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Gateway
Intervention Guide
SCIENCE
Gwinnett County Public Schools
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This guide was developed to help students prepare for the Gwinnett County Gateway Writing Assessment in Science. Gwinnett County science teachers created this guide for content review to refresh students’ memories on key topics and provide writing tips to use on the Gateway test. Last revision 06/15/07
Table of Contents
Page Gateway – An Introduction for Students 3 Biology Content Review 5 Chemistry Content Review 27 Tips and Suggestions for Success 43 Rubrics 59
Major Concepts on the Gateway Biology Cell Theory Energy/ Matter Transformations Genetics/ DNA Adaptation Basic Life Processes Chemistry States of Matter Atomic Structure and Bonding Periodic Tendencies Chemical Questions and Reactions Organic Chemistry Radioactivity and Chemical Spills Solutions and Concentrations Acids and Bases
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The Gateway Essay An Introduction for Students
• All Gwinnett County students are required to pass the Gateway Assessment in
order to graduate high school. The Gateway is an essay-based test. • There are 2 Gateway Assessments: 1 in Science and 1 in Social Studies
• Your first attempt at the Gateway is the spring of your sophomore year. If
you are unable to pass, you will have several more opportunities.
• The Science Gateway is one essay question that comes from your Biology or Chemistry coursework. When it is scored, you are graded on the Science and the Language Arts parts of the essay.
• The Social Studies Gateway is a separate essay question that is based on your
World History coursework. When it is scored, you are graded on the Social Studies and Language Arts parts of the essay.
• How a Gateway question is set up:
o A scenario is given. It tells you the basics about what your essay should address.
o Writing Task Choices #1 and #2. You are given a choice of which task you want to answer. Read both choices thoroughly and look over the documents before you decide which task to answer.
o Each Task has 1 charge and usually 3 bullets. Be sure to answer the charge and try your best to answer every bullet (even if you are not sure, attempt to answer it).
o Documents are provided to help you answer the question. Usually 3 or more documents are given. The documents were purposely put there to help you write your essay, so be sure to use them!
• Extra things included in the Gateway packet
o Science and Writing Checklist- reminds you of what you need to include o Works Cited- shows you how to cite your documents in your essay
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Biology Content Review
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Gateway Biology Review Characteristics of Living Things
• Reproduce • Grow • Develop
• Need food/require energy • Made of cells
• Respond to their environment • Adapt to their environment
Cells and Heredity Cell Theory 1. All living things are made of cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function 3. All cells come from preexisting cells Organelles and Cell Parts 1. Cell Membrane (Plasma membrane)
• ____________________ cell • Selective barrier • Controls what substances enter and
exit the cell
2. Cytoplasm • Jelly-like material that _____the cell
3. Ribosomes: • Site of __________ ____________
(where _______________ are made)
4. Golgi Apparatus • Prepare proteins that will leave the
cell or be placed in the plasma membrane
• “Post Office” of the cell
5. Mitochondria • _________of the cell • Site of cellular _____________ _
which produces ATP from sugars (glucose)
6. Lysosome • ____________ macromolecules • Single celled organisms—eating,
digest food • Digest/recycle old organelles;
“stomach of the cell” • Immune system
7. Centrosome • Produce microtubules during
________ ________________
8. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum • ______________ attached • Production of proteins
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
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9. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum • _____ ______________ attached • Produce lipids • Detoxification of drugs and poisons
10. Nucleus • Stores/protects ____________
11. Nuclear Envelope • Membrane that surrounds the ______________
12. Nucleolus • Found in the ______________ • Produces ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which forms ribosomes
13. DNA • Deoxyribonucleic Acid • Contains genes/hereditary information • Determines structure of proteins
14. Chloroplast • Site of ____________________ , which stores the sun’s energy in sugars (glucose) • Found in ______________
15. Vacuole • ______________ • Waste, nutrients, water, ions
16. Cell Wall • ______________ and _____________ _plant cells, bacteria, fungi, some protists • Allows cell to exist in hypotonic environment
17. Cilia and Flagella • ______________ (locomotion)
18. Microfilaments and Microtubules • ______________ components, “skeleton” of the cell.
Cellular Classification Unicellular Organisms
• ______________ celled • Bacteria, archaea, some protists (euglena,
paramecium, amoeba)
Multicellular Organisms • More than ______________ cell • Plants, animals, fungi, some protists
Eukaryote
• ______________ present • ______________ DNA • Single or multi-celled • Membrane bound ______________ • Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists
Prokaryote • _______nucleus • _______membrane bound organelles • ______________ celled • ______________ DNA • “Primitive” • Bacteria, Archaea
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Plant • ______________ • Cell wall (cellulose) • Vacuole, chloroplast, plasmodesmata • No lysosome, no centrioles
Animal • ______________ • Lysosomes, centrioles • No cell wall, no vacuole, no chloroplast
Above are the six kingdoms into which living organisms are subdivided. Which of the kingdoms contain only multicellular organisms? ______________ Which of the kingdoms contain only single-celled organisms? ______________ Which of the kingdoms contain both single-celled and multicellular organisms? ______________ Practice: Decide whether each of the following is unicellular or multicellular, prokaryotic or eukaryotic; and state the kingdom to which belongs.
1. Human ____________ 2. Cat ____________ 3. Bacteria ___________ 4. Oak Tree __________ 5. Gold Fish __________
6. Euglena ___________ 7. Mushroom _________ 8. Fly ____________ 9. Snake ____________ 10. Paramecium _________
11. Daffodil ___________ 12. Cyanobacteria _________ 13. Virus ____________ 14. Kelp ____________
Homeostasis
• Maintaining a ____________ and ____________ environment inside of an organism • Examples
o Breathe in oxygen o Breathe out carbon dioxide o Eat Food
§ Energy § Building Blocks
o Eliminate Waste o Maintain Temperature o Blood pH o Blood sugar
• How does each of the following organs, systems, or responses function in maintaining homeostasis? o Kidneys o Cardiovascular System o Shivering o Sweating
o Sunning o Buffers in our blood o Roots on a plant o Leaves on a plant
o Digestive System o Mitochondria o Lysosome o Stomach
__________
Cells
_________
Plant AnimaFungi Protists Bacteria Archaea
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Cellular Transport Materials Transported into a cell:
• ____________ • ____________ • ____________ • ____________ • ____________ • ____________ • ____________
Materials Transported out of a cell • ____________ • ____________ • ____________ • ____________ • ____________
Methods of Transport across a Cell Membrane Active Transport
• Requires ____________ (ATP) • Uses Transport Protein
Passive Transport • Does ____________ require energy • Particles move from ____________ concentration to ____________ concentration. • Works to reach equilibrium Ø Diffusion
o Movement of ____________ through the membrane down a concentration gradient Ø Osmosis
o Movement of ____________ through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration.
Ø Facilitated Diffusion o Movement of particles through a cell membrane by means of a transport protein. o Down the concentration gradient o Does NOT require energy.
Osmosis • Movement of water • Water makes up about 70% of the cell and is required for transport of food, nutrients, and waste
throughout the body. • Water moves from a _______________ solution to a _______________ solution. • Hypotonic Solution: Lower solute concentration • Hypertonic Solution: Greater solute concentration • Isotonic Solution: equal solute concentration
• Animal Cells need to be surrounded by an ________________ solution
o Animal cells in a hypotonic solution gain water and will ____________ and ____________ o Animal cells in a hypertonic solution lose water and will ____________
• Plant Cells need to be surrounded by a hypotonic solution. o Plant cells in an isotonic solution become __________________ o Plant cells in a hypertonic solution lose water undergo ______________________
These are relative terms used to compare two solutions
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7.5M NaCl
5.7M NaCl
Endocytosis • “Cell ____________ ” • A cell takes in macromolecules or other substances when regions of the plasma membrane surround the
substance, pinch off, and form a vesicle within the cell. Exocytosis
• A cell secretes macromolecules –waste, hormones, neurotransmitters, etc.
Practice: 1. An animal cell is placed in a hypertonic solution; what will happen to the cell? 2. A plant cell contains a solute concentration of 0.5M; in what direction will water move if the cell is placed in a 0.2M solution? 3. What term best describes the process by which a drop of food coloring over time spreads out uniformly through a beaker of water? 4. In the diagram to the right, what will be the direction of net water movement across the semi-permeable membrane? Cell Division Mitosis
• _________ and __________ • ____________ (body) cells • Daughter cells:
o ____________ produced o _______________ o _________ to the parent
____________ ____________
____________ ____________ ____________
Label each step of the cell cycle on the line below each picture
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• Steps of Mitosis: o ____________
§ Chromatin coiled to form discrete chromosomes § Nucleoli disappear § Form mitotic spindle, lengthen microtubules § Nuclear membrane breaks down § Microtubules attach to chromosomes at kinetochore
o ____________ § Chromosomes lined up at ____________of cell
o ____________ § Microtubules shorten § Chromatids ____________ , pulled toward opposite sides of the cell
o ____________ § Daughter nuclei form at either side § Chromatin becomes less tightly coiled § Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) occurs during telophase.
