Subhadeep Porel CLASS: X, SECTION: E | ROLL NO: 39

Gardening Project

THIS PROJECT DEALS WITH VARIOUS TYPES OF

PLANT DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL

MEASURES ALONG WITH COMMON

AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENTS.

TopicsTopicsTopicsTopics covered:covered:covered:covered:

1.1.1.1. Control measure of Control measure of Control measure of Control measure of plant plant plant plant

diseases.diseases.diseases.diseases.

2.2.2.2. Biological control measure.Biological control measure.Biological control measure.Biological control measure.

3.3.3.3. Common insecticides, Common insecticides, Common insecticides, Common insecticides,

fungicides and weedicides.fungicides and weedicides.fungicides and weedicides.fungicides and weedicides.

4.4.4.4. Common agricultural Common agricultural Common agricultural Common agricultural

equipment.equipment.equipment.equipment.

CONTROL OF PLANT DISEASESCONTROL OF PLANT DISEASESCONTROL OF PLANT DISEASESCONTROL OF PLANT DISEASES

Types of control measures: Quarantine:

Wherein a diseased patch of vegetation or

individual plants are isolated from other, healthy

growth. Specimens may be destroyed or relocated

into a greenhouse for treatment/study. Another

option is to avoid introduction of harmful non-

native organisms by controlling all human traffic

and activity (e.g., AQIS) although legislation and

enforcement are key in order to ensure lasting

effectiveness.

Cultural:

Farming in some societies is kept on a small scale,

tended by peoples whose culture includes farming

traditions going back to ancient times. (An example of

such traditions would be lifelong training in

techniques of plot terracing, weather anticipation and

response, fertilization, grafting, seed care, and

dedicated gardening.) Plants that are intently

monitored often benefit from not only active external

protection but also a greater overall vigour. While

primitive in the sense of being the most labour-

intensive solution by far, where practical or necessary

it is more than adequate.

Plant resistance:

Sophisticated agricultural developments now allow

growers to choose from among systematically

cross-bred species to ensure the greatest hardiness

in their crops, as suited for a particular region's

pathological profile. Breeding practices have been

perfected over centuries, but with the advent of

genetic manipulation even finer control of a crop's

immunity traits is possible. The engineering of

food plants may be less rewarding, however, as

higher output is frequently offset by popular

suspicion and negative opinion about this

"tampering" with nature.

Figure 1B

Quarantine control

Small-scale farming

Cross-breeding of species

Chemical:

(See: pesticide application) Many natural and synthetic

compounds that could be employed to combat the above

threats exist. This method works by directly eliminating

disease-causing organisms or curbing their spread;

however, it has been shown to have too broad an effect,

typically, to be good for the local ecosystem. From an

economic standpoint, all but the simplest natural additives

may disqualify a product from "organic" status, potentially

reducing the value of the yield.

Biological:

Crop rotation may be an effective means to prevent

a parasitic population from becoming well-

established, as an organism affecting leaves would

be starved when the leafy crop is replaced by a

tuberous type, etc. Other means to undermine

parasites without attacking them directly may exist.

Integrated:

The use of two or more of these methods in combination offers a higher chance of effectiveness.

Biological Pest Control Biological control is a bio effector-method of controlling

pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms. It

relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also

involves an active human management role. It can be an important component of integrated

pest management (IPM) programs. There are three basic types of biological pest control

strategies: importation (sometimes called classical biological control), augmentation and

conservation.

Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include

predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most

often referred to as antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include seed predators,

herbivores and plant pathogens.

Spraying pesticides

Crop rotation

ImportationImportationImportationImportation

Importation (or "classical biological control") involves the introduction of a pest's natural enemies

to a new locale where they do not occur naturally. This is usually done by government

authorities. In many instances the complex of natural enemies associated with a pest may be

inadequate, a situation that can occur when a pest is accidentally introduced into a new

geographic area, without its associated natural enemies. These introduced pests are referred to as

exotic pests and comprise about 40% of the insect pests in the United States.

The process of

importation

involves

determining the

origin of the

introduced pest

and then

collecting

appropriate

natural enemies

associated with

the pest or

closely related

species.

