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Messengers in the City: Media Representation and
Wildlife Encounters in New York City
Frank Gaughan
Prepared for the
Land Ethics for the Landless: Refiguring Aldo Leopold for the Urban Age
Panel at the American Society for Environmental History Annual Meeting
Madison, Wisconsin
March, 2012
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In the 1930s the coyotes established range was known to be west of
the Mississippi River and concentrated largely in the Great Plains region of the
United States. It is from this region that the animalcanis latransderives its
colloquial names, the prairie or brush wolf.1 By the early 20th century, the
coyotes larger cousincanis lupusor the grey wolfhad been extirpated from
most of the United States.2 In fact, biologists estimate that the grey wolf has
lost 42% of its North American range due to development, habitat
fragmentation, and predator removal programs that began with European
colonization and intensified with the expansion of the ranching industry in the
19th century. While subject to similar removal programs, the coyote has
increased its range by 40 percent over this same period.3
Today, the animal is
an established presence throughout North America, and the ease with which it
has traversed the urban/rural gradient challenges assumptions about the
1 Stanley P. Young and Hartley H.T. Jackson, The Cleaver Coyote, 3.
2 David L Mech, The Wolf, 32-33; Hank Fischer, Wolf Wars. 10-23; Cat Urbigkit,
Yellowstone Wolves, 21-28.
3Andrea S. Laliberte and William J. Ripple, Range Contractions of North
American Carnivores and Ungulates, 126.
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antithetical relationship between urban development and the natural world.4 As
one advances, the other is expected to recede, yet in this case an animal
strongly associated with both Native American creation narratives and frontier
folklore has expanded its range by moving toward big cities such as Tucson,
Los Angeles, San Francisco, Portland, Vancouver, Chicago, Boston, and New
York City. A highly adaptable species, the coyote finds suitable habitat in these
and other urban locales. In some cases, the animal finds itself not just within
the city limits but in the very center of urban space. In Portland, a coyote
boarded a commuter train, taking a window seat after being chased from the
airport tarmac.5 In Chicago, the animals have been captured in the downtown
loop; and in New York, one of several coyotes captured was found hiding under
a car outside the Holland Tunnel.6
Such encounters undermine long-held expectations for resident, urban
wildlife, which mostly consist of small birds and mammalspigeons, squirrels,
4Stanley D. Gehrt and Seth P.D. Riley, Coyotes (Canis latrans), in Urban
Carnivores, 79-81.
5 Airline Industry Information, "Coyote hops on train at Portland airport.
6Shamus Toomey, Animal attraction; Coyote strolls into downtown Quiznos,
The Chicago Sun-Times, Apr 4, 2007; James Barron and Karen Zraick, TriBeCa Coyote
Captured! New York Times, Mar 25, 2010.
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and rats, for example. Even the common raccoon appears strange in some
cities, so much so that its presence occasions hyperbolic or sarcastic media
coverage, such as the 2010 story in New YorksVillage Voice: Crazed Raccoon
Alert! Rabid Animals Target Central Park. A related Voicearticle notes that No
one's been attacked [by raccoons] since winter, but watch out, they're lurking.
At least they don't know how to use weapons, yet.7 In context, the headline
seems more comedic than sensationalist. Few reasonable readers will think
raccoons have targeted the city or that they lurk in dark places fashioning
tree branches into weapons, but such exaggerations discourage readers from
thinking about urban space as a type of habitat and maintain the illusion that
cities are alienated from the natural world.8
Media coverage of urban coyote
encounters follows a similar trajectory by relying on blends of exaggeration,
humor, and sensationalism to mask the discomfort that the animals presence
prompts.
7Elizabeth Dwoskin, Crazed Raccoon Alert! Village Voice, 18 Feb 18, 2010 and
Leslie Minora, New York's Wild Kingdom Is Going Batshit: Child-Eating Coyotes, RabidRacoons, Sexin' Birds, Village Voice, Jul. 2 2010.