Meiosis
• ____________ reproduction (why is meiosis required for sexual reproduction) • Form ____________ (sperm and egg) • Daughter cells
o ____________ produced (two nuclear divisions) o _________(cuts the number of chromosomes in half) o Different from parent and unique from each other
• Steps o Prophase I o Metaphase I o Anaphase I o Telophase I
o Prophase II o Metaphase II o Anaphase II o Telophase II
Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis: Mitosis Meiosis 1. Two identical daughter cells 2. Four daughter cells 3. Chromosome number halved 4. Chromosome number maintained 5. Two rounds of cell division 6. One round of cell division 7. Associated with sexual reproduction 8. Associated with asexual reproduction 9. Genetic variation more likely 10. daughter cells identical to parent 11. daughter cells not identical to parent 12. duplication of chromosomes occurs 13. necessary for growth and maintenance 14. produces gametes
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Energy/ Matter Transformations Macromolecules Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and Nucleic acids are all organic macromolecules. Organic Molecules are composed primarily of carbon and are the building blocks of all living organisms. Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids AKA sugars fats Components Monosaccharide Amino Acids 1 glycerol + 3 Fatty
Acids Nucleotide (Sugar + Phosphate + Nitrogenous Base)
Polymer None Function § Short Term
___________ Storage
§ Structure § Identification of
cells
§ ____________ § Structure
§ Long Term ________ Storage
§ Padding § Insulation
§ Store _____________
Information § Ribosomes § Protein Synthesis
Examples Glucose, sucrose, lactose, glycogen, cellulose
§ Hemoglobin § Hair § Nails § Lactase § Muscles
§ Body Fat § Oils § Wax § Phospholipids in
cell membrane
§ DNA § RNA § tRNA § ribosomes
Food Source
Energy Contained ________ kcal/g _________ kcal/g ________ kcal/g Carbohydrates • Glucose
• Required to produce ATP through cellular __________________ • Glycogen
• Polymer of __________________ • Short term energy storage for __________________ • Stored in the liver and muscles
• Starch • Polymer of __________________ • Short term energy storage for __________________ (example: potato) • Stored in the roots
• Cellulose • Polymer of __________________ • Structural • Cell walls in __________________
Lipids • __________________ storage
• Fats—animals • Oils—plants
• Padding and Insulation
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Nucleic Acids DNA • Structure
o __________________ Helix (Looks like a __________ ________________ ) o ___________ strands of nucleotides joined down the middle by hydrogen bonds o Four bases –_______________ , _______________ , _______________ , _______________ o A pairs with T o G pairs with C
• DNA Replication
o __________________ -conservative o Double Helix unwinds, and each strand separates o Each strand used as template to construct new complementary strand o Occurs before Mitosis and Meiosis
• DNA Determines structure of proteins o Each group of three bases codes for a single __________________ o Proteins assembled through process of __________________ and __________________
RNA • __________________ stranded • Ribonucleic Acid (contains ribose rather than deoxyribose). • Four bases—Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine (Uracil replaces Thymine) • Three types
• rRNA—forms the ribosomes • tRNA—transports amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosomes • mRNA—carries information for protein structure from DNA to a ribosome
Proteins • Composed of amino acids • Uses Ø Enzymes Ø Muscle Ø Hair Ø Nails Ø Microtubules
• Protein Synthesis • Transcription
o _______________ information from DNA to mRNA o mRNA then transported from DNA to a _____________
§ Eukaryotes—mRNA leaves nucleus to find ribosome § Prokaryotes—no nucleus, transcription and translation can occur simultaneously
o mRNA attaches to ribosome
• Translation o Information in mRNA used to construct specific sequence of amino acids o Information is translated from language of nucleotides to the language of amino acids o __________________ carries amino acids to ribosomes where they are linked together.
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Practice: The substances in your body that are needed in order to grow and maintain life come from the nutrients in food. There are 6 classes of nutrients in food- carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, vitamins, and minerals. Of these, carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the major sources of energy for the body. Analyze and evaluate the sample daily diet of a 16 year old male. Be sure to include the following in your evaluation:
• Total calories ingested • Percent of calories contributed by each of the nutrients • Compliance with the RDI standards set by the USDA.
Dietary Reference Intake for Food Areas
Males 14-18 years old
Females 14-18 years old
Carbohydrates 130 130 Total Fat 30 30 Protein 52 46
Food Caloric Value Grams of Fat Grams of Protein Grams of Carbohydrates 1 bowl of Honey Nut Cheerios
120 1.5 3 24
8 oz. 2% milk 121 4.7 8 12 8 oz. orange juice 112 .5 2 26 Deluxe chicken sandwich (lettuce, tomato, mayo)
390 24.5 24 30
French fries 152 11 8 13 Ketchup 15 0 .2 4 8 oz. Mountain Dew 129 0 0 32 2 chocolate chip cookies 79 4 1 10 Slice of pizza 110 2 3 16 8 oz. Pepsi 136 0 0 37 Grilled cheese 320 19 20 30 2 burritos (fully loaded) 660 9 12 48 2 scoops ice cream 300 16 5 34 TOTALS 2644 86.2 86.2 316
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Respiration and Photosynthesis • Respiration
o Process of using energy from sugar (glucose) to produce __________________ o C6H12O6 +6O2 à 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP o Occurs in __________________ o Occurs in both __________________and __________________ o ATP provides energy to do work in the cell o When ATP is used, it is converted to __________________ ; respiration then uses energy in
sugars to convert ADP back to ATP by adding a phosphate.
• Photosynthesis o Process of using energy from the sun to produce __________________ (glucose) o 6CO2 + 6H2O + Light Energy à C6H12O6 +6O2 o Occurs in __________________ of plants and some algae
• How are photosynthesis and respiration related?
• Where and how are excess sugars stored in plants? • Where and how are excess sugars stored in animals?
• Construct a food chain that traces the flow of energy from the sun, to your lunch, through you, and to the muscles that make your arm move.
Genetics/ DNA Heredity and Mendelian Genetics Genetics: The study of _____________ (the passing of traits from parents to offspring) Gregor Mendel: The father of genetics. DNA: Consists of many __________________ Gene: Stretch of DNA that codes for a given __________________ . Allele: Alternate _______________ ___of a gene Dominant and Recessive Traits Dominant Allele
• Gene that is fully expressed. • __________________ / “speaks louder than” a recessive allele.
Recessive Allele
• Masked/not expressed if dominant allele is present. • Only expressed if dominant allele is __________________ .
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Genotype • The __________________ makeup of an organism
Ø Homozygous: having two of the __________________ allele Ø Heterozygous: having two __________________ alleles.
Ø Homozygous Dominant: having two __________________ alleles Ø Homozygous Recessive: having two __________________ alleles Ø Heterozygous: having one of each allele
Phenotype
• The physical and physiological traits of an organism • How the genes are __________________ • What you would see in a photograph
Example: In peas, Y is a dominant allele that instructs for yellow seeds; y is a recessive allele that produces green seeds. Given the following genotypes, fill in the term that best describes each, and then indicate what the phenotype of the organism will be.
Genotype Description of Genotype Phenotype
Homozygous Dominant
Yy
Green A Punnett Square can be used to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring produced by a given genetic cross. Generations
• Parental (P): The organisms involved in the ____________ cross • First Filial (F1): The offspring of the _______________ Generation • Second Filial (F2): The offspring of the First ____________ Generation
A chicken and a rooster mate. The chicken has white feathers and the rooster has brown feathers. Brown is dominant, and white is recessive. Assuming the rooster is heterozygous, predict the frequency of each genotype and phenotype in their offspring.
What is the cellular process that determines which alleles an offspring will receive from their parents?
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Practice: 1. A plant that is homozygous dominant for height is crossed with a plant that is homozygous recessive.
(T = tall; t = short). Use a Punnett Square to predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the F1 generation.
2. Using question number 1, what would be the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of a cross of two F1 individuals?
Determining Sex Human male: XY Human female: XX
v Which parent determines the sex of a human offspring? _________ v What is the probability of having a boy? A girl? ______________
Sex linked traits
• Carried on the X chromosome • Example: hemophilia, color blindness. • Disorders occur more often in males than females. Why?
Mutation A __________________ in the base sequence of DNA. A change in DNA can lead to a change in the __________________ coded for by that gene. A change in the protein structure can lead to certain disorders, for example, sickle cell anemia. The Six Kingdoms Bacteria and Archaea
• __________ Celled, prokaryote • Cell wall • Live in damp places or in water • Asexual reproduction—binary fission • __________________ (breaks down organic material) • Nitrogen fixation (rhizobium) • Parasites (tuberculosis, cholera, strep-throat) • Symbiotic relationships (humans)
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Complete the chart comparing bacteria and viruses: Bacteria Viruses Kingdom(s) Archaebacteria, Eubacteria n/a Example Strep throat, Gonorrhea Cold, Flu, Chicken pox Considered living? (yes/no) ______ ______ by most scientists Structure ____________ with peptidoglycan
(Eubacteria) ___________ core surrounded by protein coat
Can diseases be successfully treated with antibiotics?