Selected natural enemies are then passed through a rigorous assessment, testing

and quarantine process, to ensure that they will work and that no unwanted organisms (such as

hyperparasitoids) are introduced. If these procedures are passed, the selected natural enemies

are mass-produced and then released. Follow-up studies are conducted to determine if the

natural enemy becomes successfully established at the site of release, and to assess the long-

term benefit of its presence.

To be most effective at controlling a pest, a biological control agent requires a colonizing ability

which will allow it to keep pace with the spatial and temporal disruption of the habitat. Its control

of the pest will also be greatest if it has temporal persistence, so that it can maintain its

population even in the temporary absence

of the target species, and if it is an

opportunistic forager, enabling it to

rapidly exploit a pest

population.[3] However an agent with such

attributes is likely to be non-host specific,

which is not ideal when considering its

overall ecological impact, as it may have

unintended effects on non-target

organisms.

Augmentation Augmentation Augmentation Augmentation

Augmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies, boosting the naturally

occurring population. Relatively few natural enemies may be released at a critical time of the

season (inoculative release) or millions may be released (inundative release). An example of

inoculative release occurs in greenhouse production of several crops. Periodic releases of the

parasitoid, Encarsia formosa, are used to

control greenhouse whitefly, and the

predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis is

used for control of the two-spotted spider

mite. Lady beetles, lacewings, or

parasitoids such as those from the

genus Trichogramma are frequently

released in large numbers (inundative

release). Recommended release rates for

Trichogramma in vegetable or field crops

range from 5,000 to 200,000 per acre (1 to

50 per square metre) per week depending

on level of pest infestation. Similarly,

entomopathogenic nematodes are

released at rates of millions and even billions per acre for control of certain soil-dwelling insect

pests.

The spraying of octopamine analogues (such as 3-FMC) has been suggested as a way to boost the

effectiveness of augmentation.] Octopamine, regarded as the invertebrate counterpart

of dopamine plays a role in activating the insects' flight-or-fight response. The idea behind using

octopamine analogues to augment

biological control is that natural

enemies will be more effective in

their eradication of the pest, since

the pest will be behaving in an

unnatural way because its flight-

or-fight mechanism has been

activated. Octopamine analogues

are purported to have two

desirable characteristics for this

type of application:

(1) They affect insects at very low

dosages

(2) They do not have a

physiological effect in humans (or other vertebrates).

Conservation Conservation Conservation Conservation

The conservation of existing natural enemies in an environment is the third method of biological

pest control. Natural enemies are already adapted to the habitat and to the target pest, and their

conservation can be simple and cost-effective. Lacewings, lady beetles, hover fly larvae, and

parasitized aphid mummies are almost always present in aphid colonies.

Cropping systems can be modified to favour the natural enemies, a practice sometimes referred

to as habitat manipulation. Providing a suitable habitat, such as a shelterbelt, hedgerow, or beetle

bank where beneficial insects can live and reproduce, can help ensure the survival of populations

of natural enemies. Things as simple as leaving a layer of fallen down leaves or mulch in place

provides a suitable food source for worms and provides a shelter for small insects, in turn also

providing a food source for hedgehogs and shrew mice. Compost pile(s) and containers for

making leaf compost also provide shelter, as

long as they are accessible by the animals (not

fully closed). A stack of wood may provide a

shelter for voles, hedgehogs, shrew mice,

some species of butterflies, ... Long grass

and ponds provide shelters for frogs and

toads (which themselves eat snails). Not

cutting any annual or other non-hardy plants

before winter (but instead in spring) allows

many insects to make use of their hollow

stems during winter. In California prune trees

are sometimes planted in grape vineyards to

provide an improved overwintering habitat or

refuge for a key grape pest parasitoid. The

prune trees harbour an alternate host for the

parasitotic, which could previously overwinter

only at great distances from most vineyards.

The provisioning of artificial shelters in the

form of wooden

caskets, boxes or flowerpots is also sometimes

undertaken, particularly in gardens, to make a

cropped area more attractive to natural

enemies. For example, the stimulation of the natural predator Dermaptera is done in gardens by

hanging upside-down flowerpots filled with straw or wood wool. Green lacewings are given

housing by using plastic bottles with an open bottom and a roll of cardboard inside of

it. Birdhouses provide housing for birds, some of whom eat certain pests. Attracting the most

useful birds can be done by using a correct diameter opening in the birdhouse (just large enough

for the specific species of bird that needs to be attracted to fit through, but not other species of

birds).