8J. Baird Callicott, The Conceptual Foundations of the Land Ethic,in A
Companion to A Sand County Almanac: Interpretive and Critical Essays, 210; Clark E.
Adams and Kieran J. Lindsey, Introduction to A New Wildlife Management Paradigm
in Urban Wildlife Management, 2nd ed, xix-xxxiii.
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There are, of course, humorous elements to some encounters. In 2007, a
coyote walked into a Quiznos sandwich shop in Chicagos downtown loop,
attempted to jump the counter during lunch service and eventually settled into
the cooler, sitting with the soft drinks until animal control arrived.9 The reporter
covering the story dispensed with the traditional inverted triangle format and
invoked, instead, the stand-up routine in the first sentence: So a coyote walks
into a Quiznos. But humor dissipates rapidly when coyotes come into conflict
with humans and, more often, with their domestic pets.
As the animals move closer in proximity to large population centers, such
conflicts can be expected to increase. For example, an analysis of Chicago-
area newspapers reporting human/coyote conflicts found that the number of
articles published on the subject increased by nearly 400 percent between 1985
and 2006.10 In a related study, Stanley Gehrt contends that the reality of urban
coyote ecology is at odds with media representations. 11 That is, a typical urban
coyote is unlikely to make news because its presence is unremarkable. In fact,
9 See note 6 above.
10Lynsey A. White and Stanley D. Gehrt, Coyote Attacks on Humans in the
United States and Canada, 420.
11 Stanley D. Gehrt, Ecology of coyotes in urban landscapes, 309.
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Gehrt finds the animals well-suited to city life. On average, 62-74 percent of
coyotes survive a given year in urban areas.12 They tend to avoid human contact
and vehicle collisions, their primary cause of mortality, by shifting from diurnal
to nocturnal activity. While more studies are needed, radiotelemetry data
suggest that urban coyotes tend to avoid people, even if their home range
includes a populated residential or commercial area.13
While most coyotes avoid people, they have a long and successful track
record of making behavioral and even biological adaptations in response to
human settlement and built environments. In the early 1900s, coyotes began a
decades-long movement eastward, following routes to the north and south of
the Great Lakes.14
The suppressed wolf population in Canada and the absence
of wolves in the most of the United States combined with agricultural land uses
to make an inviting habitat. Along the northern route, the coyote hybridized
with eastern wolves, canis lupus lycaon, and the result was a larger animal. The
eastern coyote averages 36-32 pounds, whereas its western counterpart weighs
12 Ibid., 305.
13 Ibid., 307.
14 Gerry Parker, Eastern Coyote, 20.
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26-23 pounds.15 This larger size allows the coyote to successfully hunt white-
tailed deer in addition to its more frequent meals of rodents and snowshoe
hares. Thus, the eastern coyote fills an ecological role left vacant by the
extirpation of wolf in the United States. By the 1930s, the eastern coyote had
established enough of a presence for hunters, trappers, and game wardens to
take notice of a new animal in the northeast.
Newspaper reports of these early encounters provide context for
understanding the presentation of the urban coyote today. The contemporary
news may use humor to deflect discomfort at the animals presence in the city,
but popular representations in the 1930s describe the coyote and other
mammalian predators as vermin, varmints, or enemies of the good
animalsgame birds, deer, and livestock. Thus, in the 1930s, the coyotes
arrival into a new habitat was framed as either a bizarre circumstance or an
occasion for impending terror. In 1937, the Daily Boston Globereports on
Maine game wardens who trapped a 32 pound Westerncoyote. To explain its
presence so far east, the wardens speculated that the animal had escaped from
15 Jonathan G. Way, A Comparison of Body Mass of Canis latrans (Coyotes)
Between Eastern and Western North America, 116.
