A/578975

Fundamental Rightsand

Their Enforcement

U D A I R A J R A I , PhD (London), LLM (Allahabad)Formerly: Krishna Iyer Chair Professor

National Law School of India University (NLSIU), Bangalore;Visiting Professor, National University of Juridical Sciences (NUJS), Kolkata; and

Professor, Head and Dean, Faculty of Law, Gorakhpur (UP) University

PHI LearningNew Delhi-110001

2011

CONTENTS

Preface xvii

Acknowledgements xxi

Table of Cases xxiii

Introduction 1-11

LA Eclectic Nature of the Document 1I.B How Fundamental are the Fundamental Rights? 2I.C Political and Civil Rights 4I.D Group Rights 4I.E Rights Rooted Respectively in Equality and Liberty Values 7I.F Right Granted to Persons, Citizens or Some Specified Group 7I.G Specifically Enumerated Restrictions on Rights 8I.H Are There Any Unenumerated Rights? 10

CHAPTER 1 LIBERTY-BASED RIGHTS I:FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION 12-144

Part I Article 19 Rights in General 121.I.A An Overview of Articles 19 to 22 121.I.B The Rights Guaranteed under Article 19 23l.I.C Corporations and Article 19 Rights 14l.I.D Reasonableness of Restrictions 17

l.I.D(a) The Nature of the Right Infringed 18l.I.D(b) Nature of the Interest Sought to be Protected 20l.I.D(c) The Extent and Urgency of the Evil Sought to

be Remedied 21l.I.D(d) The Disproportion of the Imposition 23l.I.D(e) Prevailing Conditions at the Time 26l.I.D(f) Procedural Safeguards 26l.I.D(g) Reasonableness of Restriction, Not of Law 29

Part II Freedom of Speech and Expression 311.II.A Introductory 31

vi Contents

l.II.B Free Speech Justifications 31Free Speech: Categories 35

l.II.C What does the Right Commote? 35l.II.C(a) Symbolic Speech 36l.II.C(b) Commercial Speech 38l.II.C(c) Freedom of Information and Right to Know 42l.II.C(d) Right Not to Speak 62l.II.C(e) Election Speeches 64l.II.C(f) Speech Right of Government Servants 67

Part III Free Speech: Limitations 72Section A: Content-based Limitations 72l.III.A(a) Introductory 72l.III.A(b) Internal and External Security and Maintenance

of Order 72l.III.A(c) Freedom of Speech and Administration of Justice 86l.III.A(d) Freedom of Speech Versus Decency and Morality 101l.III.A(e) Freedom of Speech Versus Reputation and

Privacy 111l.III.A(f) Other Limitations on Speech Right 228Section B: Content-neutral Limitations 121

Part IV Special Problems of Media Freedom 1261.IV.A Introduction 126l.IV.B Institutional Position of the Media 2271.IV.C Permissibility of Prior Restraint 129l.IV.D Speech and Business Elements Mixed 1321.IV.E Problem of Concentration in the Media: Print Media 134l.IV.F Electronic Media 1381.IV.G Access to the Media 140l.IV.H The Press Council 243l.IV.I Article 19(l)(a) in Cyberspace 143

CHAPTER 2 LIBERTY-BASED RIGHTS II: REST OFARTICLE 19 RIGHTS 145-213

Part I Assembly, Association, Movement and Residence 1452.1.A Right of Assembly 1462.1.B Right of Association 150

2.1.B(a) Positive Right Includes the Negative Right 1502.1.B(b) No Right of Recognition 1512.1.B(c) No Interference in the Composition of

the Association is Permissible 1532.1.B(d) The Issue of Concomitant Rights 1552.1.B(e) Declaring an Association Unlawful 156

2.1.C Movement and Residence 1592.1.C(a) Externment Order to Deal with an Emergency

Situation 159

Contents vii

2.1.C(b) Externment Order as a Substitute forthe Measures Prescribed in Cr.P.C. 161

2.1.C(c) Surveillance 1672.1.C(d) Miscellaneous Cases 168

Part II Profession, Occupation, Trade and Business 2702.II.A Introductory: Nature of the Right Protected 270

2.II.A(a) Basic Principles 270 *•2.II.A(b) Saghir Ahmad & Rickshaw-Pullers Cases 2722.II.A(c) Sodan Singh and the Rest 274