Common Common Common Common PesticidesPesticidesPesticidesPesticides, Insecticides and , Insecticides and , Insecticides and , Insecticides and

Weedicides:Weedicides:Weedicides:Weedicides:

1. Organochloride:

These are organic compounds with several atoms of chlorine per molecule. These are organic compounds with several atoms of chlorine per molecule. These are organic compounds with several atoms of chlorine per molecule. These are organic compounds with several atoms of chlorine per molecule.

DDT, BHC,ALDRIN,DIELDRIN and ENDRIN are organo chlorine pesticides. DDT, BHC,ALDRIN,DIELDRIN and ENDRIN are organo chlorine pesticides. DDT, BHC,ALDRIN,DIELDRIN and ENDRIN are organo chlorine pesticides. DDT, BHC,ALDRIN,DIELDRIN and ENDRIN are organo chlorine pesticides.

DDT is the oldest and most popular synthetic pesticide. BHC alone represent DDT is the oldest and most popular synthetic pesticide. BHC alone represent DDT is the oldest and most popular synthetic pesticide. BHC alone represent DDT is the oldest and most popular synthetic pesticide. BHC alone represent

50% of the to50% of the to50% of the to50% of the total pesticide volume of pesticide. Aldrin is used in the foundation of tal pesticide volume of pesticide. Aldrin is used in the foundation of tal pesticide volume of pesticide. Aldrin is used in the foundation of tal pesticide volume of pesticide. Aldrin is used in the foundation of

buildings to prevent attack by termites. All these chemicals are lipophillc and get buildings to prevent attack by termites. All these chemicals are lipophillc and get buildings to prevent attack by termites. All these chemicals are lipophillc and get buildings to prevent attack by termites. All these chemicals are lipophillc and get

bioaccumulated in the fatty tissue of animals.bioaccumulated in the fatty tissue of animals.bioaccumulated in the fatty tissue of animals.bioaccumulated in the fatty tissue of animals.

2. Organophosphate:

In health, agriculture, and In health, agriculture, and In health, agriculture, and In health, agriculture, and government, the word "organophosphates" refers to a group government, the word "organophosphates" refers to a group government, the word "organophosphates" refers to a group government, the word "organophosphates" refers to a group ofofofof insecticidesinsecticidesinsecticidesinsecticides or nerve agents acting on the enzymeor nerve agents acting on the enzymeor nerve agents acting on the enzymeor nerve agents acting on the enzyme acetylcholinesteraseacetylcholinesteraseacetylcholinesteraseacetylcholinesterase (the pesticide (the pesticide (the pesticide (the pesticide groupgroupgroupgroup carbamatescarbamatescarbamatescarbamates also act on this enzyme, but through a also act on this enzyme, but through a also act on this enzyme, but through a also act on this enzyme, but through a different mechanism). The term is used different mechanism). The term is used different mechanism). The term is used different mechanism). The term is used often to describe virtually any organic phosphorus(V)often to describe virtually any organic phosphorus(V)often to describe virtually any organic phosphorus(V)often to describe virtually any organic phosphorus(V)----containing compound, especially when containing compound, especially when containing compound, especially when containing compound, especially when dealing with neurotoxic dealing with neurotoxic dealing with neurotoxic dealing with neurotoxic compounds. Many of the socompounds. Many of the socompounds. Many of the socompounds. Many of the so----called called called called organophosphates contain Corganophosphates contain Corganophosphates contain Corganophosphates contain C----P P P P bonds. For instance,bonds. For instance,bonds. For instance,bonds. For instance, sarinsarinsarinsarin isisisis OOOO----isopropyl isopropyl isopropyl isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate, which methylphosphonofluoridate, which methylphosphonofluoridate, which methylphosphonofluoridate, which is formally derived is formally derived is formally derived is formally derived fromfromfromfrom phosphorous phosphorous phosphorous phosphorous acidacidacidacid (HP(O)(OH)(HP(O)(OH)(HP(O)(OH)(HP(O)(OH)2222), not phosphoric ), not phosphoric ), not phosphoric ), not phosphoric acidacidacidacid (P(O)(OH)(P(O)(OH)(P(O)(OH)(P(O)(OH)3333). Also, many ). Also, many ). Also, many ). Also, many compounds which are derivatives compounds which are derivatives compounds which are derivatives compounds which are derivatives ofofofof phosphinic acidphosphinic acidphosphinic acidphosphinic acid are used as are used as are used as are used as neurotoxic organophosphates.neurotoxic organophosphates.neurotoxic organophosphates.neurotoxic organophosphates.

