional media of Assam’, there the objectives may be –

to analyze the status of science coverage in regional media

to investigate the various challenges of science coverage in regional media

Aim may consists of many objectives. Two or three should be selected for research work.

Discussion on Hypothesis

Hypothesis

It is a tentative assumption on approving or disapproving, agreeing or

disagreeing the result based on would be collected data.

Characteristics of Hypothesis:

Clear

Brief

Limited

Easy to test

Power to add on knowledge

Straight forward

Goal oriented

Articulated

Classification of hypothesis:

General hypothesis

Specific hypothesis

Narrative hypothesis

Cause and effect relationship hypothesis

Directional hypothesis

Non-directional hypothesis

Alternate hypothesis

Hypothesis Testing

Parametric test: Z, X2, F t test

Non parametric test

Literature Review

Concept:

A study on the existing literature available and accessible within the specific time frame and

determined affordability level to have a clear knowledge on the taken research area. The

findings from relevant books , journals, web sites etc should be written according to APA

style aiming to focus pertinent research theme.

Advantages:

Gives clear focus to the research problem

Helps to frame research design

Broadens the knowledge

Disadvantages:

Time consuming

Frustrating

Boring and tedious

Discussion on Research Methodology

Concept of Variable

Variables means characteristics or various factors in an incident/event that can be measured and manipulated based on facts and logic

Example of variable:

More one will earn, s/he will have more wealth. Wealth variable depends on earning variable.

Dependent variable: Wealth depends upon earning

Independent variable: Earning is independent variable

Wealth is effect and earning is cause

Earning = Independent variable = cause

Wealth = dependent variable = effect

Research is a process of systematic enquiry

Method ApproachA way to collect data The outline of research pattern

Survey, case study Historical, anthropological, experimental sociological approach

A study on “Women empowerment in Akbar regime method of case study

Historical approach

The difference between Method and Approach

Various research methods

Observation

Content analysis

Experiment

Survey

Communicating and listening

Discussion

Census

Case study

Focus group study

Interview

Research tools

1. Schedule

2. Questionnaire

3. Questions

4. Case study

5. Recall

6. Scales

Brief of research tools

Schedule is a set of questions along with some blank tables and fill

in the blanks, which is used to collect the information from the

respondent through direct interview or direct observation and is

filled up by the investigator himself.

1. Schedule

Types

Interview schedule: Purpose is to use in interview method.

Rating schedule: Purpose is to develop scale or rank.

Document schedule: Purpose is to document autobiography, case

history, dairy or official record

Observation schedule: Purpose is to observe (what should be

observed, what not to observe), it is basically used in field.

Questionnaire looks like a schedule but it is not filled up by the investigator, it is handed over or posted, mailed to the respondents and filled by them only.

2. Questionnaire

Advantage:

Less expensive

Large coverage

Less time consuming

Disadvantage:

No confirmation of reply back

100% unbiased, authenticated, non manipulative answers cannot be expected always.

Literacy is bar.

Important Note: In everywhere (Questionnaire/Schedule)

The title of study, clear questions, enough space to answer, proper address of interviewer and date should be mentioned carefully.

Case Study: The relevant incidents of the chosen research area help to identify various aspects of research. It is not only a tool, it is also considered as method in Research world.

Scale: The scale is used to categorized variables as well as to measure, which helps in data analyzing.

Recall: Many times the respondents give new direction to the research flow by recalling various past information.

Brief on various research methods-

A. Census: A complete study on entire population aiming to get demographic, socio-economic-cultural data.

Advantages:

• It is a complete study, not dependent on sample.

• Less scope for unauthenticated information.

Disadvantages:

• Time consuming

• Expensive

B. Case study

It is a study on previous incident (which is relevant as well as similar but true) in support of present research.

