Lecture 3: Environmental Management in Singapore/ Garden City Singapore

Brown Agenda

Describes the state’s approach in managing Singapore’s environment from the early years of independence to the early 1990s

Priority given to developmental goals e.g. economic growth, industrialization, urbanization – substantial human intervention with natural landscapes

Emphasis high economic growth and wealth for the nation and its citizenry Stressed the rigorous management of the environmental impact of rapid urbanization and

industrialization Gross National Product, employment and trade figures tend to receive far more attention than

the traffic congestion that has grown in tandem in the countries major cities, as well as other environmental problems

“End-of-the-pipe” pollution control approach – brown agenda first before green agendao ‘Nature’ is seen as part of resources to be consumed in the process of development and

growtho Introduced the necessary measure to manage the environmental impact of such rapid

growth

Brown Agenda: Resultant Landscapes

Drastic changes to the physical environmento Land reclamation at the expense of the coastal ecological systems around the island,

removal of natural areas, shifting coastlines, creation of reservoirs, changing land use etc.o Result in environmental disasters such as floods, soil erosion, deforestation, forest fire, air

pollution etc. Ameliorating pollution and eradicating pollutive landscapes led to removal of slums and

squatters, itinerant hawkers/ outdoor markets and replacement with food centers, wet markets, cleaning up of river and waterways, controlling emission of pollutants

o Control of hawkers now involve licensing administered by ENV which involves a grading system of the hawker’s standards of hygiene

o Resettlement of a majority of the population has been equivalent to the erasure of the central area dwelling landscapes, which were deemed both congested and unhealthy

o Singapore River – port-related activities were entirely removed and shifted further south away from the river

Singapore’s landscape changes were due to infrastructural development for industry and business, industrial estates, reclaimed land, port and airport facilities, and telecommunications, which have supported the rapid economic growth achieved by Singapore

o Filling in of swamps like the project to develop the Jurong Industrial Estate

Environmental Planning

Top down – MOH and MOE being key authorities & statutory boardso Focus on domestic environmental issues and not global environmental issueso Efficient law enforcement

Legal framework for enforcing the environmental standards Standards have been imposed gradually over time in keeping with the

availability of technology that can be incorporated by firms in order to treat waste water and effluents discharged into the air from factories

BUT issues such as noise pollution or waste recycling have not received much attention until recently

Attempts to control air pollution: Make public transport the main mode for the work commuters – Charge car owners and making it more expensive to own a car, public bus, MRT and taxi

Population control: ‘Stop at Two’, ageing population policies – practical and pragmatic approach

ENV and EDB provide incentives and investment packages to attract international business investments

Seriousness of the government on environmental management – amongst earliest to introduce Ministry of Environment

3 Stages of Environmental Planning

1. Colonial Singapore Botanic Gardens – green areas dedicated to the protection of biodiversity not only for

nature conservation purposes but with a view to exploring the commercial potential of many of the tree species like the rubber tree for further and wider exploitation

Municipal Commissioners – took charge of health and sanitation measures to control infectious diseases and inspection of food supplies.

A riverbank was built and a swamp was filled in to control flooding. A water-borne sewerage system was also provided – efforts had been initiated to collect solid waste and maintain drains

2. Implementation of Ministry’s Programmes (Rio UN Conference) MOH – public health; MND – management of sewerage and drainage; PUB – water supply Toa Payoh – Public housing. Provided the blueprint for the management of residential

estates in terms of the impact on waste generation, sanitation and sewerage treatment Jurong Industrial Estate – house industries. Emphasis centralization at one location of

heavy industries Such centrality allowed for environmental protection services to be provided in a more

economical manner including infrastructure for pollution control3. Initiation of Ministry of Environment

Initial years – focused on public health and pollution control through environmental engineering

Second phase: projects such as the cleaning of the Singapore River and Kallang Basin. Land use planning with strict zoning prescription was a strategic planning tool meant to help in the environmental management effort.

Space is allocated only if there is compatible land use in terms of their impact on environmental quality

Nation-wide monitoring system was also established Campaigns

Both British and PAP have adopted a highly centralized approach to environmental planning and management. The participation by both the ‘market’ or ‘private’ sector as well as the civil society organization has been relatively limited compared to the initiatives and programmes introduced by the state – command and control.