______ ______
Protista
• _____________ (has a nucleus) • Single Celled
o Euglena o Diatoms o Dinoflagellates o Ciliates o Flagellates o Sacrodina (Amoeba) o Sporozoa (malaria)
• Multi-celled o Kelp o Seaweed
Plants
• Multicellular, eukaryotic • Examples: • Photosynthetic Autotrophs • How are plant cells different from animal cells? • Major parts of a plant
o Roots § absorb water and nutrients from the __________________ . § Store excess sugars (in the form of ____________ ______)
o Stem § connects roots to the rest of the plant
o Leaves § site of __________________
• Transport in a plant o Xylem: transports water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant o Phloem: transports products of photosynthesis to the rest of the plant.
What environmental factors might affect a plant?
Animals
• Multicelled, eukaryotic • Examples:
Fungi
• Multicelled or single celled; eukaryotic • Examples:
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Ecology Biomes
• A major biological community that occurs over a ____________ ________________ of land. • Determined primarily by precipitation • Affected by elevation, latitude, soil type, geographical features.
Terrestrial Biomes 1. Tropical Rain Forest
• Rain: 200-450 cm (80-180 in) per year (A __________________ of rain) • Rich in number of species (many different types of organisms) • Central America, South America, Africa, Asia • Examples of Animals and Plants:
2. Desert
• Rain: fewer than 25 cm (10 in) per year (Very __________________ rain) • Sparse vegetation • May be __________________or __________________ • Examples of Animals and Plants:
3. Savanna
• Rain: 90-150 cm (35-60 in) per year • Prevalent in Africa. • Dry __________________ • Widely spaced trees; animals active during rainy season • Examples of Animals and Plants:
4. Temperate Deciduous Forest
• Rain: 75-250 cm (30-100 in) • Mild Climate, plentiful rain • Deciduous trees ______________________________________________________ • Warm summer, cold winter • Mammals hibernate in winter, birds migrate • Eastern US, Southeastern Canada, Europe, Asia • Examples of Animals and Plants:
5. Temperate Grasslands
• Halfway between equator and poles • __________________ of North America, Eurasia, South America • fertile soil, used for agriculture • Examples of Animals and Plants:
6. Coniferous Forest
• __________________ __________________ trees: ____________________________ • Pacific Northwest (temperate rain forests) • Northern Coniferous Forest (Taiga)
o Cold and wet o Winters long and cold; precipitation in summer o Coniferous forests (spruce and fir) o Large mammals: _________________________________________
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7. Tundra • Between taiga and poles • 20% of Earth’s surface • Rain: less than 25 cm (10 in) • __________________ 1m deep (3ft) • Examples of animals: • Alpine Tundra
• found at high latitudes • high winds and cold temperatures
Aquatic Biomes
1. __________________ Communities • Standing bodies of water
o lakes, ponds • Moving bodies of water
o streams, rivers • Wetlands
o Swamp, marsh, bog • ~2% of Earth’s surface • Plants, fishes, arthropods, mollusks, microscopic organisms
2. __________________ Communities (salt water) • 75% Earth’s surface covered by ocean • Average depth 3km (1.9mi) • Mostly dark, cold • Photosynthetic organisms mostly towards surface • Heterotrophic organisms throughout • Fish, plankton (algae, diatoms, bacteria).
Flow of Energy Through an Ecosystem In order to live, organisms must obtain energy and nutrients
o Heterotrophs § Obtain energy and nutrients from the ______________ they ____________
o Autotrophs § Obtain energy from the __________________ § Obtain nutrients from the soil.
• Producer o Uses energy from the sun and carbon from the environment to ______ its ________ food. o “bottom of the food chain” o Why are producers necessary in any ecosystem?
• Consumer o Obtains energy through _______________ _______________ __________________
§ Herbivore: eats only ________________ __ § Carnivore: eats only __________________ § Omnivore: eats both __________________ and __________________
o Primary consumer: eats producers
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o Secondary consumer: eats the consumers that eat the producers o Means of obtaining nutrition
§ Predation • Ecological interaction in which one organism (predator) feeds on another
living organism (prey). • Predator may or may not kill the prey.
§ Scavenging • An animal ingests dead plants, animals, or both. • Vultures, termites, beetles
• Decomposer (__________________ ) o Breakdown (absorb nutrients from) non-living
organic material—corpses, plants, waste of living organisms—and convert them to inorganic forms. o Bacteria, fungi o Why are decomposers necessary in any
ecosystem?
Food Chain • __________________ pathway of energy
transport through an ecosystem • algaeàkrillàcodàsealàkiller whaleàbacteria • Producers always come first in the food chain. • Decomposers always come last in the food chain;
they will break down dead organisms and allow nutrients to be recycled.
• Arrows indicate the __________________ in which __________________ flows through the ecosystem.
Food Web • A __________________ of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem • Producers are at the beginning. • Decomposers are at the end. • Arrows indicate the __________________ in which energy flows through the ecosystem.
Practice: 1. Draw a food chain with at least five organisms. Label all organisms as being a producer, a consumer, or a decomposer. Make sure arrows are drawn to show how the energy is transferred. 2. How does a food chain prove the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy?
Bacteria/Decomposers
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Symbiosis • “____________________________________ ” • Ecological interaction in which two or more species live together in a close, long-term association. 1. Mutualism
o __________________ __________________ __________________ o Mycorrhizae (fungus) and plant roots o Ants and aphids
§ Aphids supply sugars to ants; ants protect aphids from insect predators
2. Commensalism • One species __________________ , the other is __________________ harmed nor helped • Birds and bison
§ birds feed on insects flushed out of grass by grazing bison • Barnacles and whales
3. Parasitism • One species (the parasite) __________________ ; the other (the host) is __________________ . • One organism feeds on and usually lives on or in another. • Bacterial infection of animals • Fungus infects trees • Malaria
Practice: Match the type of relationship with the correct term 1. ___ Both species benefit from each other. a. mutualism 2. ___ One species benefits; the other is unaffected. b. parasitism 3. ___ One species benefits; the other is harmed. c. commensalism Cycles of Matter Carbon Cycle
• Carbon is the key ingredient in all living organisms • Processes involved: _____________ (example: photosynthesis), ______________ (example: release
of CO2 by volcanoes), _________ ________ (example: burning of fossil fuels) Nitrogen Cycle
• All organisms require nitrogen to build __________ • Forms of nitrogen: N2 in ___________ ; NH3, NO3
-, NO2- in __________ ; nitrate from fertilizers
• Some bacteria convert N2 into NH3 during ____________ __________ • Some bacteria convert nitrates into N2 during ______________ .
Water Cycle • All organisms require water to survive. • Processes: evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, seepage, runoff
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Important Ecological Terms Abiotic factors
• __________________ chemical or physical factors in the environment. • Examples: ______________________________________________________
Biotic factors • __________________ organisms in the environment. • Examples: ______________________________________________________
Ecosystem • ______________ living and nonliving things in a given area
Community • _________ __________________ __________________ that inhabit a given area. • A group of populations
Population • A group of individuals belonging to the _________ ___________ that live together in the same area
Competition • Two or more organisms require the same resource that is in limited supply. • Food, shelter, light, water, mates • The strongest organism will win the competition and will be more likely to live and pass its genes on
to the next generation (___________________ _________________ ).
Habitat • Place or environment in which populations live
Niche • __________________ of a species in an ecosystem • Relationships, activities, resources used
Succession
• The series of ___________ changes that occurs in a community over time • _____________ succession occurs on a surface where no soil exists. Example: ______ _____, areas
covered by ___________ ash • ____________ succession occurs in an area where a disturbances changes an existing community
without destroying the soil. Example: _______ ______, area ________ by wildfire
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Adaptation and Natural Selection Natural Selection
• Idea first stated by __________________ __________________ • “Survival of the __________________ ” • Organisms that are best __________________ to their environment are more likely to live long
enough to produce offspring and pass their traits on to the next generation. • In terms of evolution and natural selection, the number one goal of any organism is to pass its
__________________ on to the next generation through the production of __________________ . Selective Breeding
• Organisms with __________ traits are chosen to mate so that their offspring also possess desired traits. • Examples: ____________________
Adaptation
• Characteristic of an organism that helps it to better survive in a given environment. • Types of adaptation:
o Structural: characteristics of an organism’s anatomy. (wings on a bird) o Physiological: characteristics relating to internal body processes. (antibiotic resistance) o Behavioral: how an organism acts and responds to its environment (bird migration)
• List three additional examples of adaptations and state the type of adaptation: o ________________________________________________________________________ o _____________________________________________________ ___________________ o ________________________________________________________________________
Evolution
• Change in groups of organisms over a long period of time • Evidence for evolutionary changes
o Fossils (The deeper the fossil, the older it is) o Comparative anatomy and the study of homologous structures (Example: human arm, dolphin
fin, bat wing, dog foreleg) o Comparative biochemistry (The fewer the differences in DNA, the closer the organisms are
related) o Comparative embryology (Example: all vertebrates have gill slits, tail, and notochord in early
development) o Direct evidence (Example: bacteria can quickly become resistant to antibiotics)
Practice: Classify the following adaptations as behavioral, structural, or physiological. Discuss the reason(s) for your choices.