Advantage:

• Opens up the eyes for the scope of future study

• Helps to work in wider range

• Unfolds hidden angel, unexpected factors

Disadvantage:

• Biased to some extent

• Time consuming

• Tough to summerize the conclusion due to over burden of information

It is a study along with analysis of relevant content on the research issue.

Advantages

Frequently used research method.

Comparatively easy method.

Analysis of content, verbally communicated material various forms of symbolic and audio visual communication.

A study of already existed record.

C. Content Analysis

Disadvantages

Tedious

Time consuming

Sometimes confusing in selecting the content

Sometimes impossible to include all relevant content

Sometimes impossible to get all the required content (like all the issues of newspapers)

Sometimes becomes biased at the time of choosing the content.

Methods of content analysis

1. Identification of a research question/issue:

E.g. Science coverage in regional and national newspapers in last six month.

2. Deciding the source of information:

Region – Assam

Regional newspaper: Asomiya Pratidin

National Newspaper – Hindustan Times

(To have comparative study between national and regional newspapers)

3. Setting objectives

To analysis the comparison between the significance of science storieswith other types of news especially in presence of political news hypeand existence of advertising in those selected newspapers.

To find out the comparison- which paper gives more attention toscience news coverage.

4. Hypothesis formulation:

Science gets less importance in regional media.

5. Defining population:

All the newspapers published from Assam and the newspapers circulated in Assam

6. Sampling:

All the issues of two newspapers of one month duration.

7. Formulating category: Category must be comprehensive and free from malignity.

Categories may be:

News on environment

News on health

News on hygiene

News on technology

News on politics

Information in advertisement

8. Analyzing unit:

For news papers

Number of word of published news stories

Area/space by column centimeter/ square cm

All kinds of news, articles, features, human interested stories, investigative reporting will be included.

9. Coding:

It depends upon unit of analysis. It is a quantified data.

Code through number.

Content analysis of News coverage(especially science news and political news)

Code through percentage index (just an example)

Category % of Science news in Hindustan Times

% of Science news in Asomiya Pratidin

Environment 20 30

Health and Hygiene 32 23

Technology 42 8

10. Analysis:

To fulfill the objectives, the data is to be analyzed. For that various graphical presentation like chart, bar diagram, pie graph as analysis techniques are used.

11. Interpretation:

Focusing on objectives, data is to be interpreted.

12. Suggestion:

Based on conclusion the researcher will give the recommendation to improve the situation.

D. Focused Group Study

Based on a fixed research problem, group discussion and group interview are done.

Need question as tool

Clear concept of a group and the context they have assembled.

Advantages:

o Time saving

o Lab experience

o Flexible in nature

Disadvantage:

Domination by extrovert participants

In appropriate method in quantitative study

Affecting the data collection process due to lack of good communication skill and lack of control over the group

Only true representatives can give actual information

E. Survey:

Questionnaire and schedule are used as tool in this process.

Interaction method (through telephone/ face to face) is used.

Observation helps the process.

Types of Survey

Census

Cross –sectional survey

Longitudinal survey

Census:

Data is collected from whole population aiming to bring out information on demographic profile, socio-economic, cultural strata.

Cross sectional survey:

Collection of data from a population within a specific time frame. In past what was their opinion, at present what is their opinion, Has the opinion changed happened due to the course of time.

Longitudinal survey:

It includes-

Vertical surve

Trend survey

Cohort study

Panel study

F. Observation:

Systematic, scientifically, minutely notice

Indispensible part of every research method

Advantage:

Hidden truth can be find out

Disadvantage:

Expensive

Time consuming

Limited scope for data collection

More scope for prevalence of researcher biasness

More scope for getting confusion

Types of Observation

Participatory

Non participatory

Controlled observation

Non controlled observation

Participatory:

Observation through participation on respondent’s activities.

Advantage:

Getting the scope to observe the respondent into a neutral and natural environment

Being closed with the respondent, the hidden fact can be identified

In-depth study is possible

Disadvantage:

Participation with emotion affects the impartiality and loyalty of the researcher.