Earth Summit of 1992 might have encouraged the Ministry to adopt a more consultative approach in environmental planning – public forums, smaller committee discussions

o Aspects of environmental concerns such as nature conservation were included

Sustainable Development

United Nations Conference in Environment and Development in Rio in 1992 It means achieving growth without sacrificing the quality of our living environment Principles of sustainable development

o Efficiency: growing the city with less resources/ wasteo Clean: Growing the city without polluting the environmento Green: Growing the city while preserving greenery, waterways and natural heritage

Environmental Management

Sustainability although economic viability still remains primary concern Incorporation of global environmental concerns e.g. climate change Community involvement highly encouraged Transnational efforts

Contestation of Sustainable Development

Impact of Singapore’s image Resistance against state’s pragmatism in environmental management Apathy High cost of going ‘green’ Lack of political will – haze transnational effects

Conservation Sanctuaries

Recording the diversity went hand in hand with the planting of commercially viable plants that would increase the wealth of the colony

Experimenting with trees that would yield timber suitable for ships and houses etc complemented the efforts at the Calcutta Botanic Gardens in creating produce and raw materials that benefited the British Empire

Over the years, the economic role that the gardens performed decreased while the taxonomic and research emphases increased

Singapore investigate and invest heavily in agro technology parks – recognition of the potential for economic growth: hydroponics or aeroponics

The Sanctuaries provide refuge and protect eco-systems which are self-generating Selected to “cater to the needs of many society groups” Suffer the fact that besides being natural environments with ecological merit, they must co-exist

with adjoining developments and take into account the opportunity cost of alternative uses e.g. Machritchie Reservoir

OVERALL a losing game in conservation. 5 nature reserves to only three. Example of giving priority to people is in the Marina South Marsh

Garden City Singapore

Conceived in the early 1960s by then Prime Minister LKY whose vision was that for Singapore to march forward, we must industrialize and urbanize

o These 2 processes would remove many areas of green vegetation; we must therefore plant back trees and shrubs wherever possible

Master Plan for the Conservation of Nature in Singapore in 1990 The Greening Program

o Enactment of the Parks & Trees Act of 1975 ensures that trees, plants and turfed areas are not willfully destroyed

o Extensive trees & shrubs planting along all grades of public roadso Creepers on walls and pedestrian bridges and open spaceso Creation of human-made regional and neighbourhood parks and gardens of all shapes

and sizes Demarcate the beginning of one new town while signifying the end of the other

Used as buffers to separate housing estates from busy highways Green lungs and relief from the high-rise and high density public housing

environment Meet recreational needs and leisure purposes BUT not reflective of managed nature and landscape changes but also nature

reduced to fit into the urban scheme of things – smaller range of plants and animal life

Targeted as leisure spaces Themed parks e.g. Chinese Garden and Japanese Garden

o Soften the urban jungle landscape, soften the harsh and hard surfaces of the built areao All areas of new development must have tree planting schemes included in their plan

submission – pragmatic purposes: reduce noise pollution, provide share and shelter, add to aesthetics, are good for the catchment area and change street-level micro-climates

Colour, variety and orderliness are emphasizes Types of trees – meshes beauty, sensory stimulation and conservation together

o Human made ‘natural’ attractions such as Singapore Zoological Gardens, Night Safari, Jurong Bird Park and Sentosa’s Underwater World

Waterbodies and Water Featureo ABC Waters – initiative to spruce up 32 rivers, more than 7000km drains/ canals, 15

reservoirs and open up more recreational activities and space for the public Encourage property developers to integrate sustainable water design features Active, Beautiful Clean certificates award to property developers who

incorporate attractive and functional water features into their design plans Innovative water landscapes all across the island

Heritage Trees Schemeo Aimed at promoting conservation of our mature trees for purposes of ‘greening’,

beautification and instilling identityo Supported by legislation

Campaigns such as the ‘Clean and Green Week’o Beautification exercise as well as the avoidance of the prospect of the city becoming a

concrete jungle given the rapidity of urban development

Evaluating Greening Singapore

Visual effects and international accoladeso Successful in achieving relatively high air and water quality standardso Extensive array of green/ natural spaces in Singaporeo Programs for schools well taken up/ increased funding e.g. Adopt-A-Park, Parkwatcho Excellent response to community-directed effects e.g. Garden Festival Gardeners Cup