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a menagerie or circus.16 In 1934, the New York Timesfiled a similar story in
which Homer Mallow, a Pennsylvania hotel manager, reported a wolf sighting to
the state game warden, Harry Meiss. The warden reacted incredulously, but
Mallow was adamant, and offered to bet Meiss one-thousand dollars that the
animals were in the vicinity of his hotel. Not to be outdone, Warden Meiss took
the bet and, in addition, offered to chew the ear off any wolfor coyote that
Mallow found in the state. To the wardens surprise, two of the marauders
were killed and Mallow arranged to procure one of the pelts and confirmed that
the animals were, in fact, coyotes. In fulfillment of the wager, Mallow had the
ear of one of the beasts prepared, and planned to have it on hand for a dinner
with Meiss early that February. Mallow quipped that the hefty wager might be
waived if the warden were to give the ear a good chew.17
16 Daily Boston Globe, Maine Game Wardens Trap Western Coyote, Jan 11,
1937.
17New York Times, Coyotes Ear to be Piece De Resistance at Dinner to Game
Warden Who Lost Bet, Jan 28, 1934.
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It is not surprising that 1930s era news features describe historically
maligned predators as beasts and marauders or that the story emphasizes
bizarre detailsthe wager and the chewing of the animals earover significant
facts, such as the movement of an adaptable species with a high reproduction
rate into a new range. The examples from Maine and Pennsylvania avoid
consideration of natural causes and place the animal, instead, in an economic
(and thus, civilized) context: The coyote must be a circus attraction or an
occasion for a large wager.
In other instances, literary and fantastic explanations appear more viable
than natural ones. In November of 1930, the Boston Globereports the story
Eddy Jones, who had shot a strange animal near Brockton, Massachusetts a
town approximately 25 miles south of Boston. Although an experienced
woodsman, Jones said he could not identify his prey. He thought, at first, it
might have been a German Shepherd. But the action of the animal, its
crouching and vicious air, convinced Jones that he was not facing a dog, but
rather an animal such as he had never encountered before. A furrier identified
the pelt as that of a coyote, or as the Globeputs it: a stealthy creature of the
western plains. The report then takes a literary turn, noting that the blood-
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curdling cries of [the coyotes] mate could be heard at night and that residents
are seriously considering keeping weapons handy when they retire.18 In this
way, the Globesreport transforms the coyote into a supernatural presence, an
unknown creaturevicious, cowardly, and stealthy. The audible and blood-
curdling presence ofits mate suggests an impending vengeance, prompting
residents to sleep with weapons. To tell such a story, the Globeaccount relies
more upon a store of popular representations about vengeful animals than it
does upon actual circumstance. Ernest Thompson Seton's popular narrative of
wolf hunting in New Mexico provides an informing model. In Lobo the King of
Currumpaw, Seton traps the outlaw wolf, Lobo, by first trapping and killing his
mate, Blanca. Afterwards, an enraged Lobo follows the cowboys to their ranch.
Seton writes, Whether in hopes of finding [Blanca] there, or in quest of
revenge, I know not (37).19 The resemblance between the two tales ends there,
however. Seton experiences great remorse for his actions. His connection with
Lobo is such that he cannot bring himself to kill the animal; the trapped wolf,
instead, dies of its wounds, which include a broken heart. Setons talelike
18Daily Boston Globe, Hunter Found To Have Shot Coyote: Strange Animal
Bagged In Woods Near Brockton,Nov 27, 1930.
19 Ernest Thompson Seton, Wild Animals I Have Known. 37.
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Aldo Leopolds Thinking Like A Mountain amounts to a conversion narrative
in which the death of the wolf prompts the hunter to see nobility in the prey
that had formally been maligned.
The Globes account, by contrast, replaces sentimentality with horror.