Organophosphate pesticides (as well as sarin andOrganophosphate pesticides (as well as sarin andOrganophosphate pesticides (as well as sarin andOrganophosphate pesticides (as well as sarin and VXVXVXVX nerve agent) irreversibly inactivate nerve agent) irreversibly inactivate nerve agent) irreversibly inactivate nerve agent) irreversibly inactivate acetylcholinesterase, which is essential to nerve function in insects, humans, and many other acetylcholinesterase, which is essential to nerve function in insects, humans, and many other acetylcholinesterase, which is essential to nerve function in insects, humans, and many other acetylcholinesterase, which is essential to nerve function in insects, humans, and many other animals. Organophosphate pesticides affeanimals. Organophosphate pesticides affeanimals. Organophosphate pesticides affeanimals. Organophosphate pesticides affect this enzyme in varied ways, and thus in their ct this enzyme in varied ways, and thus in their ct this enzyme in varied ways, and thus in their ct this enzyme in varied ways, and thus in their potential for poisoning. For instance,potential for poisoning. For instance,potential for poisoning. For instance,potential for poisoning. For instance, parathionparathionparathionparathion, one of the first OPs commercialized, is many , one of the first OPs commercialized, is many , one of the first OPs commercialized, is many , one of the first OPs commercialized, is many times more potent thantimes more potent thantimes more potent thantimes more potent than malathionmalathionmalathionmalathion, an insecticide used in combatting the, an insecticide used in combatting the, an insecticide used in combatting the, an insecticide used in combatting the Mediterranean fruit Mediterranean fruit Mediterranean fruit Mediterranean fruit flyflyflyfly (Med(Med(Med(Med----fly) andfly) andfly) andfly) and West Nile VirusWest Nile VirusWest Nile VirusWest Nile Virus----transmitting mosquitoes.transmitting mosquitoes.transmitting mosquitoes.transmitting mosquitoes.

3. Carbamate:

The soThe soThe soThe so----called carbamate insecticides feature the carbamate ester functional group. Included called carbamate insecticides feature the carbamate ester functional group. Included called carbamate insecticides feature the carbamate ester functional group. Included called carbamate insecticides feature the carbamate ester functional group. Included

in this group are aldicarb (Temik), in this group are aldicarb (Temik), in this group are aldicarb (Temik), in this group are aldicarb (Temik),

carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin), carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin), carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin), carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin),

ethienocarb, fenobucarb, oxamyl and ethienocarb, fenobucarb, oxamyl and ethienocarb, fenobucarb, oxamyl and ethienocarb, fenobucarb, oxamyl and

methomyl. These insecticides kill insects by methomyl. These insecticides kill insects by methomyl. These insecticides kill insects by methomyl. These insecticides kill insects by

reversibly inactivating the enzyme reversibly inactivating the enzyme reversibly inactivating the enzyme reversibly inactivating the enzyme

acetylcholinesterase. The organophosphate acetylcholinesterase. The organophosphate acetylcholinesterase. The organophosphate acetylcholinesterase. The organophosphate

pesticides also inhibit this enzyme, although pesticides also inhibit this enzyme, although pesticides also inhibit this enzyme, although pesticides also inhibit this enzyme, although

irreversiblyirreversiblyirreversiblyirreversibly, and cause a more severe fo, and cause a more severe fo, and cause a more severe fo, and cause a more severe form rm rm rm

of cholinergic poisoning. of cholinergic poisoning. of cholinergic poisoning. of cholinergic poisoning. Fenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormone Fenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormone Fenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormone Fenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormone

mimic, rather than inactimimic, rather than inactimimic, rather than inactimimic, rather than inactivating acetylcholinesterase. vating acetylcholinesterase. vating acetylcholinesterase. vating acetylcholinesterase. The insect repellent icaridin is a The insect repellent icaridin is a The insect repellent icaridin is a The insect repellent icaridin is a

substituted carbamate.substituted carbamate.substituted carbamate.substituted carbamate.