Parks are bases for “nation-building and rootedness” Open spaces allow for reflection and encourage creativity, innovation and imagination while

would in turn “reap economic benefit for our country” Green spaces can mentally stimulate and refresh local Singaporeans as well as attract foreign

talent to live and work in Singapore High costs of developing/ maintaining Green Areas ~150 million Ecological insensitivity – Native V.S. Foreign Trees Public ignorance/ complacency about nature Nature Groups around but voices of minority Unhappiness over ‘top-down’ approach Nature is constructed as usufructuary, nature has been manipulated and even designed to fit the

needs of humans. Nature can be harnessed as an economic resource

Future Plans

More parks and gardens in the heartlands and linking them up Tie vision with nation-building process? Economic value? Environmental possibilism

Contested Nature

Nature in Singapore is too engineered and might result in loss of natural areas over time Nature constructed as usufructuary and serve the needs of humans and valorized for its

utilitarian more than its intrinsic ecological value Human intervention/ Divine intervention? – is there a need to rethink how we approach nature

in Singapore? Increasing (global) consciousness to environmental issues an opportunity

Lecture 5: Street Names, National Monuments and Iconic Symbols

Nation, National Identity, Nation-Building and Landscapes of Nationhood

Nation: socially constructed and does not exist a priori; imagined community; a community of people, whose members are bound together by a sense of solidarity, a common culture, a shared history or national consciousness

Nation-State: Legal and political organization with the power to require obedience and loyalty from its citizens; has a bounded space or territory that is internationally recognized

National Identity: Sense of identification with and belonging that different members of a nation feel toward the nation; can include the sense of belonging/ attachment to the country of which one is an official citizen; can be fostered through ‘invented traditions’ e.g. Flag, National Anthem, Mystical Creatures, Icons like Eiffel Tower

o Can be fostered through historically embedded ethnic, political and religious ties’; may be known as cultural (Kurdsin Turkey), historical (Jews & Holocaust) or ‘faith-led’ nations (Southern Thai & Islam); or through historical identification with the native or sacred land (Aboriginal people in Australia)

o Can be inculcated byShared historiesCommon values – 4M ideologyEven-handedness of state – all are treated equallySense of pride – global recognizable icons (non-parochial in nature)Provision of needs etc – bonding space to integrate & interact with each other

Resistance and Re-interpretation

Not everyone accepts at face value the meaning ascribed to a landscape by the state Landscapes can be re-interpreted by people in their everyday lives which might differ from those

of the state Contestation may be symbolic or material/ overt; or people can just choose to ignore or be

ignorant of prescribed messages

Challenges to Singapore’s Nation Building

Long history of colonialism (1819-1959); unstable union with Malaysia (1963-1965); short history as a nation (Since 1965)

Multiracial population (& immigrants) Serious economic, political and social problems in the early years of independence Geographical constraints in development – small country with no resources Globalisation e.g. Diaspora

Street Names

The powerful use of everyday landscapes to assert hegemonic dominance (e.g. 4M + 1 – meritocracy)

Orientation and familiarity to create attachment Inculcate shared sense of history and creation of identity for places/ peoples (reminders of the

past) Colonial Influence

o Road names as reminders of:European governors –Cavenagh Road, Crawford StreetBritish Royalty – Queen Road, Victoria Road, Queensway, Margaret DriveCityfathers and officers – Newton Road

Places within British Empire – Bristol Road, Cambridge Road, Rangoon RoadEuropean civil servants – Farrer RoadSingapore as British trading outpost – Market StreetMarked places with racial connotations – China Street, Kling Street

o Road names reflecting colonial divisions and ethnic segregations – Canton Street, Chinatown, Little India HOWEVER

o Limited street named after local personalities, trades and activities – Haji Lane, Jalan Kerbau (Only 10% in 1905)

o Local versions of colonial names or refer through local landmarks – Kwong Fuk Min, Ghi Hin Koi, Thimiri Thirdal, Masjid Sultan

o Locals made feelings known to the British government leading to changes made – Japan Tamba Veerasamy Road

Malay Influence (National Language)o Steer clear of old colonial nuances, British snob names, towns and royaltyo Used Jalan/ Lorong for “road” or “street” o But Chinese, dialect-speakers found some Malay street names to be tongue twisters of

absolute horror – Pesiaran Kelilingo Developers of private housing estates and residents protested against Malay street

names – prejudicial to dignity and appealing for the reinstatement of English names e.g. Jalan Khairuddin in Opera Estate Fidelio Close

o The attempt to create unity on the basis of a national language signifying identity with the mainland soon collided with another nation-building framework, the political ideal of multi-racialism