1. Bees build a hive 2. Young ducklings follow their mother 3. A woodpecker’s beak is pointed and sharp 4. Flat shape of a leaf 5. Scent given off by a skunk
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Human Systems and Basic Life Functions System Function Major Components Circulatory/ Cardiovascular
Transport blood to all parts of the body. Blood carries: oxygen, CO2, nutrients, waste
Heart, veins, arteries, capillaries
Respiratory Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide between the body and the environment.
Lungs
Immune Protect the body from disease and foreign substances T-cells, B-cells, Antibodies, lymphatic system, spleen
Digestive Breakdown food; supply nutrients to the body Stomach, Intestines, Pancreas, Liver
Excretory Remove metabolic waste from the blood and dispose (production of urine)
Kidneys (in humans)
Reproductive Production of offspring Male contributes sperm; female contributes egg
Nervous Sense/measure conditions within and outside of the body. Respond to these conditions: movement of muscle, release adrenaline, control of heart rate.
Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Endocrine Production and release of hormones Endocrine glands: pituitary, adrenal, ovaries, testes, etc.
Biology Exercises Answer the following questions in paragraph form. Your answers will not necessarily be essays; they are short practice questions and may require one to three paragraphs. Answer on a separate piece of paper; feel free to give me a copy of your work so I can look over it and give you feedback. 1. Compare and contrast a plant cell and an animal cell. 2. Compare and contrast prokaryotes and eukaryotes. 3. A plant is watered with highly concentrated salt water. Even though the plant is given plenty of water it soon begins to wilt. Explain why the plant is wilting. 4. A plant and an insect are placed in an air-tight container; fresh oxygen is not allowed to enter the container. After about a week the plant died. A day later the insect died. If the insect had a sufficient amount of food and water, explain why the insect died. 5. In terms of the carbon cycle, explain how a carbon atom of one of your cells could have at one time been in George Washington’s body. Draw a food chain or food web to illustrate your point. 6. Explain how a molecule of water in your body could, at one time, have been located in a tree in your back yard. Use scientific terminology to explain the path the water molecule followed from the tree to your body. 7. An animal cell is only capable of cellular respiration; a plant cell is capable of both cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Why do both organisms require cellular respiration? Why does only the plant cell require photosynthesis?
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Chemistry Content Review
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Gateway Chemistry Review
Structure and Properties of Matter Matter
• Anything that has mass and _____________ up _____________ • All matter is made from three basic particles
o _____________ o _____________ o _____________
• _____________ _____________ and _____________ make up atoms • Different types of atoms are called elements • Elements contain protons, neutrons, and electrons in differing numbers
Subatomic Particles
• Nucleus Contains _____________ and _____________ Atomic mass is concentrated in the nucleus
o Proton § _____________ charged § Found in the nucleus § Determines _____________ of the element § Mass = 1 amu
o Neutron § _____________ § Found in Nucleus § Mass = 1 amu
• Electron Cloud o Electron cloud surrounds nucleus o Contains _____________ which are negatively charged. o Electrons are located at specific energy levels. o If the atom is neutral, the number of electrons equals the number of protons o Very small mass (negligible)
§ 1800 electrons equal the mass of one proton or neutron o Electrons in the outermost shell are called ____________ electrons.
Ions
• An atom or group of atoms that has a _____________ or _____________ charge. • If an atom loses an electron, it becomes _____________ • If an atom gains an electron, it becomes _____________ .
Compounds
• A substance containing atoms of more than one element – NaCl – C6H12O6 – H2SO4 – C13H18O2 (ibuprofen)
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Molecules
• Two or more atoms bound so tightly that they behave as a _____________ _____________ . • Linked by _____________ bonds • Consist of atoms of the same element or different elements
Ionic Compound
• Formed by the attraction of two ions that are ____________ charged. • Na+ + Cl- à NaCl
Practice
Identify each of the following as an atom, ion, or molecule: • Ne • Cl- • Ca2+
• CH4 • NO • P3-
• CO2 • He • SO4
2- Density
• Describes how closely packed atoms and molecules are in a given substance. • The ratio of an object’s mass to its volume. • Volume of a cube = length x width x height • Density = mass/volume • Units: g/cm3 • Common Densities
o Air: .001 g/cm3 o Water (40C): 1.00 g/cm3 o Water/Ice (00C): 0.92 g/cm3 o Aluminum: 2.7 g/cm3 o Gold: 19.3 g/cm3
Practice: 1. Which object has a lower density, a brick or a block of Styrofoam? 2. Which object will float in water, a rock or a piece of ice? Why? 3. What is the density of a substance that has a mass of 55g and a volume of 11cm3?
Mixtures and Solutions Pure Substance • A type of matter in which all particles are of the _____ chemical composition
o Au o H2O o NaCl o C6H12O6 o Ar
• Which of the previous examples is a compound? An element? • Why is salt water not a pure substance? Mixture • Two or more pure substances physically __________ together. • Cannot be represented by a single chemical formula.
o Salt water o Sand and rocks o Air
Which of the boxes below contain a pure substance?
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Heterogeneous Mixture • A mixture where substances are _____________ _____________ distributed (non uniform)
o oil and vinegar salad dressing o vegetable soup o sand and sugar o soil o granite
Homogeneous Mixture • A mixture where all components are _____________ distributed (uniform). • “same throughout”
o salt water o gasoline o syrup o air
Solution • Formed when one substance is dissolved by another. • In order to be dissolved, a substance must be _______________. • A _____________ mixture. • Particles are _____________ distributed. • Parts cannot be separated by _____________ . • Solvent—________________________________________________________________ • Solute—_________________________________________________________________ • Identify the solute and solvent in each of the following:
o Salt water § Salt is the _____________ . Water is the _____________ .
o iced tea § Tea is the _____________ . Water is the _____________ .
o kool aid § Water is the _____________ . Kool aid mix is the _____________ .
o paint/paint thinner § Paint is the _____________ . Paint thinner is the _____________ .
o nail polish/acetone (nail polish remover) § Nail polish is the _____________ . Acetone (nail polish remover) is the _____________ .
Types of Solutions
• Solid dissolved in a liquid. o Salt water
• Gas dissolved in a liquid o Coca-Cola
• Two solids o Metal alloys: brass = copper + zinc
• Two gasses o Air: nitrogen (78% vol), oxygen (21% vol), argon (1% vol), carbon dioxide (0.03% vol).
• In solutions of two solids or two gases, the solvent is the component present in largest quantity.
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Water • The “__________________________ ” • A solution in which water is the solvent is called an ____________ solution. • Does NOT dissolve everything.
o Why is this a good thing?—think about the paint on your house. • Because water is polar, it dissolves other polar substances.
o “_____________ dissolves _____________ ” • Water dissolves many other compounds.
Solubility
• How much of a solute will dissolve in a given solvent. • How do you increase the solubility of a solid in a liquid? (hint: iced tea)
• How do you increase the solubility of a gas in a liquid? (hint: can of soda)
• Solid in a liquid o Increasing temperature will make a solid _____________ soluble in a liquid. o Decreasing temperature will make a solid _____________ soluble in a liquid. o Heat water before adding tea/sugar for iced tea.
• Gas in a liquid o Increasing temperature will make a gas _____________ soluble in liquid. o Decreasing temperature will make a gas _____________ soluble in a liquid. o Increasing pressure will make a gas _____________ soluble in a liquid. o Decreasing pressure will make a gas _____________ soluble in a liquid.
Types of Solutions
• Saturated o Holding the _____________ solute at a given temperature. o “The perfect glass of sweet tea”; one more grain of sugar will sink to the bottom.
• Unsaturated o Holding _____________ than the maximum solute at a given temperature. o Lightly sweetened tea; additional sugar will dissolve
• Supersaturated o Holding _____________ than the maximum solute at a given temperature. o Overly sweet tea; sugar is forced into solution by heating and then cooling.
Questions:
• What term is used to describe a substance that is not soluble in another substance, such as oil in water? • A solid substance is dissolved in a liquid. If the solid comes out of solution and settles to the bottom, it
is called a ____________________ .
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The Periodic Table
• Atomic Number o ____________ the element o Tells you how many _____________ an atom has o Tells you how many _____________ are contained by a neutral atom of a given element.
• Atomic Mass o _____________ mass of the atom o Equal to number of _____________ plus number of _____________ . o Electrons have mass BUT the mass is so small we do not factor it in to the overall mass.
You will need to be able to identify the symbol, atomic number, and atomic mass of the first 20 elements on the periodic table. • Fill in the blanks in the table below
• How many protons and neutrons does one atom of the
following elements contain?
Atomic Number Name Symbol Atomic Mass
Hydrogen
2
3
Beryllium
B
C
Nitrogen
15.999
F
Ne
19
39.093
K Chemical Symbol
Atomic Mass
Atomic Number
Element Protons Neutrons
Oxygen
Bromine
Carbon-14
Atomic Number 53
Atomic Number 10
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Isotopes • The atomic mass of each atom represents an _________ of all of the individual isotopes of that element. • Two atoms contain the same number of protons but different numbers of _____________ . • Isotopes are atoms of the same _____________ , but have different _____________ . • Isotopes with an unstable nucleus will tend to breakdown or decay; these atoms are called
_____________ and will release energy in the form of nuclear radiation as they decay. Metals, non metals, and metalloids
• Label the table to indicate the location of metals, non metals and metalloids.