Personal views may dilute the news

Every time participation is not at all possible (e.g.- a study on the life of a prostitute).

Sometime participants become conscious due to the active present of researcher and start behaving artificial. The authenticity of data may be hampered.

Non participatory observation:

Observation without participation in the respondents’ activity.

Advantage:

Neutral and objective information is gathered

Less scope for researcher biasness

Unknowingly the respondent shows the actual fact, which helps the researcher

Disadvantage:

Respondent may feel awkward after knowing that s/ he is being observed by someone.

Lack of participation may lead misinterpretation of an issue.

Without participation the gravity of the event cannot be understood properly.

Sometimes proper sample size and frame cannot be decided effectively.

Controlled observation:

Observation in a pre planned environment supported by experimental procedure

It is especially done in laboratory test

Types:

Control over phenomena

Control over observation (perceptions)

Non controlled observation:

Observation in natural surrounding and environment

G. Interview:

A systematic process of interaction to collect the data taking particular prefixed aims and objectives. It is an interpersonal communication to share knowledge and information.

Advantages:

Enable to know someone in detail which help to get the authenticate information.

It helps to study the past event.

Disadvantage:

Difficult to convince someone to release information

Interviewing proper person is another challenging task

More scope for subjectivity where views get more importance

Scope for biasness from both part (interviewer and interviewees)

Types of Interview:

1. Structured interview:

This is controlled, guided and directed in nature. It is the interview with prefixed schedule and complete format with advance recording. No scope for after modification.

2. Unstructured interview:

This is free relaxed, uncontrolled type of interview. The questions are not predetermined but must be related to the issue.

3. Focused interview:

Based on particular situation or issue. It is very similar to structured interview in nature.

4. Repetitive interview:

To know the gradual progress of an incident repetitive interview method is taken of. The information is collected through interview again and again.

How to take an Interview--

The interview may be taken in the field or may be taken from a

personality or group of personalities at his or her place.

In the field interview, the interviewer must be prepared about the

background of the field, the incident , the issue along with a set of

questions, which may be changed according to the circumstances.

In case of interview from a personality, the researcher must follow a few

steps, such as-

1. Formulation of a topic

2. In-depth background study of the topic

3. Background study of the personality to be interviewed

4. Preparation of set of questions

5. Taking appointment from the person to be interviewed

6. Time and venue should be fixed under both side mutual understanding

7. Reaching the place of interview before time

8. Before starting the interaction, interviewee should be briefed up

9. With due permission of the interviewee, the interview should be

recorded

10. Researcher must carry pen and paper to note down various

information collected by own observation

11. Interviewee should be given more chance to speak

12. The questions can be put in two ways:

Funnel (short question to broad question-which begins from the

important questions to the lessimportant ones)

Inverted Funnel (opposite in nature)

12. During the interview, if some of the questions happen to be

embarrassed to the interviewee, where (s) he is not comfortable to

answer those questions, then interviewer should immediately put

some filler questions to move on. In this way, the interview can be

carried out smoothly.

13. After coming back, the report is written based on interview

14. The report should be sent to the interviewee to recheck and to

take the consent from him/her on all the written information.

15. At last after publishing/broadcasting the report the researcher

should thank the interviewee for kind cooperation.

H. Discussion

Interaction within a group (not more than 6-12 members at a time)

Types

Panel discussion: Discussion and sharing views of four to five experts in the field.

Brainstorming session: As the name implies, a discussion session and sharing views as well as convincing the target audience based on inspiring ideas and thought.

Focus group discussion: As name implies, the discussion will be

based on a particular prefixed topic with a specific group.

Unfocused group discussion: In this case the topic is not given to a

group or fixed but from the on going discussion the investigator

tries to get the relevant required information.