Multiracialising - Numberingo Newly proposed guidelines for street-naming specified street-names should ‘reflect the

multi-lingual, multi-racial and multi-cultural context of the society’o Not entirely feasible because Singapore roads were not laid out in a grid or “cobweb”

radial fashiono E.g. Jurong Industrial Estate used permutations of words suggesting ‘industry’ and

‘progress’ in 4 languages – Enterprise Road, Quality Road, Fan Yoong Road, Soon Lee Road, Jalan Tukang, Jalan Pesawat, Neythal Road

o Criticized for sterility and lack of imaginationo Nevertheless, numerical nomenclature continued to be used

‘Pinyinising’o Romanised translations of Chinese characters – standardizationo Those not educated in English would not be able to comprehend Romanised street-

names and in fact often transliterated beyond recognitiono Argued that the old, familiar dialect place-names were ‘part of our heritage’, ‘of strong

historical meaning for Singapore’ and that the new pinyin code of pronunciation would ‘baffle’ older-generation Singaporeans and even come across as insensitive to minority races

Teh Kah Market Zhujiao market (Pig’s legs market)o Difficulty in recognizing ‘pinyinised’ street nameso State appointed an authorized Chinese translation of street-names to systematize and

simplify Chinese names and ensure that translations were not only faithful rendering by sound but also be elegant and meaningful – took 3 years to complete

Reflected the contradictions and swings in the policies of nation-building, on the other hand, it corporates to some extent the reactions and resistances of its citizens. The result is the richly textured co-existence of different systems of signification in Singapore’s landscape

National Monuments

Key to asserting/ representing the nation/ national ideologies – can be a building, place or thing Evoke a sense of national pride through historical association, links between past and present,

memory to the people, through the power of visuality/ spectacularity hence integral to the process of building national solidarity, identity and pride

Identifiable not only by members of the nation but also by those outside the nation Chose by the state to symbolize

o Multiracial, multicultural and multireligious complexion of Singaporeo A good balance of colonial and local heritageo Icons of shared history and representations of Singapore’s past over the years

National Monuments in Singapore are selected by the Preservation of Monuments Board – 40 buildings in Singapore which include colonial buildings (City Hall), religious building (Armenian Church), commercial buildings (Raffles Hotel) and a couple private residences (Sun Yat Sen Villa)

Reflect the multi-ethnic complexion of the nation in an even-handed fashion as well as a balance between colonial heritage and the heritage of the various communities

Singaporeans agree that national monuments must represent the country and that ‘locals must be able to identify with them and feel a sense of pride as Singaporeans’; can also visually recognize national monuments and set them apart from other spectacular buildings which possess monumental qualities BUT historical knowledge/ specificity is poor

Critiscised as parochial and community centre – no sense of attachment or association as it was felt that National Monuments must clearly emphasis national significance and not just their functional or symbolic values. Only then will National Monuments begin to represent Singaporeans’ interlocking and collective histories, as testimonies to the forging of a nation e.g. Religious buildings

Top down approach – people not consulted before gazetting Too focused on architecture – e.g. National Library, National Theatre Too much focus on pre-independence Disregard for uses – e.g. St James Powerhouse Not internationally known as compared to monuments such as Eiffel Tower Disagreements over designs – e.g. Hill Street Building, MICA – many coloured windows

Iconic Symbols (E.g. Merlion)

Total of 7 recognised Merlions – 2 @Merlion Park, Mount Faber, Sentosa, 2 @ AMK, STBo Sentosa Merlion is a newly improved version designed to make the national icon look

more like the King of the Beasts than a pussy cat. Comes equipped with a storyline too Sprung up from STPM logo competition – though to be appropriate because it incorporated fact

and legend – lion sighting + fishing village Compared to other recognizable symbols, it was felt that the Merlion embodied rich historical

symbolism Fitting symbol of Singapore – increased tourism numbers Praises through poems and other writer works e.g. Ulysses by the Merlion by Edwin Thumboo –

gained literary currency as a symbol around which to write the Singapore story International – Shenzhen, Suzhou, UK – British Theme Park Links to superstition – an ordinary landscape? Ng of its times, of globalizing logic and its banalities and an ironically suitable symbol of SG Tacky? Piece of kitsch? Contrived? No real historical basis/ limited genealogy especially measured against animal symbols of Asian

mythology e.g. dragon, phoenix, garuda – fail to evoke the same sense of historical depth and cultural creativity