The coyotes blood curdling cries might just as well have been those of a
werewolfa shape-shifting anthropomorphic creature whose wickedness marks
the worst in humanity.20 In this way, the news item fosters not empathetic
connection, as in Setons tale, but a journalistic version of the supernatural
sublime. Literary critic Jack Voller uses this term to characterize works of
gothic and romantic literature that subvert the conventional meaning of
sublime experiences. With the supernatural sublime, the world has been
emptied of wonder, and the presence of evil does not imply the presence of a
counterbalancing good.21 With the divine called into question, the experience of
awe is displaced by terror. This feeling may account for the hyperbolic reaction
of the towns residents. One does not sleep with a weapon because there may
20 Barry Lopez, Of Wolves and Men,230; Roderick Frazier Nash, Wilderness and
the American Mind, 12.
21 Jack Voller, The Supernatural Sublime, 20.
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be a medium-sized canine in the nearby forest unless one also attributes other
worldly powers to the animal.
As the coyote was beginning its journey eastward, ecological perspectives
on the importance of predators were only just emerging. For example, Aldo
Leopold wrote The Conservation Ethic, in 1933a work that bears strong
resemblance to the more famous essay, The Land Ethic, which was not to be
published until 1949. In this early draft, Leopold emphasizes mutual and
interdependent coperationbetween human animals, other animals, plants, and
soils.22His categorization of humans as interdependent animals, marks a
significant shift from earlier statements, such as his 1915 essay, The Varmint
Question, in which he favors predator eradication over mutualism and writes
that predators eat the cream off the stock growers profits.23 The term varmint
also carries moralistic implications. David Worster notes that the word has been
reserved for those species that plumb the depths of depravity. 24 Following
Leopolds turn to ethics, he makes statements that favor predators such as his
22Aldo Leopold, Conservation Ethic, The River of the Mother of God and Other
Essays by Aldo Leopold, 183.
23Ibid., The Varmint Question, 47.
24 David Worster, Natures Economy, 260.
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advocacy for grizzly bear habitat in 1936, but it is not until 1939, in A Biotic
View of Land, that he offers a direct challenge to the long-established
categorization of animals into useful and harmful classes: The only sure
conclusion is that the biota as a whole is useful. . ..25
Perhaps benefiting from these and related perspectives on predation,
contemporary media accounts of the urban coyote do not typically describe the
animal as a varmint, beast, or marauder, but they still struggle to make
cultural sense of the coyotes success in the city. As the animal moves ever
closer to the center of the modern cities, it must once again be refigured. In
New York City, one of the dominant metaphors appears to be the Warner
Brothers cartoon character, Wile E. Coyotea figure who is more hapless than
depraved. His inability to catch the elusive road runner masks Wile E.s
predatory roots and also serves to elicit sympathy for him.
New York-based news accounts detailing the pursuit of Central Park
coyotes in both 1999 and 2006 make specific or implied references to Wile E. or
the cartoon itself. One article notes that the coyote turned roadrunneras the
25 Aldo Leopold, Means and Ends in Wild Life Management, and A Biotic View
of Land, in The River of the Mother of God, 236 and 267, respectively.
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tawny-colored critter slip-slided across the Wollman Rink ice to elude his
pursuers and their nets.26 Another article coyote emphasizes the awkward
efforts to corral the animal: [The] final chasehad all the elements of a Road
Runnercartoon, with the added spectacle of television news helicopters
hovering overhead, trailing the coyote and the out-of-breath posse of police
officers, park officials and reporters trailing it.27 In other instances, the Warner
Brothers reference is more subtle, such as when the adjective wily is applied
to the animal: The wily coyote led parks officials and police officers on a wild
chase through Central Park last month.28 Another article notes that the coyote
of 1999 was a wily survivor29 after being captured and relocated to a zoo in
Queens, New York. The 2006 coyote was not so lucky, dying shortly after
capture from the combined stress of human handling, heartworms, and the
ingestion of rodenticide.30
26 Lisa l. Colangelo, Alison Gendar and Corky Siemaszko, Coyote Finally Is
Outfoxed. Cops Get Runaround, The Daily News, 23 Mar 23, 2006.