Sampling

In research work, the information is collected as a whole via twoprocesses:-

i) Census

ii) Sampling

i) Census: The interaction with the whole area or population ofrespondents (broadly called universe) to collect data.

ii) Sampling: A small representation of whole area or universe (totalpopulation of the respondents of that area) is called sample.

Examples of Two Processes:-

Doctors use to prescribe blood test to identify the reason of the

sickness. Examination of one drop of blood gives the clear picture

of whole body and its status of disease. Similarly two three rice

particles can give the idea that the rice in cooker is boiled properly

or not.

So the blood of whole body or the rice in a cooker is considered as

Population or Universe, whereas the drop of blood or two-three rice

particles can be considered as sample.

Advantages of sampling:

Time saving

Less expensive

Easily administrable

Possible in depth study

Disadvantage:

Wrong selection wrong representation of the population

Wrong representation wrong result

Scope for biasness of researcher at the time of sample selection

Need required skill for small heterogeneous respondents

Impossible to get 100% accurate data

Classification of Sampling Method

There are three types of sampling methods-

1. Probabilistic sampling

2. Non probabilistic sampling

3. Mixed sampling

4. Probabilistic sampling : It follows mathematical logic. Broadly there are three types of probabilistic sampling.

Simple random sampling

Stratified random sampling

Cluster sampling

3.Non probabilistic sampling : It does not follow mathematical logic. It is a

by-chance method. There are six types of non probabilistic sampling.

Convenient sampling

Purposive Sampling

Handpicked sampling

Snowball sampling

Volunteer Sampling

Quota

4. Mixed sampling

Systematic sampling

1. Probabilistic Sampling

1. Simple random sampling:

Lottery method: selection of sample through the selection of chits, capsule or real from a container as name implies the meaning.

Tippet's number: A table with random numbers (of one to five digits each).

Grid system: A screen with square boxes are placed on the sample area map. Some square boxes are selected randomly and the areas under these boxes are selected as sample.

Advantage:

Free from bias

Less sampling error

Simple

Not affected by the choice of researcher

Disadvantage:

Impossible for heterogynous universe

Sometimes difficult to catalogue the universe

2. Stratified sampling:

Universe is divided into strata

Each stratum is independently sampled randomly

Homogeneity in different units of strata is compulsory from a heterogeneous population.

Advantages

Representation of various groups.

Helping comparison among sub categories

Disadvantages

Require more effort than simple random sampling

Need large sample size with statistically meaningful comparison

3. Cluster sampling:

Sample units are selected based on group not on individual element. Group element depicts the meaning of cluster. A study on ‘Sarva SikshaAbhiyan’. There especially from Guwahati, Dibrugarh (representing lower Assam and upper Asam), each primary school children will be interview.

Advantage:

Practical convenience

Easy to test a group

Disadvantage:

More scope for sampling error

Non Probabilistic Sampling

1. Convenient sampling:

Opportunity based

Accidental in nature

Not systematically administered

Sample structure and size depends upon researcher convenience, availability and accessibility to the source.

2. Purposive Sampling:

Sample selection based on researcher purpose

It is deliberate and planned method

No scope for by chance factor

3. Handpicked sampling:

In a place, the sample is selected instant . Who ever is coming first, if s/he fulfills the purpose of research will be selected. Otherwise if that sample does not represent the universe, the researcher switches to other sample.

4. Snowball sampling:

Where the shape of universe is not confirm, the sample size cannot be fixed. At that time interaction with one person gives the clue of other respondent. Gradually the sample size increases.

Eg.- there is no actual data how many Bangladeshi have been migrated to India. So in this case, in a particular area, one by one interactions is possible. No one can fix, that this the sample of immigrant from Bangladesh.

5. Volunteer Sampling:

E.g. if an advertisement is published in a newspaper that we need the opinion on ‘so on so topic’ to run the investigation. The sample will be volunteer in nature. There the size cannot be fixed at the starting of research.