Singapore’s own uses of the term ‘Merlion’ to indicate vomiting Competition from other iconic symbols in Singapore e.g. Changi Airport, Singapore Flyer, USS etc

Lecture 6: Historic Districts and Heritage Landscapes in Singapore

Heritage

Refers to an assemblage of cultural traditions and artifacts inherited from earlier generationso Concrete and visible repositories of the nation’s common memories and traditions,

providing threads of continuity between past, present and future Not history per se but what has survived from the past into the present Can be divided into tangibles (material, physical like furniture, costumers, buildings) and

intangibles (historical records, culture which are more symbolic in nature – teamaking ceremony)

Can be used in a conservative sense (top-down, high culture, for more affluent people – elitist view of heritage; usually spectacular practices and landscapes; e.g. Statue of Liberty) or as a radical concept (everyday culture, vernacular heritage, even if the state doesn’t acknowledge; e.g. shophouses, food stalls)

Heritage is intimately associated with different scales – individual (date movie stub), family (heirloom), community (ethnic communities), institutional (SAF, NUS), regional (ASEAN, EU), global (World Heritage – overwrite state/ national government)

o Can jump scales and or exist over multiple scales

Contestations

Heritage is value laden and present oriented – serve contemporary need and purpose e.g. nation building

Platforms for contestation: what, whose, why, whom? – different value, for tourist/ locals Can be state vs. locals, state vs. state (different statutory boards), locals vs. locals, locals vs.

foreigners (tourists), insiders vs. outsiders

Heritage Process

1960s – early 1980s:o Heritage wasn’t given any consideration – Pragmatism & “Scorched Earth” policy which

was important for economic & social development, anything not contributing to urbanization was destroyed

o Demolish and rebuild mentality to excise urban slums and rural kampongs and to optimize scarce land resources for economic development in creating a modern cityscape

o Heritage a backseat to urbanization and modernization leading to neglect of urban conservation in Singapore

1980s – 1990so Heritage preservation and urban conservation began to emerge on the planning agenda

in Singapore. Heritage has become more and not less important as Singapore aspires to become a cosmopolitan city jostling for a strategic position in the super league of globalizing cities

Westernization vs. Asian Roots – retain heritage but adopt foreign ideas; should not be root bound but neither should we abandon out roots – Westernization brought in values that were incompatible with traditional Asian values

Homogeneity/ Too Sanitized – falling tourism (3.5% fall in 1983) because there was nothing unique in Singapore and tourists want to see exotic attractions. Heritage can repair the ravages of development and enrich the cityscape

Nostalgia – because of growing industrialization of everyday life, people are no longer able to attach individuals to familiar landscapes like kampong

o Committee on Heritage – assess the progress made in identifying, preserving and disseminating awareness of our heritage and to propose measures which will encourage SG to be more widely informed and appreciative of our multi-cultural heritage

Heritage Landscapes

URA & its Conservation Master Plan – covered more than 100ha Ethnic – Chinatown, Little India, Kampong Glam

Secondary – Bugis, Geylang, Joo ChiatColonial – Civic District, Museum DistrictCommercial – Singapore Rover (Boat/ Clarke/ Robertson Quay)Residential – Blair Plain, Emerald Hill, CairnhillWar-Related – Changi, Bukit Chandu Museum, Fort CanningNature – Bukit Timah, Pulau Ubin

Used for:o Nation-building – provide a new glue to bind Singaporeans through traditions,

familiarity and a shared heritageo Tourism and global image – project a harmonious multiracial, multicultural nation to the

world and insert more colour within the city as a means of attracting tourists; no group is ignored

o Even-handedness in managing multi-ethnic heritage

Chinatown

Was a separate living quarter specifically for Chinese immigrants One of the historic districts and ethnic quarters Conserving Chinatown as a veritable repository of tradition, history and culture is both a means

to provide relief from the monotony of a high-rise cityscape as well as to serve the socio-political purpose of binding Singaporeans to place, to the city and ultimately and vicariously to the nation

Identified with the pioneering spirit and enterprise of early Chinese immigrants and showcased as a distinctively Chinese culture area – boost tourism by selling Singapore as ‘New Asia’, ‘a city of many colours and contrasts, cultures and cuisines’

o Shophouses and temples, Chinese festivals, lion and dragon dances, calligraphy, wayang, puppetry and trishaw rides provide locals & tourists with ‘a different kind of experience’