• The horizontal rows on the periodic table are called _____________. • The vertical columns on the period table are called _____________ or _____________ .
Oxidation States
• In order to become stable, atoms will gain or lose a certain number of _____________ . • The goal is to have a full outer shell (octet rule). • A full outer shell usually contains _____________ electrons. • When atoms gain or lose electrons, they become _____________ and take on a certain charge.
o This charge is referred to as the oxidation number. Ø On the table above, label the oxidation number for each group.
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Important groups on the periodic table • _____________ Metals
o Group 1 o 1 valance electron o Oxidation Number = +1 o Highly reactive
• _____________ _____________ Metals
o Group 2 o 2 valance electrons o Oxidation Number = +2 o Harder, Denser, Stronger than Alkali
Metals o Very reactive, but less reactive than
Alkali Metals
• _____________ Metals o Groups 3-12 o Varied oxidation numbers o Not as reactive as groups 1 and 2.
• _____________
o Group 17 o 7 valance electrons o Oxidation Number = -1 o Most reactive non-metals o Combine with metals o NaCl, KBr, MgBr
• _____________ Gases
o Group 18 o 8 outer electrons; except Helium o will not gain or lose electrons o no oxidation number o Very _____________
Bonding
• When forming compounds, atoms will bond in a way that leads to an overall charge of _________ . • Bonding is due to interactions of the _____________ clouds that surround an atom. • Types of bonds
o _____________ o _____________
Ionic Bonds
• Formed between a _____________ and a ___________ . • Forms a compound—not a molecule. • Involves gain/loss of electrons. • Produces compound with net charge of zero. • How to predict bonding pattern:
o Na + Cl o Ca + Br o Ba + I o Mg + O o Al + O
Covalent Bonds
• Involves the _____________ of electrons. • Produces a molecule. • Formed between two non-metals • Examples
o Water (H2O) o Glucose (C6H12O6) o Hydrogen gas (H2)
• Diatomic molecules: H2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, N2, O2
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Bonding Practice: • What type of bond is produced when electrons are shared between atoms? covalent • What type of bond is produced when atoms with opposite charges are attracted to each other? ionic • What type of bond will be produced when the following atoms combine?
o C + O o Mg + Cl o O + O o Ba + Br
Periodic Properties
• Electron Affinity o The ability of an atom to attract and hold extra electrons.
• Electronegativity o The tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself when combined with another atom.
• Ionization energy o Amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom or ion.
• Atomic Radius o One half the distance between two nuclei of like atoms. o A measure of the _______ of an atom. o What effect does atomic radius have on electron affinity and ionization energy?
• Reactivity o Metals
• Increases as you move down a family. • Decreases as you move across a period. • Francium is most reactive metal.
o Nonmetals • Decreases as you move down a family. • Increases as you move across a period. • Fluorine is the most reactive nonmetal.
1
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17
18
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Practice: • On the Periodic Table above, identify the following:
o Metals o Nonmetals o Alkali Metals
• Alkaline Earth Metals • Transition Metals
• Halogens • Noble (Inert) Gasses
• Explain the difference between a family and a period on the Periodic Table.
• Next to the vertical arrow beside the Periodic Table above, describe what happens to Electronegativity, Atomic Radius, and Ionization energy as you move down the families.
• Below the horizontal arrow under the Periodic Table above, describe what happens to Electronegativity,
Atomic Radius, and Ionization energy as you move across the periods.
• List the following elements from highest to lowest electronegativity: o Al, Ca, Cl o I, Xe, Rb
o N, Bi, As o Cs, Li, K
• List the following elements from largest to smallest atomic radius: o Al, Ca, Cl o I, Xe, Rb
o N, Bi, As o Cs, Li, K
• List the following elements from highest to lowest ionization energy: o Al, Ca, Cl o I, Xe, Rb
o N, Bi, As o Cs, Li, K
Chemical Reactions The process by which the atoms of one or more substances are rearranged to form different substances
o Reactant § The ________________ substance in a chemical reaction.
o Product § The substance ____________ during a chemical reaction.
o Catalyst § A substance that ___________ the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering activation
energies but is not itself consumed in the reaction. o Chemical Equation
§ A statement using chemical formulas to describe the identities and relative amounts of the reactants and products involved in the chemical reaction.
o Law of Conservation of Matter § Matter is neither created nor destroyed § All chemical reactions should be ______________ ; the mass of the products should equal
the mass of the reactants. o In the chemical reaction below, label the components that are circled.
H2SO4 + 2NaOH à Na2SO4 + 2H2O
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• Types of reactions o Synthesis
§ Two or more substances react to yield a _____________ product. § 2H2 + O2 à 2H2O
o Decomposition § A single compound breaks down into _______ or more elements or compounds. § 2H2O à 2H2 + O2
o Single Displacement/Replacement § The atoms of one element ___________ the atoms of another element in a compound. § 2AgNO3 + Cu àCu(NO3)2 + 2Ag
o Double Displacement/Replacement § Involves the ____________ of positive ions between two compounds. § AgNO3 + KCl àAgCl(s) + KNO3
o Combustion § Occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy in the form of heat and
light. § CH4 + 2O2 à2H2O + CO2
o Dehydration § Occurs when monomers combine with the loss of a __________ molecule. § C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 à C12H22O11 + H2O
o Exothermic Reaction: Energy is ________________ o Endothermic Reaction: Energy is _______________ _
Practice: Identify each reaction below
1. 2C3H7OH + 9O2 à6CO2 + 8H2O 2. Ca3(PO4)2 + 3H2SO4 à3CaSO4 + 2H3PO4 3. H2O + SO3 àH2SO4 4. C3H8 + 5O2 à4 H2O + 3CO2 5. 2KClO3 à2KCl + 3O2 6. 2KI + Cl2 à2KCl + I2
Chemical and Physical Changes • Chemical Change
o A change in the _____________ of _____________ . o A change where you end up with a _______ and ______________ substance from which you
started. o Combustion, Fermentation, Electrolysis, Rusting/Oxidation, Tarnishing, Souring of Milk,
“chemical reactions” o Examples
§ 2H2O à2H2 + O2 § C6H12O6 + 6O2 à 6CO2 + 6H2O § HCl + NaOH à NaCl + H2O
• Physical Change o A change in a physical property of a substance. o End up with same substance as original. o Phase changes
§ H2O(s) à H2O(l) à H2O(g) o Dissolving, Melting, Freezing o Breaking into smaller particles
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Practice Ø Classify each of the following as a chemical or a physical change:
1. boiling water 2. bleaching clothes 3. drying clothes 4. slicing potatoes 5. making coffee 6. silver tarnishing 7. cooking a hamburger 8. making kool aid
Acids and Bases • Acid
o Donates _____________ when dissolved in water. o Acidic solutions have more H+ than OH-. o pH less than 7 o Examples
§ HCl § Lemon juice § Vinegar § H2SO4 § Stomach Acid
• Base o Donates _____________ when dissolved in water. o Basic solutions have more OH- than H+. o pH greater than 7 o Examples
§ NaOH § NH3 (ammonia)
• How is ammonia a base if it does not have OH-?
• Acid and Base Terms o Neutralization: an acid reacts with a base to produce a _____________ solution.
§ Produces a _______ and ____________. § HCl + NaOH à NaCl + H2O
o Hydrogen ion: H+
o Hydroxide ion: OH-
o Indicator: a compound that changes color in the presence of an acid or base. § Phenolphthalein § Litmus paper: red (acid), blue (base)
o pH: a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution. • Acid Rain
o Normal Rain is slightly acidic due to dissolved CO2 o Pollutants such as sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides decrease the pH further. o Rain with a pH less than 5.5 is considered acid rain. o How would acid rain affect plants? o How would acid rain affect buildings and monuments?
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States of Matter • Matter exists in three primary states
o _____________ o _____________ o _____________
• Solid
o Particles _____________ together o Most _____________ o Definite shape and volume o _____________ intermolecular forces o Least amount of particle _____________ (kinetic energy)
• Liquid o Particles _____________ _____________ o Particles have greater range of motion compared to solid o _____________ dense o Definite volume, but not definite shape o Takes the shape of its container o Weaker intermolecular forces
• Gas o Particles _____________ _____________ o Greater particle motion and energy content than solids and liquids. o _____________ dense o No definite shape or volume; compressible o Takes the shape of its container o Weakest intermolecular forces o Random collisions between particles
Conversion between States
Phase changes require a gain or loss of energy.
Melting
Freezing
Evaporation/Vaporization
Condensation
Phase Changes • Melting
o Solidàliquid • Vaporization/Evaporation (Boiling)
o liquidàgas • Freezing
o liquidàsolid • Condensation
o gasàliquid • Sublimation
o solidàgas
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Thermodynamics Thermodynamics
• “Movement of _____________ ” • The study of heat and its transformation to mechanical energy.
Temperature
• Tells us how warm or cold an object is relative to some standard. • A measure of the average _____________ energy of a substance. • Temperature is measured using a _____________ .