6. Quota Sampling:

A special form of stratified sample

Number of sample is decided from each strata

According to the convenience of the researcher

Difference between Quota & Stratified method

Universe / Population

Definition: Total informants in a determined area for a research work.

Classification:

Definite Universe: Countable number of individual respondent

Indefinite universe: Uncountable number of respondents. E.g. TV viewers in Guwahati.

Hypothetical universe: Say for instance online women readers of Times of India.

Source of information

Personal contact

Periodical, journal

Bibliographical database

Research guides like reference book, referred journal, relevant social sites.

Dictionaries, encyclopedia, yearbook

Statistical sources

Bibliography

Golden Rule

The greater the sample size, the more accurately your findings will

reflect the true picture

Research design

It is sometimes called a blue print, sometimes a format or framework of data collection method and analyzing the gathered facts to solve a research problem or to answer a research question.

Characteristics:

Outline of research work like dummy newspaper

Specifying loopholes in would be research work in advance

Better understanding of relevant data to be collected within specific time frame

Enhancement of accuracy

Time saving

Steps towards Worthy Research Design

Step 1. Finding out the reason to conduct a research work

Step 2. Recognizing the key unknown factors

Step 3. Selecting aim and objectives

Step 4. Deciding hypotheses to be tested.

Step 5. Distinguishing the key variables.

Step 6. Framing out the sources of information

Step 7. Timeframe for research

Step 8. Chalk out the format of research work

Step 9. Aware and required prevention of various risk factors could be faced during the research period

Step 10. After confirmation of coordination research can be started

Types of research design

1. Experimental

2. Exploratory

3. Descriptive

4. Longitudinal – Historical studies

5. Simulation studies

6. Anthropological studies

1. Experimental Design

Controlled testing to understand the causal procedure.

Establish and correlation between cause and effect, within variably.

The experimental design can be classified based on two criteria-Approach and Method

Approach Method

• Agreement method • Ex post facto

• Method of difference • Panel studies

• Residual method • Quasi experimental

• Associated variation method • Before after

• After only

Classification of Experimental Design(Based on approach and variable)

Agreement method

Mutual agreement of two variables

One variable manipulates the other variable

One variable is considered as cause, another variable is considered as effect

Method of difference:

If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have every circumstance save one in common, that one occurring only in the former; the circumstance in which alone the two instances differ, is the effect, or cause, or a necessary part of the cause, of the phenomenon.

—John Stuart Mill

Residual method

Filtration of known variable of the cause and left cause exists with unknown variable

Associated variation method

One variable increase cause, at the sometime due to that the other variable increases the effect or vice-versa.

First variable i.e. X is cause and can be considered as predecessor and second variable i.e. Y is effect and can be considered as succession.

a. Ex post Facto

It has very significant existence in research world

After completion or ending up an event, this type of research scrutinizes the whole fact. It finds out the reason for which the event or incident has happened.

Classification of Experimental Design(Based on method and style)

Tools – Survey, Case studies

Studying past using present situation. (another research future prediction is being done using present situation)

Quite comparative in nature

b. After only:

When the experiment is over, the study is done.

c. Before -After:

The study is done before starting the experiment and after completion of the experiment.

d. Panel Study:

A study on a specified issue is done on different time frame.

e. Quasi Experimental design:

Quasi means single or almost same

It is very much similar in before-after research method

Only single group will be decided to experiment

E.g.: In a class the researcher will interview only Mediocre students before and after the examination, but did not take any other student’s opinion.

2. Exploratory Research Design

It is also called formulative study

It is to find out scope, concept, to develop idea, to understand the limitation of a subject

Aim is to explore something

Method used:

Literature review

Survey

Case study

3. Description Research Design

Descriptive in nature

To identify the problem, to understand the specific nature, to find out the possible variable and factors

Method used:

Interview, questionnaire, schedule

Documentation

Observation

It is called vertical study

Relating the facts in either ascending or descending order

Especially in historical study, it gives date wise logical analysis

If it is only historical research-

Understanding socio-cultural-economical change and transformation

Source of information: Diaries, autobiography, archive, agreement, museums, historical document.