2.II.B Res Extra Commercium 1772.II.B(a) The Principle 2772.II.B(b) RMDC Case 1782.II.B(c) Liquor Trade Cases 1792.II.B(d) Fatehchand Himmatlal 182

2.II.C Restrictions 1842.II.C(a) Labour-Management Relations 1862.II.C(b) Restrictions on Slaughter of Animals 1922.II.C(c) Consumer Protection 1952.II.C(d) Licensing 203

2.II.D State Monopoly 210

CHAPTER 3 LIBERTY-BASED RIGHTS HI: MEANINGOF LD7E AND PERSONAL LD3ERTY 214-273

Part I Judicial Detour: Gopalan to Maneka 2153.I.A A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras 2153.I.B Post-Gopalan Developments 223

3.I.B(a) Meaning of Personal Liberty 2233.I.B(b) Applicability of Article 19 226

3.I.C Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India 2303.I.D Summing up and an Evaluation 235

Part II Right to Life: Its Meaning and Content 2393.II.A Introductory 2393.II.B Right to Life: General Scope 2403.II.C Exclusively Constitutional Rights 242

3.II.C(a) Right to Education 2423.II.C(b) Right to Livelihood 245

3.II.D Rights which are Simultaneously Constitutional andOrdinary Legal Rights 2483.II.D(a) Sanctity of Life and Limbs 2503.II.D(b) Right to Live in a Pollution-free Environment 254

3.II.E Some Other Interests Struggling to be Recognised asRights 257

viii Contents

Part III Meaning of Personal Liberty 2613.III.A The Core Meaning of Personal Liberty: Right against

Unlawful Arrest and Detention 2613.III.B Right to Go Abroad 2633.III.C Privacy 2633.III.D Individual Autonomy as a Privacy Right and its Many

Manifestations 2673.III.D(a) Restitution of Conjugal Rights 2693.III.D(b) Interference with Procreative Liberty 2703.III.D(c) Right to Die 270

3.III.E Is Property Right Part of Personal Liberty 272

CHAPTER 4 LIBERTY-BASED RIGHTS IV: PUNITIVEDEPRIVATION OF LD7E AND PERSONALLD3ERTY 274-330

Part I The Three Guarantees of Article 20 2764.I.A Guarantee against Ex Post Facto Laws 276

4.I.A(a) An Innocent Act cannot be Made CriminalRetrospectively 277

4.I.A(b) Prohibition against RetrospectiveEnhancement of Punishment 280

4.I.B Guarantee against Double Jeopardy 2824.I.B(a) Prosecution 2834.I.B(b) Prosecuting and Punishing More Than Once

(for the same offence) 2884.I.B(c) Prosecuting and Punishing for

the Same Offence 2884.I.C Privilege against Self Incrimination 290

4.I.C(a) Introductory 2904.I.C(b) Meaning of To be a Witness' 2934.I.C(c) Meaning of Compulsion 2974.I.C(d) To Whom and When is Protection Available? 302

Part II Protection against Arrest and Detention 3084.II.A Right to be Informed of the Grounds of Arrest 3084.II.B Right to Consult and to be Defended by a Legal

Practitioner of One's Choice 3094.II.C Production before the Magistrate 3104.II.D Reach of the Rights against Arrest and Detention 312Part III Residuary Features of Fair Procedure 3144.III.A Impartial Tribunal 3144.III.B Right of Appeal 3164.III.C Free Legal Assistance 3274.III.D Bail 3184.III.E Speedy Trial 321

Contents ix

4.III.F Miscellaneous Issues 3274!II.F(a) More Stringent Rules for Crimes Related to

Terrorism 3274.III.F(b) Standard of Proof 3284.III.F(c) Plea Bargaining 3304.III.F(d) Polygraph Test 330

CHAPTER 5 LD3ERTY-BASED RIGHTS V: PREVENTIVEDETENTION, DEATH SENTENCE ANDPRISONERS' RIGHTS - 331-407

Parti Preventive Detention 3325.I.A Introductory 3325.I.B An Overview of the Constitutional Scheme on Preventive

Detention 3335.I.B(a) Allocation of Legislative Power 3335.I.B(b) Fundamental Rights as Limitations on