Temperature Scales
• Celsius (0C) • Fahrenheit (0F) • Kelvin (K)
Important Temperatures Scale Absolute Zero Freezing Point of Water Boiling Point of Water Kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit
What Causes Temperature?
• Kinetic-Molecular Theory o Matter made up of tiny particles that are always in _____________ . o As the particles gain energy, they move _____________ . o Faster moving particles have greater average kinetic energy. o The more kinetic energy particles have, the greater the temperature of the object or substance.
Tips and Suggestions for Success
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Gateway Test Taking Strategies Before you Begin:
1. Carefully read the scenario and both task choices. 2. Brainstorm both task choices. Quickly ‘jot’ down any prior knowledge you
have about both choices. 3. Choose to write about the task you know the most about.
Taking the Test:
1. In order to write a complete essay, you should have an introduction, supporting body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
2. Make sure you address all parts of the task. Your task will have bulleted questions that you must answer. You need to write at least one paragraph for each bullet.
3. Don’t copy the documents- use them and put them into your own words. 4. Cite your documents. Use phrases like “According to Document A,…” or
“In Document B,…”. You may also cite documents by writing (Document A) or (Document B) at the end of a sentence.
5. Use prior knowledge. Think of at least one thing that you know about the topic and include it in your essay.
6. Pretend that the person reading your essay knows nothing about the topic you are writing about.
Possible Gateway Topics Process skills Energy/ Matter Transformations Genetics/ DNA Cell Theory
Adaptation (Evolution) Basic Life Functions Solutions and Concentrations
Periodic Tendencies Acids and Bases Chemical Spills/ Accidents Chemical and Physical Properties of Matter Atomic Structure and Bonding
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Steps to Success
1. READ. • Read the test directions. • Read the science scenario. Immediately begin thinking, “What do I know about this
topic?” • Read each task and related documents. • Consider, “Which one do I know the most about?”
2. Brainstorm a list of facts about each task.
• Make a choice and commit to the task that you can write the best paper on.
3. Use the writing task and its bullet points to create a thesis. A thesis is one or two sentences that announce the main idea of your paper. Your thesis should be clearly stated within the introduction paragraph.
4. Create an outline for your main topics to be discussed. Topic sentences should be created
from information in your thesis. Brainstorm details that relate to your main topics. Plug the brainstorming list into the outline.
5. Use the complete outline to write an introductory paragraph, a body paragraph for each
main point, and a concluding paragraph. This will be your rough draft.
6. Read the rough draft and use the Science Writing Checklist to be certain you have covered the topic. Edit and proofread for spelling, grammar, etc.
7. Neatly copy the final draft.
For a thorough and well-written essay, follow this plan and don’t skip steps!
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Common Errors to Avoid When Writing Your Gateway
1. Copying information (even if it is correctly documented) is not necessarily support. You must show that you have prior knowledge.
2. Vague or overly general supporting details signal weak development
a. Don’t----“All animals move. People move, and so do birds.” b. Do-----“Movement is a characteristic of all living things. Animals move
themselves by using legs, wings, or fins. Some microscopic life use cilia, which are short hairs that are moved quickly to allow the creature to move.”
3. Avoid padding. A lot of rambling on and on is a sure sign that you don’t
know what the answer is. 4. Don’t use phrases like “In this paper I am going to write about”.
5. Don’t just restate your three main ideas from your thesis as the topic sentences
of your body paragraphs. Develop these ideas more fully. 6. Don’t have run-on sentences that repeatedly use “and”, “but”, “or”, etc.
7. Avoid words such as “a lot”, “things”, “stuff”, “cuz”.
8. Don’t misspell common words. If you do misspell a word, misspell it the same
way every time.
9. Do not just copy information. Anytime you use words or ideas that are not your own, you must document it! Failure to do this is plagiarism, which is illegal and will cause you to fail the Gateway!
10. Don’t skip a bullet because you don’t think you know anything. Attempt
everything!
11. Don’t ignore your documents- use them!!
12. Don’t just choose Task Choice A- choose the one you have more prior knowledge about and/or has better documents!
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Key Vocabulary from Writing Tasks Text: Elements of Writing: Fourth Course
• Analyze—looking at the parts of the whole and their relationship • Assumption—a statement that is presumed to be true
• Cause and Effect—to examine and explain the reasons for a situation or event and its results
• Compare—to show how things are alike
• Contrast—to show differences
• Defend—support your statements by giving evidence, examples, and illustrations
• Describe—a strategy of development using sensory details and spatial order to show
individual features of a specific subject
• Document-based—relying on documents to act as starting points (or reminders) for discussion and writing ----does not imply that all necessary information is given
• Explain—to give the reason or cause of; to show the logical development or relationship of
• Express—use precise language to directly or distinctly state your response
• Identify—to point out the distinguishing characteristics
• Interpret—to translate into more recognize terms
• Justify—to prove or show to be reasonable
• Organize—to arrange by systematic planning and united effort; to give structure
• Present—to display or show
• Prior knowledge—information studied and learned in the classroom, the textbook, and other
learning situations that is NOT included in the documents or writing task
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You will be given this document in your test booklet.
Science and Writing Checklist
□ 1. Have you sufficiently developed all parts of the Writing Task?
□ 2. Does your essay contain a clear thesis statement? Does your response maintain a consistent focus?
□ 3. Have you included supporting ideas and evidence for each of your main ideas?
□ 4. Have you included information from your science courses?
□ 5. Have you included relevant information from the documents?
□ 6. Have you combined information from the documents with information from your science courses?
□ 7. Have you included an explanation of the reasoning you used in your response?
□ 8. Is the information in your response accurate? □ 9. Have you provided a clear beginning, middle, and end to your essay? □ 1 0. Have you used the most effective words for your purpose and
audience? □ 11. Have you written complete and correct sentences with appropriate
punctuation, coordination and subordination?
□ 12. Have you varied the structure, length, and types of sentences? □ 13. Are your spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar, sentence
formation, and usage correct? □ 14. Have you given credit to your sources when you paraphrased and
quoted the documents? □ 15. Have you included the following (as necessary)?
□ facts □ diagrams □ concepts, principles □ graphics □ methods □ models □ procedures □ symbols □ sequence □ formulas □ scientific vocabulary
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Using and Citing Resources
You can often strengthen your writing by including information from outside sources to support your ideas. However, you must remember that the ideas and/or information are not yours. To avoid plagiarism, you must properly document each piece of support, regardless of how you include the information in your writing. Use one of the three types of citations described below.
Types of Citations Direct Quotation: The placing of exact wording of a passage or phrase into your writing creates a direct quotation which is enclosed in quotation marks. This is the best method for vivid wording or precise ideas which could not be as effectively stated in any other choice of words.
Citation for a Direct Quotation within the Context of a Sentence In Closing the Ring, Winston Churchill states the importance of a continued alliance between the United States, Britain, and Russia: "We are the trustees for the peace of the world.... We must remain friends in order to ensure happy homes in all countries."
Parenthetical Citation for a Direct Quotation from a Gateway Document The depth of Challenger Deep is put into perspective with the knowledge that one would have "to stack 26 Empire State Buildings (430 meters tall) on top of one another to reach the surface of the ocean from the bottom" (Document B).
Summary: A summary consists of the main points and/or ideas from an entire paragraph, page, or even chapter into your own words. This is a process of condensing large amounts of text into a smaller amount. Again, this information is not your own original thought and, therefore, must be documented. Paraphrase: Paraphrasing involves putting an idea or a piece of specific information found in a source into your own words. The meaning is the same as the original source. While these words are your own, you have still used someone else’s original idea(s) in your paper. Documentation is again necessary.
Citation for a Paraphrased Passage within the Context of a Sentence Winston Churchill, in Closing the Ring, states that if the United States, Britain, and Russia remain allies, lasting peace is possible.
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Parenthetical Citation for a Direct Quotation from a Gateway Document The depth of Challenger Deep is put into perspective with the knowledge that one would have "to stack 26 Empire State Buildings (430 meters tall) on top of one another to reach the surface of the ocean from the bottom" (Document B).
How to Paraphrase 1. Read the passage carefully to determine exactly what is stated and/or implied. 2. Identify the important points that you want to include in your paraphrase. 3. Consider how to rephrase the exact point without using the words in the original
passage. 4. Write the paraphrase without looking at the original source. 5. Document your source (see above for examples). The following diagram shows you ways to incorporate original source material into your own text.
Using and Citing Sources
Begin with a lead-in to the information
Incorporate the information itself
Finish with a citation of the source
↓ ↓ ↓ According to Winston
Churchill … Quotation
OR
Paraphrase
OR
Summary
(Document A)
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Sentence Structure
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. An independent clause (I) makes a complete sense when standing alone and is grammatically complete. A subordinate (or dependent) clause (S) is not a complete sentence and does not make grammatical sense when standing alone. A subordinate clause may contain a word such as if, because, unless, although, or until. Examples of subordinate clause (S): A subordinate clause is not a complete sentence! If a cell could not survive Because the trench is so deep Unless enough carbon dioxide can be found Note that each of the clauses above needs something more to make it a complete sentence.