4. Longitudinal – Historical Studies

Classification of Longitudinal Design

Longitudinal research design can be classified as below-

a. Trend Study

b. Cohort Study

c. Panel Study

a. Trend Study

Different time frame

Different group of people (different population)

E.g. In election period people voting behavior

Advantage

Describing long term change

Disadvantage

Unreliable data may give false trend result

b. Cohort study

A group of people may be from different places have experienced the same event within a given period. E.g. A study on the student attitude passed in 1980 matriculation.

Advantage:

Highly flexible in nature

Appealing and useful technique

Provides insight of change of an event

Comparatively less expensive than experiment and survey

Disadvantage:

Difficult to unravel the data (on age, cohort, period)

Sample mortality

Vertical vs Horizontal Study

Vertical Horizontal

E.g. An analysis of Mughol region from Babar to Aurangazeb or vice-versa

E.g. An analysis of the life span of Aurangazeb.

E.g. A study on Freedom fighting during British period from 1857 to 1946

E.g. A study on satyagrah

5. Simulation Study

Sometimes the research is not possible in real situation, the artificial

situation is created to conduct research. It is called simulation study.

E.g. If any one is studying the topic “Media message is affecting our

normal mind set up balance”. The researcher can go to any

meditation camp for one or two months where no media is allowed to

use even mobile phone is strictly restricted. Then the change in mind

set can be studied.

6. Anthropological Study

A study on understanding human evolution, development, advancement procedure of the society over the time, socio-cultural variation.

Observation and in depth interview method to be used mostly

7. Phenomenological Research Design

The idea of Phenomenological Research comes from the study of a phenomenon. Description of several individuals on a particular incident becomes the key theme of this type of research design.

The data are collected mainly through personal interview. Purposive sampling, snowball sampling processes are usually taken help to conduct the research.

For instance, an incident has happened, the opinion and experience of the eye witnesses and the connected persons are taken into consider in the research format. This type of research is called phenomenological research.

Discussion on other types of Research Methods

Qualitative Research

It is to study of-

Various perspectives of human life, society

Individual opinion, feeling, need, attitude, aptitude, practice, behavior, knowledge.

Social complexity, interaction, traditional and contemporary belief, concept, experience and system.

It is scientific systematic discussion and description of human

existence & culture.

In this process the researcher becomes a part of respondent life,

observes minutely, experience their culture and becomes intimate

with them.

The researcher gather experience and can be able to give detail, in-

depth description on the subject.

It is a participatory approach. In this research process analysis is done on ‘why it is not’ & ‘what it

is’.

Research method in Qualitative Research

Minute observation

In depth intimate interview

Detail survey

Focus group discussion

Limitations:

More scope for researcher’s biasness

Researcher needs to know the respondents culture

More scope for Researcher- respondent cultural conflict

Large group study is not always possible

Time consuming

Without background study of the respondent may be sometime

becomes risk for the researcher

Fact credibility

Qualitative vs Quantitative

“When, among a set of observations, any single observation is a number that represents an amount or a count, then the data are quantitative.“

“When, among a set of observations, any single observation is a word, or a sentence, or a description, or a code that represents a category then the data are qualitative.“

(Source- Usability Test Data by Dr. Philip Hodgson)

Discussion on Communication Research

Types of communication Research

There are three types of research-

Process Research

Effect Research

Impact Research

Process Research:

A TV advertisement on chocolate is made to attract youth. If the

impressiveness and persuasive nature of that ad compels youth to buy

it and at that time the research is pursued, that type of research is

called processed research.

Effect Research:

If the advertisement of chocolate can create a demand of that

particular product in youth, it means the ad could create an effect

on the audience. The study on the effect of that ad is called effect

research.