Detention Power 3365.I.C Duration of Detention 339

5.I.C(a) Preliminary 3395.I.C(b) The Meaning of 'Such Detention' in

Article 22(4)(a) 3395.I.C(c) Can the Period of Detention be Extended

Beyond Three Months Only If the MaximumPeriod is Prescribed 340

5.I.C(d) Cases and Circumstances in Article 22(7)(a) 343

5.I.D Communication of the Grounds of Detention and Right toMake Representation 3485.I.D(a) Meaning of Grounds 3495.I.D(b) Meaning of Communication of Grounds 3555.I.D(c) Representation and Its Consideration 357

5.I.E Limitations of Other Fundamental Rights 3635.I.E(a) Article 14 and Preventive Detention Law 3645.I.E(b) Article 19 and Preventive Detention Law 3655.I.E(c) Article 21 and Preventive Detention Law 366

5.I.F Judicial Review 3715.I.F(a) Detaining Authority Required to Apply His

Mind 3735.I.F(b) All Relevant Facts Must be Considered 3765.I.F(c) Non-Existent or Irrelevant Grounds 3775.I.F(d) Mala Fides and Colourable Exercise of Power 3795.I.F(e) Satisfaction of the Detaining Authority 381

Part II Death Sentence and Its Constitutionality 3845.II.A Principal Contentions of the Contending Sides 384

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5.II.B Applicable Law 3855.II.C Cases: Constitutionality of Death Sentence 386

5.II.C(a) Jagmohan Singh v. State of UP 3865.II.C(b) Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab 3875.II.C(c) Mithu v. State of Punjab 389

5.II.D Problems Arising from Delayed Execution 3905.II.E Article 21 and Mode of Execution 392Part III Prisoners' Rights 3945.III.A Introductory 3945.III.B Some Yxe-Maneka Pronouncements 3945.III.C New Philosophy of Prison Administration 3965.III.D Right against Unjustified Use of Bar-Fetters 3985.III.E Right against Unnecessary Hand-Cuffing 3995.III.F Right against Being Kept in Solitary Confinement 4015.IH.G Humane Conditions of Living 4035.III.H Payment of Wages to the Prisoners 4045.III.I Article 21 and Substantive Reasonableness 405

CHAPTER 6 LIBERTY-BASED RIGHTS VI: FREEDOMOF RELIGION 408-449

Part I Secularism 4206.I.A Secularism: Its Meaning and Nature 4106.I.B A Secular State Presupposes a Secular Society 4116.I.C Roots of Secularism in India 4126.I.D Secularism and the Indian Constitution 412Part II Individual and Denominational Freedom of Religion 4146.II.A Articles 25 and 26 and Their Interrelationship 414'^6.II.B Rights Guaranteed under Article 25 416

6.II.B(a) Freedom of Conscience and Right to Profess andPractise Religion 416

6.II.B(b) Right to Propagate Religion 4276.II.C Limitations on Article 25 Rights 419

6.II.C(a) Public Order, Morality and Health 4196.II.C(b) Other Provisions of Part III 4226.II.C(c) Social Welfare and Reform 422

6.II.D Religious Denominations and Their Freedom 4246.II.D(a) Introductory 4246.II.D(b) Meaning of Religious Denomination 4256.II.D(c) Acquisition of Religious Institutions or

Properties Belonging to Such Institutions 4286.II.D(d) Takeover of, or Interference with the

Management of Religious Institutions 430

Contents xi

6.II.D(e) State Interference with the Position ofMathadhipati and Archaks 434

6.II.D(f) Matter of Religion 438Part III Common Citizenship and Non-entanglement of

the State with Religion 4416.III.A Common Citizenship 4416.III.B Non-entanglement of the State with Religion 445

CHAPTER 7 EQUALITY-BASED RIGHTS IEQUALITY BEFORE LAW 450-569

Parti General 4507.I.A The Concept of Equality 4507.I.B Meaning of Article 14 4537.I.C A Synoptic View of the Doctrine of Classification 455

Part II The Rule of Nexus 4587.II.A Classification: A Necessity 4587.II.B Classification: An Overview 460

7.II.B(a) Differential Treatment 4617.II.B(b) Judicial Deference 4627.II.B(c) Object of the Law 466

7.II.C Classification: Illustrative Cases 4677.II.C(a) Classification between Public Authorities and

Others 4677.II.C(b) Classification-based on Geographical-cum-

Historical Considerations 4697.II.C(c) Classification in the Area of Rent Control and