Sentence Types and Punctuation
I = Independent Clause, S = Subordinate (Dependent Clause) Simple Sentence I Compound Sentence I, conjunction I or I ; I (conjunctions à for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) Complex Sentence IS or S, I Compound-Complex two or more independent clauses (I) and at least one Sentence subordinate clause (S) (Follow the punctuation rules for complex sentences and compound sentences.)
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Punctuation
The Four Basic Commas 1. “The Introducer”—after an introductory word, phrase, or clause:
Charles, will you please stop interrupting? Although I’ve been having trouble with my computer, it still works.
2. “The Coordinator”—between sentences joined by coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) The tight end caught the pass in the end zone, and the crowd went wild! I have always loved roses, yet I can’t seem to make them grow. Note: Commas are only necessary when a conjunction links independent clauses (those which can stand alone as a sentence). Other groups of words joined by a conjunction do not need commas.
He quarreled with his father and left the house. I need either a skirt or a dress for the dance.
3. “The Inserter”—on either side of a word or phrase that interrupts the flow of a sentence. These commas always come in pairs.
A night in the emergency room, however, is not my idea of a good time. Mr. Patterson, who recently moved here from Detroit, works for IBM.
4. “The Linker”—to signal add-ons: a series of words, phrases, or clauses: We bought a rocking chair, a table lamp, and a chest of drawers for our new apartment. She selected a pattern, purchased the fabric, cut out the garment, and put it together without help from anyone.
The Semicolon
1. Replaces a period, especially when two sentences show contrast. You may take the bus if you like; I prefer to walk.
2. Use as a coordinator with such conjunctive adverbs as however, therefore, nevertheless, moreover, on the other hand, etc. * Conjunctive adverbs in prepositional phrases need both a semicolon and a comma. Florida is a great place to vacation; however, I wouldn’t like to live there.
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The Colon 1. Use a colon when a second sentence explains or elaborates on the first sentence.
That stretch of road has painful memories for me: that’s where I got my first speeding ticket.
2. Use the colon sparingly, and always after a complete sentence. Never use a colon after a verb.
Wrong: We contacted: Herb, Fred, Eva, Marilyn, and Sandy. Right: We contacted the following people: Herb, Fred, Eva, Marilyn, and Sandy. Quotation Marks 1. Commas and periods always go inside quotation marks.
He said, “Come back soon.” 2. Other punctuation marks go inside quotation marks only if they are part of
the quoted material. He shouted, “Go for it!” Apostrophes
1. Possessive endings are always the last ending added to a word: Singular + possessive = man’s, boy’s Plural ending in s + possessive = boys’, winners’ Plural not ending in s + possessive = men’s, children’s
How to Take a Document-Based Test
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1. Read the Historical Background or Science Scenario. What is this test about? What topic am I being asked to recall from my classes?
2. Read Writing Choice #1. What do I remember about this topic? Can I write an essay with meaningful support about this topic showing what I remember?
3. Read Writing Task Choice #2. How much do I remember about this topic? Do I remember more or less than Choice #1? Can I write a better essay about this topic than Choice #1?
4. Choose.
If I cannot decide about a specific topic, I should glance at the documents to see if they help me remember more about one topic or the other. I should not take time to study the documents at this point.
Choose
Plan
5. Reread the Writing Task Choice that I picked. Underline, highlight, or circle key words which tell me what I am expected to do. (Example – I’m not supposed to write everything I know about Hitler or World War II. I’m supposed to write about the totalitarianism in Nazi Germany.)
6. Review documents related to my Writing Task Choice. I can mark all I want on the documents as I see things related to various parts of the task. I should be careful to look at the top of every page to be sure I am only looking at documents for my choice. I should completely ignore all other documents.
7. Make a jot list, outline, or graphic organizer to plan my essay. Use the planning pages at the back of my test packet. Planning before I write will help me make sure I stay focused on the topic and write about all parts of the task.
8. Reread Writing Task. Make sure I’ve planned to respond, using specific support, to all parts of the task.
9. Check time remaining. I should have used about _________and have about _________ left. (this much time) (this much time)
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Draft
10. Write an introduction to my response.
Use the planning pages at the back of my test packet. My introduction should interest the reader and introduce the points I’m going to make. I should not copy the historical background or science scenario as an introduction. The essay must be my own work and I do not want to be penalized for plagiarism.
11. Write the body of my first draft.
• Re-read the task I selected. • Make sure I have a clear focus and cover each specific point in the task. • Make sure I’m including things I remember from my courses.
Documenting information alone isn’t enough. I should combine the document information with information I remember.
• I must explain how the information from my courses and the document information are related to the topic of my essay.
• I can’t just list information from the documents. To use the documents effectively, I should always ask: “Why are they important?” or “What are they trying to tell me?” I must show the ready I can apply the information to the topic.
• I should always give credit to the source when I use documents. There are samples of citations on the back of the Checklists to show me how if I don’t remember.
12. Write a conclusion.
Make sure I include a few sentences which tie my ideas together and that remind the ready of the major points I’ve made. I should avoid merely restating the introduction.
13. Check time remaining. I should have used about _________and have about _________ left. (this much time) (this much time)
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Revise
14. Reread my essay for clarity. Does my essay make sense?
15. Reread the Writing Task I selected. Did I do what the first bullet or statement tells me to? Reread that part of my draft to make sure. Did I do what the next bullet or statement requires? Reread this section of my draft to be sure I covered this part.
16. Use the Checklist to revise my first draft for accuracy and completeness.
My information should be accurate and complete. I can improve my essay by adding more information where support is missing and by explaining any ideas that don’t make sense. Remember, I can’t just state things; I have to give enough support (such as examples and evidence) to prove what I’m saying. Make sure I have linked all my ideas together with transitions so the ready understands how they are related.
17. Check time remaining.
I should have used about _________and have about _________ left. (this much time) (this much time)
18. Use the Checklist to make final revisions in language arts. I should look for misspelled words and correct them using the Spell-ex provided by my teacher. I also need to correct any faulty sentences and other mistakes in grammar and usage that would upset my language arts teacher.
19. Check time remaining.
I should have used about _________and have about _________ left. (this much time) (this much time)
Copy into Folder
20. Copy my final draft neatly into my Response Folder. My handwriting will not influence my grade but I do want to be sure my essay can be read.
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Rubrics
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Name: Instructor's Name: Period: Date:
Gateway Science Scoring Guidelines
I. Communication of Scientific Facts, Concepts, and Principles High Range
6 -5
Mid Range 4-3
Low Range 2 - 1
□ Response addresses all parts of the task. □ Support and explanation are complete . □ Diagrams, graphs, and/or tables are
used to support explanation even when not required.
□ Organization is logical and coherent.
□ Response addresses most of the task. □ Support and explanation are present
but incomplete. □ Diagrams, graphs, and/or tables are
used to support explanation when required.
□ Organization generally promotes
understanding.
□ Response is limited, wrong, or copied. □ Support and explanation are limited or
absent □ Diagrams, graphs, and/or tables are not
attempted or are incorrect.
□ Organization is weak.
II. Knowledge and Use of Science
High Range
6 - 5
Mid Range 4-3
Low Range 2 -1
□ Facts, concepts, models, and/or
methods are used correctly throughout the response.
□ Assumptions are clearly identified and
explained. □ Correct scientific vocabulary is used
extensively. □ In depth connections are made between
the task and previous learning experiences.
□ Facts, concepts, models, and/or methods are used correctly in some of the response.
□ Assumptions are correct though not
clearly identified or explained. □ Correct scientific vocabulary is used. □ Some connections are made between
the task and previous learning experiences.
□ Facts, concepts, models, and/or methods are limited, incorrect, or copied.
□ Assumptions are inappropriate or
incorrect □ Scientific vocabulary is copied or
incorrect □ Connections between the task and
previous learning experiences are incorrect or absent
III. Use of Scientific Processes High Range
6 -5
Mid Range 4 -3
Low Range 2 - 1
□ Procedures are detailed and correct. □ Sequencing is appropriate and
processes are connected. □ Hypothesis addresses specifics of the
problem.
□ Procedures are acceptable but limited in detail.
□ Sequencing is present but connections
between processes are incomplete or absent
□ Hypothesis is present (if required) but
lacks depth or is incomplete.
□ Procedures are incomplete or absent. □ Sequencing is incomplete or missing
and processes are not connected. □ Required hypothesis is missing or is
incorrect.
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Gateway Rubric Tips
Science Communicat ion of Scientific Facts, Concepts, and Principles
v Complete Response v Support/Explanation v Graphs and/or Tables v Organization
1. Complete Response: Do you clearly address all parts of the task?
• Your response should clearly demonstrate correct interpretation of the whole problem. • Your response should clearly explain all parts of the Writing Task. • You should give reasons for your thinking about all parts of the Writing Task.
2. Support/Explanation: Do you support and explain your position in reference to the Writing Task?
• Your response should interpret the problem and explain your interpretation. • You should use the documents to help support your interpretation/position. • Any limitations in the data should be explained in your explanation of the problem.