27James Barron, A Coyote Leads a Crowd on a Central Park Marathon, NewYork Times, March 23, 2006.
28 Joe Mahoney and Lisa L. Colangelo, Stress Killed Coyote Too Much Handling,
Worms Are Blamed, Daily News, April 8, 2006.29Corey Kilgannon, Neighborhood Report: Corona; Coyote, A Wily Survivor, Is
Alpha At His Zoo Home, New York Times, March 19, 2000.
30 See note 28.
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It is fair to say that most urban residents have never seen a coyote,
except perhaps in a zoo. So initial efforts to reconcile the anomalous
appearance of this animal into the cityscape rely upon comforting references to
a familiar, lovable, but hapless cartoon character. Like its real-life inspiration,
Wile E. Coyote is a predator; the difference, of course, is that he is not a very
good one. The energy expended chasing the road runner and assembling
contraptions purchased from the Acme corporation far outweighs any caloric
gain that would follow from a successful catch. Wile E.s interest in the road
runner is driven more by emotion and frustration than by hunger. During the
chase, he relies not on his instincts but on upon flawed technologies and plans
that typically become more and more complex as the episode progresses. In
this regard, at least, the above news report is correct in noting that the coyote
has turned road runner.
This rhetorical switch suggests that city residents have turnedWile E.,
expending energy and resources in ways that are out of proportion to the
quarry at hand. In 2006, officials chased the coyote around Central Park for
two days before finally making the catch. It is hard to imagine such a
commitment of resources or media attention in response to, say, a feral
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German Shepherd. Likewise, most criminal activity does not prompt the city to
marshal helicopters and sharpshooters. Thus, it seems that the city, with the
media in tow, was more intent on chasing the idea of a coyotea predator in
the citythan the animal itself. The anthropomorphic qualities of Wile E. were
not lost upon his creator, the animator and director Chuck Jones, who is also
the creator of other notable, human-like characters: Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck,
and Peppie La Pew, to name but three. In his memoir, Jones attributes the
inspiration for Wile E. to Mark Twains oft-cited description of an actual coyote
in his 1872 travel narrative, Roughing It. When Twain first saw the animal on a
trip to the western territories, he writes that the coyote appeared to him as a
living, breathing allegory of Want. He is always hungry. He is always poor, out
of luck and friendless.31 Although Jones was only seven when he first read
the passage, he claims to have recognized the potential in Twains description
immediately: Wile E.s frustrations and shortcomings help viewers to make
sense of their own.32
31 Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad and Roughing It, 561.
32 Chuck Jones, Chuck Amok: The Life and Times of An Animated Cartooonist,
35-38.
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While this sort of imaginative refiguring may help in making cultural
sense of the urban coyote, we will be unlikely to understand the presence of the
actual animal in our midst until we more completely understand our own role as
human animals in habitats that we both aim and fail to control. The adaptable
and elusive coyote seems ideally suited to challenge urban ideas about the wild
and its constituent wildlife. While New York City has a resident population of
coyotes in the Bronx, its northernmost borough, the three coyotes that have
made their way to the southernmost edge of Central Park in Manhattan provide
the most direct challenge to urban assumptions that the city can be isolated
from natural processes. These three coyotes have all received at least some
media attention and, fittingly, pet names: Lucky Pierre, also known as Otis, in
1999; Hal in 2006; and JD in 2010.33 It is worth reflecting on the qualities of
city life that drew these three coyotes to the same section of a park that spans
over 800 acres.34 Coyotes often make use of park space, golf courses,
greenways and other edge habitats, but the southern edge of Central Park is a
33. For articles regarding the naming of Otis, see note 29; for Hal, see note 26.
For articles about JD, see Robert Sullivan. "J.D. Coyote; The thrall of the wild, in Central
Park." New York, 8 March 8, 2010.