4. Pyrethroid:

Pyrethroid insecticides are a special chemical class of active ingredients found in

many of the modern insecticides found on store shelves and used by pest

management professionals. The name pyrethroid means “pyrethrum-like” and

refers to the origin of this class of

pesticides. Pyrethroids became

popular as consumer insecticides

in the 1990s as replacements for

older pesticides, like diazinon and

Dursban® that were phased out

for environmental and human

health reasons. Some pyrethroid

insecticides last a long time in the environment (days or weeks), especially when

protected from sunlight. Others, such as allethrin and resmethrin, break down

within a few minutes to a few hours after application.

5. MCPA: MCPA is used as an herbicide, generally as its

salt or esterified forms. Used thus, it controls

broadleaf weeds, including thistle and dock, in

cereal crops and pasture. It is selective for

plants with broad leaves, and this includes

most deciduous trees. Clovers are tolerant at

moderate application levels.

6. 2, 4-D

2, 4-D is primarily used as a selective herbicide which kills many terrestrial and aquatic

broadleaf weeds, but not grasses. It acts by mimicking the action of the plant growth

hormone auxin, which results in

uncontrolled growth and eventually death in

susceptible plants. Because it was discovered

in the 1940s, there is no longer a patent

governing the manufacture and sale of 2,4-D,

and any company is free to produce it. Thus,

it is sold in various formulations under a

wide variety of brand names. 2,4-D can be

found in commercial lawn herbicide

mixtures, which often contain other active

ingredients including mecoprop and dicamba. Over 1,500 herbicide products contain

2,4-D as an active ingredient.

COMMON AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENT:

Tractor

A tractor is a vehicle specifically

designed to deliver a high tractive

effort (or torque) at slow speeds,

for the purposes of hauling

trailer or machinery used in

agriculture or construction. Most

commonly, the term is used to

describe a farm vehicle that

provides the power and traction

to mechanize agricultural tasks,

especially (and originally) tillage,

but nowadays a great variety of

tasks. Agricultural

implements may be towed behind or mounted on the tractor, and the tractor may also

provide a source of power if the implement is mechanised.

Cultivator

A cultivator is any of several types of farm implement used for secondary tillage. One

sense of the name refers to frames with teeth (also called shanks) that pierce the soil

as they are dragged through

it linearly. Another sense refers to

machines that use rotary motion of

disks or teeth to accomplish a

similar result. The rotary tiller is a

principal example.

Cultivators stir and pulverize the

soil, either before planting

(tolerate the soil and prepare a

smooth, loose seedbed) or after the

crop has begun growing (to kill

weeds—controlled disturbance of

the topsoil close to the crop plants

kills the surrounding weeds by uprooting them, burying their leaves to disrupt their

photosynthesis, or a combination of both). Unlike a harrow, which disturbs the entire

surface of the soil, cultivators are designed to disturb the soil in careful patterns,

sparing the crop plants but disrupting the weeds.

Plough

A plough is a tool (or machine) used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in

preparation for sowing seed or planting

to loosen or turn the soil. Ploughs are

traditionally drawn by working

animals such as horses or cattle, but in

modern times may be drawn by tractors.

A plough may be made of wood, iron, or

steel frame with an attached blade or

stick used to cut the earth. It has been a

basic instrument for most of recorded

history, although written references to

the plough do not appear in English until

1100 CE at which point it is referenced frequently. The plough represents one of the

major advances in agriculture.

Planter

Like a grain drill a planter is an

agricultural farm implement towed

behind a tractor, used for sowing crops

through a field.[1] It is connected to the

tractor with a draw-bar, or a three-

point hitch. Planters lay the seeds

down in precise manner along rows.

Seeds are distributed through devices

called row units. The row units are

spaced evenly along the

planter. Planters vary greatly in size,

from 1 row to 48.

Drip irrigation

Drip irrigation, is an irrigation

method that saves water and fertilizer

by allowing water to drip slowly to

the roots of plants, either onto

the soil surface or directly onto

the root zone, through a network

of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters.

It is done through narrow tubes that

deliver water directly to the base of

the plant.