3. Graphs and/or Tables: Do you supply data to further address the Writing Task?
• Check to see if the documents supply relevant support for your position on the Writing Task. • You should include diagrams, graphs, models, symbols, and/or formulas to help explain your
position on the Writing Task. • Make sure the information in your diagrams, graphs, models, symbols, and/or formulas are
correct, complete, and relate to the Writing Task.
4. Organization: Is your science knowledge well organized?
• Your science information should flow in an organized fashion. • Your details should logically relate to your topic. • Your ideas should be coherent and help the reader understand your knowledge of science.
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Gateway Rubric Tips
Science Knowledge and Use of Science
v Concepts, Models, and/or Methods v Prior Knowledge and Documents v Scientific Vocabulary v Relationships and Assumptions
1. Concepts, Models, and/or Methods: Do you correctly use concepts, models, or methods to explain your
position?
• Your response should include facts and concepts. • Your response should interpret any models used. • Your response should interpret any methods used.
2. Prior Knowledge and Documents: Do you include prior knowledge and information from the documents
provided?
• Your response should use information you remember from your science classes, reading/video material, or other learning experiences.
• Your response should correctly use and interpret the documents of the Writing Task. • The data used from the documents should be relevant to the Writing Task.
3. Scientific Vocabulary: Do you include vocabulary specific to science?
• You should use scientific vocabulary wherever it is appropriate in your answer to the Writing Task.
• Your scientific vocabulary should be correctly used. • Your vocabulary should demonstrate an understanding of words beyond the definitions in the
documents.
4. Relationships and Assumptions: Do you identify relationships and make assumptions?
• Your response should identify correct relationships to answer the Writing Task. • Your responses should make some assumptions and should explain your reasoning for making
any assumptions.
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Gateway Rubric Tips
Science Use of Scientific Processes
v Procedures v Sequence and Connections v Hypothesis
1. Procedures: Do you include systematic procedures in your response?
• Your response should include correct and detailed procedures to complete the Writing Task. • Your response should answer the Writing Task with details of a step-by-step process.
2. Sequence and Connections: Do you demonstrate a succession of and an association between ideas?
• Your response should show correct sequencing of processes mentioned in your response. • There should be connections between the processes making your response complete and strong.
3. Hypothesis: Do you present a hypothesis that addresses the problem in the Writing Task?
• Your response should include a correct and complete hypothesis (possible solution) concerning the Writing Task.
• Your response should present an in-depth question that restates the problem addressed in the Writing Task.
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Gateway Language Arts Scoring Guidelines -
I. Focus/Development
High Range (6 - 5) Mid Range (4 -3) Low Range (2- 1) □ Focus is strong and consistent □ Main points stand out in complete
exploration of die topic. □ All aspects of task are developed. □ Supporting details are relevant and
carefully selected.
□ Focus is easily identifiable. □ Main points are clear but may be broad
or inconsistent with the task. □ Most aspects of the task are developed. □ Support is relevant but may be uneven,
repetitive, or limited in scope.
□ Focus and/or main points are extremely limited or unclear.
□ Support is irrelevant, insufficient, illogical and/or nonexistent.
□ Aspects of the task are not addressed in any substantive manner.
□ Original writing is too limited to demonstrate development.
II. Organization High Range (6 - 5) Mid Range (4 • 3) Low Range (2- 1) □ Format fits the content and purpose. □ Introduction and conclusion are strong
and effective. □ Transitions are effective among sentences,
paragraphs, and ideas. □ Points are logically related throughout
the response. Q Details fit where placed.
□ Format is consistent but may be inappropriate.
□ Introduction and conclusion are present but unexceptional.
□ Transitions are present but may be repetitive or formulaic.
□ Points are generally logically related □ Details may not always be effectively
placed.
□ Format is unrecognizable. □ Introduction and conclusions are
undeveloped or not present □ Transitions are lacking, ineffective,
and/or overused. □ Relationship and sequence among points
are unclear and/or ineffective. □ Details are limited and/or randomly
placed.
III. Fluency High Range (6 -5) Mid Range (4 - 3) Low Range (2- 1)
□ Sentence structure enhances relationships among ideas.
□ Fluency is demonstrated with one sentence flowing into the next
□ Sentence structure is effectively varied with fragments used only for effect
□ Use of words is consistently accurate, specific, and/or varied.
□ Language is carefully placed for impact.
□ Sentence meaning is generally clear though some awkward constructions may require rereading.
□ Repetitive sentence structure may detract from the flow of ideas.
□ Control is demonstrated in simple but not complex sentence structures.
□ Use of words is generally accurate and specific.
□ Language at times may rely on overused expressions.
□ Sentence structure frequently obscures meaning.
□ Choppy or rambling sentence structure damages the flow of ideas.
□ Sentence patterns are simple, monotonous, and/or confusing.
□ Use of words is imprecise, inadequate, or wrong.
□ Original writing is too limited to demonstrate sentence fluency and word choice.
IV. Conventions High Range (6 - 5) Mid Range (4 - 3) Low Range (2-1) □ Few or no major sentence errors occur. □ Both internal and end-of-sentence
punctuation are used effectively. □ Correct grammar and usage contribute to
clarity. □ Spelling of both common and difficult
words is correct □ Capitalization is correct. □ Paragraph breaks reinforce organizational
structure. □ Citation of sources is evident.
□ Some major sentence errors occur. □ End-of-sentence punctuation is correct;
internal errors occur occasionally. □ Errors in grammar and usage do not
interfere with meaning. □ Spelling of common words is generally
correct; errors in difficult words occur occasionally.
□ Capitalization is generally correct. □ Paragraph breaks may run together or
occur too frequently. □ Lapses in citation of sources may occur.
□ Major sentence errors occur frequently. □ Basic punctuation is omitted, inconsistent, or incorrect
□ Errors in grammar and usage interfere with or prevent meaning.
□ Frequent spelling errors impair readability.
□ Capitalization is inconsistent, incorrect, or random.
□ Paragraph breaks bear no relation to the organization of the text.
□ Little or no citation of sources is present.
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Gateway Rubric Tips
Language Arts Focus and Development
v Focus v Development v Relevancy
1. Focus: Do you respond to the task?
• The beginnings of your response should contain a thesis. • Each of your paragraphs should contain a topic sentence that relates to your thesis. • You should refer to the science or social studies task choice, the documents provided, and the
scenario or historical background.
2. Development: Do you explain yourself?
• Main points are developed by providing ü examples ü comparisons ü descriptions ü details
• Your main points should be followed by supporting details. • Your supporting details should be specific.
3. Relevancy: Are your ideas relevant to the task?
• Your thesis should relate to the task. • Your main points should relate to the thesis. • Your details, examples, etc. should relate to your main points.
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Gateway Rubric Tips
Language Arts Organization
v Structure and Placement of Ideas v Transitions: Relationships between Ideas and Clarity of Relationships
1. Structure and Placement of Ideas: Does your response go in a logical order?
• Your response should contain a beginning, middle, and end. • Your topic sentences should be at the beginning of paragraphs. • Your details should be placed logically within your paragraphs.
2. Transitions: Are there relationships between Ideas and Clarity of Relationships?
• Do you include clues when you shift from idea to idea? • Use transition words or phrases to start new ideas (see attachment 1). • Do your transitions connect ideas to one another? • Do your transitions show how your ideas connect to one another?
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Gateway Rubric Tips
Language Arts Fluency
v Effectiveness of Sentences v Sentence Structure v Word Choice
1. Effectiveness of Sentences: Are the parts of your sentences arranged logically?
• Your details should be presented in a logical order (sequential, cause/effect, etc.). • You should avoid using the word and excessively. • Your ideas should flow one into another.
2. Sentence Structure: Do you use a variety of sentence structures?
• You should use simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentence structures to add variety to your writing (see attachment 2).
• You should have variety in the lengths of your sentences with some long sentences and some shorter ones.
3. Word Choice: Do you use a variety of words and phrases?
• You should select accurate words and use them correctly. • The words you select should be unique and specific. • You should use a variety of words to avoid repetition. • Your words and phrases should sound natural and not “thesaurus-dependent.”
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Gateway Rubric Tips
Language Arts Conventions
v Internal and End-of-Sentence Punctuation v Spelling v Capitalization v Paragraph Breaks v Grammar and Usage v Citation of Sources
1. Internal and End-of-Sentence Punctuation: Is your writing free of major sentence errors? (Do you place
your commas correctly and put periods in the right place?)
• You should avoid making a comma splice within your writing. • You should avoid writing run-on sentences. • You should avoid writing fragments. • Your internal punctuation should be placed correctly (see attachment 3).
2. Spelling: Do you spell common words correctly?
3. Capitalization: Do you correctly capitalize proper nouns and the first words of your sentences? 4. Paragraph Breaks: Do you indent at the beginning of each paragraph? 5. Grammar and usage: Do you demonstrate control of your language?
• Your subjects and verbs should agree in number. • Your pronouns and antecedents should agree in number. • Your verb tense should be consistent throughout your essay. • Each of your sentences should contain a subject and a verb and should convey a complete
thought.
6. Citation of Sources: Do you correctly cite the sources you reference?
• You should use the proper format to cite your sources. • Direct quotations should be in quotation marks and cited. • Information you paraphrase should be in your own words and cited.