Impact Research:

Effect is considered as short term activity. The use of that

particular product may become habit of a group of youth and can

penetrate the product in daily life causing a distinguished change

in life style. The study on the reasons of continuation of product

existence in life is called impact study or impact research.

Mass Media Research

Print media research

Electronic media research

Advertising & Public Relations Research

New media research

A. Print media Research

Circulation research

Readership Research

Management Research

Typography Research

Readability Research

Web use Research

Circulation Research

A study on number of copies distributed on an average

everyday.

ABC Audit Bureau of circulation is independent body in this

regard

Two ways of research

Analysis of a particular group of people or in a particular area

as readers the circulation of a paper and overall impact.

Analysis of impact of circulation on individual reader each

through their behavior pattern.

Individual subscription makes an impact.

Readership Research

A study on readers’ preference regarding the content, context,

presentation style of the newspaper.

A few areas of Readership Research

Reader and non reader: Behavioral pattern of the readers. Non

readers mean the person not reading the newspaper or

frequently not read.

Interaction between reporter to reader via editor: A study on

the interaction among three group of people opens different

dimension in the context of news paper

Choosing the news item: A study on the reader’s preference of

newspaper items like article, feature, page 3 information,

breaking news, science and technology related new and may

more. The item selection method is called aided recall.

Readers background: The study on readers background helps to

identify target audience and the preference of content to be

designed.

Use and gratification: The theory of use and gratification says-

what people do with media rather what media does to the people.

In this type of research, the motive and satisfaction of reader on

media is studied.

Magazine readership Researcher: Either the individual respondent

is asked to rate (in 5 point scale) the content, presentation style of

the magazine or a panel of readers (20 or more) are asked to do the

same.

Management Research

A study on the effectiveness of the current management

system of media house.

Research on Media expansion, cut throat market

competition, adoption of new technology, skill development

of employee and status of intra structure as well as man

power.

•It is also known as make up research.

• Study on presentation style of content in newspaper like

layout, font style, size, white space etc.

Typography Research

Readability research

A study on the level of comprehension of the content of the

newspaper. The quality parameter like-Easy or difficult,

attractive or no attractive etc can affect the success of the

paper.

Research based on use of web

Research on acceptability of online journalism

The impact of online news culture on traditional media.

Study on use of internet to collect information for news preparation.

B. Electronic media research

There are two approaches-

Research on electronic media, e.g. impact TV on children

Research in electronic media, e.g. The popularity of a

particular programme in a particular channel.

The second category uses two research methods

Rating

Non rating

Rating method

Aim to actual representation of viewer

Electronic meter are placed on TV set

Sample may be hundred, may be thousand

Besides electronic meter, especially at local level diaries are used for the same purpose.

Rating = Household/population

People/population (in case of radio)

Total number of homes using television (HUT)

Person using radio (PUR)

Three aspects are monitored—

Mode of access like DTH or cable

Channel and programme

The viewer

Non rating method

Aim to focus on audience behavior and aptitude

Analysis is done on audience programme preference, their

demographic profile, lifestyle, different programme format to

know the actual demand and aspiration of audience.

A few non-rating methods

1. Testing programme:

A research team studies various phases of a programme like idea,

rough cut and post production on behalf of decision makers.

Before broadcasting the original programme, dummy production

is shown to the target audience and their reaction is analyzed to

confirm the success after broadcasting.

2. Listening habit study:

It is basically done for radio

In auditorium music testing, 100-200 listeners gather in an

auditorium (25-40 age group)

Hooks are played and the reaction of listeners are recorded.

3. Callout research:

The audience are called on either telephone or mobile

The respondents give rate upon the hooks after listening on

telephone only.

At a time 15-20 songs are played

It is comparatively inexpensive in nature

4. Focus group study:

A group discussion on programme format, character, image of the

channel is analyzed.

5. Performer Q test:

Celebrities are chosen for anchoring a programme

A sample of audience are asked to rate the celebrities from a

prefixed list and based on that decision is taken.