Eviction 4707.II.C(d) Miscellaneous Cases 473

7.II.D Under-inclusion and Over-inclusion 4777.II.E One Person Law 4827.II.F Equality, Taxation Laws, and other Laws Regulating

Economic Affairs 488

Part III Executive Discretion and Equal Protection 4997.III.A Special Criminal Courts 5007.III.B Executive Discretion, Parallel Laws, and Alternative

Choices 511

7.III.B(a) Service Law 5127.III.B(b) Income Tax Investigation 5147.III.B(c) Land Acquisition 5177.III.B(d) Eviction from Public Premises 521

7.III.C Other Cases of Guided/Unguided Executive Discretion 5267.III.C(a) One Law: Two Procedures 526

xii Contents

7.III.C(b) Discretionary Power in the Area of IndustrialRelations 527

7.III.C(c) Discretion Not Unguided 5277.III.C(d) Unbounded Discretion 5297.III.C(e) Selective Application of Law 530

7.III.D Administrative Discrimination 535Part IV The New Equal Protection 539

Sub-Part 1 The New Equal Protection: General 5397.IV. 1A The New Equal Protection in the United States Constitution 5397.IV. IB Reasonable Classification Principle and Its Limitations 5407.IV.1C Some Peculiarities of Reasonable Classification as had

been Practised in India 5427.IV.1D The New Equal Protection: Its Origin and Evolution 5437.IV.1E Rule against Arbitrariness: Adding Bite to the Rule of

Classification 5487.IV.lE(a) Intelligible Differentia 5497.IV.lE(b) Substantive Differential Treatment 5507.IV.lE(c) Relationship between the Differentia and the

Object of the Law 5537.IV.lE(d) Judicial Tolerance of the Grant of Executive

Discretion 5547.IV.1F Rule against Arbitrariness: Supreme Court's Residuary

Jurisdiction of Non-textual Review 5557.IV.1G Summing Up: Scope, Standard and Intensity of Judicial

Scrutiny 558Sub-Part 2 Judicial Review of Governmental

Distribution of Largesse 5617.IV.2A Introductory 5617.IV.2B Enunciation of the Principle of Judicial Self-Restraint 5627.IV.2C Cases Warranting Judicial Intervention 5647.IV.2D Cases Where Judicial Intervention was held to be

Unwarranted 566

CHAPTER 8 EQUALITY-BASED RIGHTS II:(NON-DISCRIMINATION AND EQUALOPPORTUNITY) 570-592

Part I General 5728.I.A Constitutional Provisions and Their Inter-relations 5728.I.B Special Provision for Women 574Part II Admission to Educational Institutions 5788.II.A Introductory 5788.II.B Miscellaneous Cases 578

Contents xiii

8.II.C Practice of Equality in Compartments 5808.II.D Reservation Based on Residence and Institutional

Preference 582

Part III Public Employment 588

8.III.A Introductory 5888.III.B Application of the Classification Principle 5898.III.C Equal Pay for Equal Work 590

CHAPTER 9 EQUALITY-BASED RIGHTS HI: SOCIALRESERVATION 593-623

Part I General 5939.1.A Outline of the Chapter 5939.1.B Affirmative Action 5949.1.C Admixture of Social Justice with Group Representation 5959.1.D Judicial Role 597Part II Identification of Beneficiaries 600

9.II.A Identification of SCs and STs 6009.II.B Identification of OBCs (Position before Indra Sawhney) 6059.II.C Identification of OBCs (Indra Sawhney and Thereafter) 6079.II.D Exclusion of Affluent Sections 609

Part III Different Aspects of Reservation 612

9.III.A Some Conceptual Issues 61291113 Quantum of Reservation 6139.III.C Relaxation in Qualification 6159.III.D Reach of Reservation 6209.III.E Reservation at the Promotion Stage 621

CHAPTER 10 LD3ERTY- AND EQUALITY-BASEDRIGHTS I 624-637

Part I Right to Social Equality 624

10.I.A Untouchability 62510.I.B Forced Labour, Beggar and Bonded Labour System 62610.I.C Traffic in Human Beings 62710.I.D Prohibition of Hazardous Child Labour and

Child Welfare 628

Part II Right to Education and Educational Freedom 630

10.II.A Academic Freedom 63010.II.B Need for a New Awakening 63210.II.C Autonomy and Accountability 63210.II.D Freedom to be All Pervasive 63312.II.E P.M. Bhargava v. UGC 63410.II.F State's Duty to Provide Education 635