34 Central Park, Central Park Conservancy.
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tree line that forms the border of the park and 59th street, one of the busiest
thoroughfares in the center of the most populous city in the US.
The southern edge of Central Park is a study in contrasts, and the names
for these three coyotes are associated with the strikingly different features of
the area. The 1999 coyote, Lucky Pierre, was so named because of his
proximity to the Pierre Hotel, where rooms start at about $800 per night. Just
down the block from the Pierre, visitors find the Hallet Nature Sanctuary, a
fenced 4-acre preserve for migratory birds that is off limits to the public,
except by guided tours.35 The 2006 coyote came to be known as Hal,
because, like Lucky Pierre, he was spotted in the area between the Sanctuary
and the luxury buildings along 5th
Avenue . Finally, in 2010, the coyote dubbed
JD takes his name from J. D. Salingers Cather in the Ryebecause the novels
protagonist, Holden Caulfield,finds solace near the duck pond, which sits just
beside the Hallet Sanctuary.
From a coyotes perspective then, a four-acre bird sanctuary that is
largely off-limits to people and situated beside a duck pond is as close to ideal
habitat as one might hope to find in the New York area. In this way, the coyote
35Wheeler, Jesse, Hallet Nature Sanctuary.
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challenges not only ideas about the wild and wild life, but also ideas about
sanctuary, an old word with strong religious connotations. The application of
the sanctuary concept to wildlife, however, is relatively new, coinciding with the
turn to conservation in the United States at the end of the 19th century. The
Oxford English Dictionarycredits Arthur Pendarves Vivians 1879 collection of
travel and hunting narratives Wanderings in Western Landwith the first usage
of the word in this sense. Witnessing the near extinction of his quarrythe
bisonVivian suggested setting apart certain districts as sanctuaries, within
which the buffalo should never be molested.36 Indeed, the National Park
System would eventually come to serve this purpose. In doing so, however, the
sanctuary model helped to codify the idea that wildlife may be circumscribed by
legal definitions and cultural expectations of wild, rural, and city spaces.
Criticizing this limited view of nature in 1936, Leopold writes that [The
park services] wildlife program is befogged with the abstract concept of
inviolate sanctuary.37 Put another way, wildlife sanctuaries such as Hallet are
idealized spaces that aim to create and maintain a particular relationship with
36Oxford English Dictionary. s.v. Sanctuary.
37 Aldo Leopold, Threatened Species in The River of the Mother of God, 232.
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nature. One makes an appointment to see the nature in the Hallet Sanctuary;
and after a tour, exits the space. It seems fitting, then, that Hal was sighted
scaling the eight-foot fence designed to keep out human visitors and was later
seen in proximity to the feathery remains of a bird: Nature had finally arrived
at the sanctuary, and the coyote, so long reviled as a western outlaw, had found
its way from the prairie to a space that Olmstead imagined as remedial of the
influences of urban conditions.38
Conflicts are inevitable as the coyote takes a place in urban locales. As
media accounts document, coyotes have killed pets and attacked children on
occasion. The fact that such encounters are atypical does not make their
occurrence any less tragic or their possibility any less frightening. The coyote,
like nature itself, disrupts us, along with our idea of sanctuary. In so doing,
however, the coyote presents an opportunity for urban residents. Remarking on
the character of city life, Leopold wrote that urban residents were a landless
people, who maintained an esthetic appreciation for nature that was not
38Frederick Law Olmstead, The Plan For the Park, In Empire City: New York
Through the Centuries, edited by Kenneth T. Jackson and David S. Dunbar. 278-281.
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informed by an understanding of it.39 As a consequence, environmental debates
and policies tend to be less effective and more contentious than they should be.
When we imagine urban spaces that allow us to co-exist with an adaptable
predator such as the coyote, we also begin a long process of reclaiming urban
land and connecting it with the rest of the natural world.
39Aldo Leopold, Land Pathology. in The River of the Mother of God214.
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