Important to know…..

Audience Research

Gathering data on reach-access, environment-exposure and content-context of media in relation to a particular group of audience is called audience research. In audience research various characteristics (based on various criteria) are needed to be analyzed to get more authenticated relevant data.

Demographic profile, social background acceptance and system economical class, educational status, in build faith, culture, tradition, values, health and hygiene structure, language, attitude, attitude, need and demand, life style and settlement, credibility and reliability of source of information a few important as well as significant characteristics of audience.

C. Advertising Research

Broadly there are five forms of Ad research.

Ad strategy research: A study on product concept, usage, target audience, use of media, brand positioning in the market, competitive situation.

Research on ad creativity: A study on ad concept, appeal,

pricing, brand name, market opportunity.

Survey, interview, focus group discussion, observation are

taken help for research.

Audience profile research: A study on audience profile their

expectation and need.

Pre-testing advertisement: A study on the acceptance of ad

message in advance using various techniques.

Like focus group discussion, port folio test, interview, direct mail

test.

Post testing and evaluation campaign: A study on after effect of

already launched advertisement. Marketing mix(7 Ps) are used

here to analyze.

D. Public Relations Research

Applied research: Strategy research and evaluation research

Basic research: A study on PR process and its fundamental.

Introspective research: A study on scope, possibilities in PR field.

Process of PR Research

Selecting a problem

Plan and execution of the research design

Implementation

Evaluation

Ethics in Research

Avoiding conflict of interest

Avoiding plagiarism

Prior permission to take information

Respect all cast, creed and culture

Avoiding biasness

No exaggeration of message with undue color and aim

Avoiding to mislead the respondents

No misleading conclusion

Avoiding to disclose the respondents identity

No focus on only personal interest fulfillment

Respect to own along with others profession

Scales: Qualitative Communication Research

Continuum

Continuum means measurable factors. E.g. popularity of a channel

according to audience perspective. There will be two factors- likes

or dislikes. Those must be expressed through number say for

instance – likes: 1, Dislikes: 2. Then the result can be analyzed.

Reliability

A scale expresses the similar measurement in the similar condition.

E.g. two people from two different groups remaining under same

condition may like the same news channel. Under the reliability

scale pretest method is very significant. One single scale is

prepared and is applied twice on the same population. After that

the results are compared.

Jury opinion:

There is a scale i.e. validity using jury opinion method is frequently

used in research where the judgment of a group of people on a

particular person or issue is considered final outcome.

Point Scale: Proved by Gauss’s Theorema Egregium

Social distance Scale:

In our society everyone is having relations with others but every

where there is a distinguish space. The distance or space depends

upon the gravity of the relationship. Cost, class, background fix the

distance.

There are three major social distance scales.

i. Bogardus social distance scale

ii. The likert social distance scale

iii. Socio metric social distance scale

i. Bogardus Scale:

Invented by Emony S. Bogardus

Psychological testing scale

Measuring person’s willingness of social activities participation irrespectively diverse group or class.

ii. Likert Social distance scale:

To measure the people attitude.

The process:

Five categories of opinion and express into point scale

Definitely agree (1)

Agree (2)

Still not decided (3)

Disagree (4)

Definitely disagree (5)

The statement will be given to the respondents and asked to mention the point against each statement. The score will be arranged in ascending order.

Selected References and further readings

Anders, H. (1998). Mass Communication Research Methods. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press.

Buddenbaum, J. M., & Novak, K. B. (2001). Applied Communication Research. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.

G, K. P. (2008). Electronic Media and Communication Research Methods. Place of publication not identified: Authors Press.

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Ltd.

Reinard, J. C. (2006). Communication Research Statistics. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Treadwell, D. (2011). Introducing communication research: Paths of Inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2005). Mass media research: An introduction, 8th ed. Belmont, CA: Thompson Wadsworth.

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