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CHAPTER 11 LIBERTY AND EQUALITY-BASED RIGHTS H:HJENTITY, MINORITY AND OTHERPRIVATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 638-687

Part I Right of a Group to Retain Its Distinct Identity 640Part II Minority's Right to Establish and Administer

Educational Institutions 643

11.II.A Meaning of Minority 644ll.II.B Meaning of Minority Educational Institution 647ll.II.C Right to Establish Educational Institutions 65311.II.D Right to Administer 657

ll.II.D(a) Constitution of Managing Committee 660ll.II.D(b) Right to Select and Appoint Principal and

Teachers 664ll.II.D(c) Conditions of Service and Disciplinary

Proceedings 667ll.II.D(d) Medium of Instruction 675ll.II.D(e) Admission of Students 678

Part III Non-Minority Private Educational Institutions 68311.III.A Introductory 683ll.III.B Unni Krishnan and Pai Foundation 683ll.III.C Islamic Academy of Education 684ll.III.D P.A. Inamdar v. State of Maharashtra 685ll.III.E Conclusion 686

CHAPTER 12 REACH OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS 688-715

Introduction 688

Part I Vertical Application of the Rights and the Meaningof The State' 690

12.I.A Introductory 69012.I.B Specifically Enumerated Entities or Authorities 69112.I.C Under the Control of the Government of India 69212.I.D Other Authorities 69312.I.E Other Authorities: Application of the Principles 69912.I.F Judiciary 705Part II Horizontal Application of the Rights 72212.II.A Introductory 72212.II.B A View of the Journey Undertaken and Modus Operandi

Available for Horizontal Application 72212.II.C Provisions Specifically Inserted in the Constitution for

Horizontal Application 72212.II.D Right to Equality and Right against Discrimination and

Its Judicial Extension 72312.II.E Rights Guaranteed under Articles 19 and 21 72312.II.F Infusion of the Rights Values in Private Law Concepts 724

Contents xv

CHAPTER 13 VIOLATION OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS 716-742

13.A Introductory 72613.B Definition of Law 72813.C Prospectivity of Fundamental Rights 72013.D Doctrine of Eclipse 72313.E Can the Rights be Waived 72913.F Subject Matter and Effect Tests 73313.G Doctrine of Severability 738

CHAPTER 14 ENFORCEMENT OF THE RIGHTS 743-766

Parti Articles 32 and 226 74314.I.A Supreme Court and High Courts Have Concurrent Powers 74314.I.B Article 32 Right is Itself a Fundamental Right 746

14.I.B(a) Prem Chand Garg v. Excise Commissioner, UP 74614.I.B(b) Alternative Remedy 74714.I.B(c) Disputed Question of Fact 74814.I.B(d) Res Judicata 74914.I.B(e) Laches 75214.I.B(f) Some Other Possible Objections 753

14.I.C High Court's Discretionary Jurisdiction 75314.I.D Amplitude of the Jurisdiction 75414.I.E Public Interest Litigation (PIL) 755

Part II Articles 33 and 34 75814.II.A Introductory 75814.II.B Article 33 75814.II.C Article 34 759

Part III Impact of Emergency on Fundamental Rights 762

14.III.A Introductory 76214.III.B Impact of Articles 358 and 359 76314.III.C Preventive Detention During Emergency 764

CHAPTER 15 DHtECTIVE PRINCD7LES ANDFUNDAMENTAL DITTOES 767-786

Part I A Brief Account of the Directives 769

15.1.A General 76915.1.B Future Economic Order 77015.1.C Social Security 77015.LD Policy Statements 77215.1.E Humanisation of Labour Conditions 77215.1.F Public Health, Nutrition and Animal Husbandry 77215.1.G Gandhian Values 772

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Part II How Fundamental Rights and Directive Principlesare Interrelated 772

15.II.A Presence or Absence of Judicial Enforceability asthe Basis for the Distinction 772

15.II.B Distinction Based on Alleged Intrinsic Merits ofthe Two Parts 775

Part III Alleged Obstacles Created by the Rights 77715.III.A Democracy and Constitutionalism 77715.III.B Governmental Efforts to Implement the Directives: :

A Reality Check 77815.III.C Directives and the Property-related Interests (1) 77815.HI.D Directives and Property-related Interests (2) 782

Part IV Fundamental Duties 786

Addenda 787-794

Index 795-803