STB unveiled a $97.5 million plan to revitalize and enhance the Chinatown experience – aimed to bring out the full flavor of the place’s sights, sounds and smells includes an interpretative centre, a new theatre for wayang performances, street performances from puppet-making demonstrations to martial arts shows, 5 ‘themed’ gardens, a food street with open-air cooking and dining, and a new market square selling fresh produce

State-driven initiative to refurbish the built environment as well as to serve the socio-political purposes of forging the nation

Cultural life of the place does not simply reside in the architectural form but in the full range of trades and lifestyles – inauthentic, tailored to appeal to the “tourist’s way of seeing”

Post-conservation rent hike squeezed out the small, traditional businesses Demise of the much more prosaic elements of Chinese lived culture – ethnic theme park The makeover betrays the individual and collective memories of those who have grown up there

Kampong Glam

Allocated to the Malays and other Muslim traders and merchants Historic district marked out primarily based on existing roads; conservation landscape is

centered around the area’s historic hub (showhouse, teahouse, community house, festival street,

trading spine, former residence of the bendahara, Alsagoff Arab school and Malabar Muslim Jama-Ath mosque)

Shophouses have been restored, important landmark buildings conserved, some streets pedestrianized and landscaped and information signboards erected to contribute to the overall charm, character and identity of the Historic District

o Sultan’s Palace Malay Heritage Centre; Bendahara’s residence Malay-themed teahouse or restaurant

Madrasah Aljunied Al-Islamiaho Demolished to make way for an urban park – an act tantamount to sacrilege for someo Built in commemoration of Syed Omar bin Ali Aljunied – one of the earliest Arab traders

and an illustrious leader and philanthropist looked upon as a ‘prince’o The school has played a sustained and active role in Islamic education, nurturing

prominent Islamic leaderso Eventually rebuilt on a smaller plot of land

Sate conservation-redevelopment practices are complicit in simultaneously erasing and inventing heritage

Little India

Dwells the heart of the Singapore Indian heritage STB conserved 3 blocks of 1913 shophouses into a small arcade to showcase Indian heritage –

Little India Arcade selling authentic Indian products and cuisineo Meant to be culturally and economically vibrant but now became a commercial ventureo Gentrified by tourist-oriented stalls & sported a clean organized look

Traditional trades of Little India have disappeared eg. Betel nut vendor, flower garland maker The intangible sense of community has disappeared and has been replaced by a competitive

market environment As Singapore jostles for global city status, it aims to portray itself as an orderly functioning city

o Foreign workers who colonise Little India every weekend have come under surveillance

Civic and Cultural District

Early urban landscape began to take shape here Urban renewal brought about the demolition of many old buildings and introduced concrete,

steel and glass-clad structures e.g. RI Self-contained mega shopping and hotel (Raffles City) The transformation carried a price which Singapore could not afford and led to the loss of

Singapore’s attractiveness to touristso Under the Tourism Development Plan and the Strategic Plan for Growth 1993-95,

conserving old colonial buildings, refurbishing old structures and giving some of the old buildings new life became part of the agenda to create a landscape that while capturing and preserving the island’s colonial past, is commercially vibrant and relevant to today’s population

CCS is a unique tourist attraction with historical buildings and green open spaces which enriches out city form by providing contrast, variety and a sense of time and place

Museumisation venture – highly romanticized and easy to consume. Creates an ambience suitable for tourist consumption. Very little of the socio-cultural environment of the past, the people, the sights and the smells of the area were preserved

o Bras Basah Road – people pop over for lunch and browse second-hand bookshopso Raffles Hotel – few Singaporeans identify with it as they see it as an elitist landscape

Not fostering the sense of place and history that would cement a sense of nationhood Commercial viability > Preservation: Eu Court made way for road widening while its neighbor

Stamford House was saved because it was deemed to have commercial value

Heritage Successes

Over 6800 buildings protected through URA’s conservation plans Awards: Urban Land Institute Global Excellence Award (2006) – “Achieved a balance between

free-market economics and cultural conservation” Still have a sense of what the place is like before (for locals as well as tourists) Exposed to spectacular landscapes of cultural heritage Contestations over use e.g. Labrador Nature Reserve (NHB vs. NP); Changi Hospital Loss of ‘fields of care’ – Places that are torn down & rebuilt lost significance e.g. YMCA, Geylang

Serai Market Sanitatisation and loss of authenticity – Diluted heritage e.g. Sago Street (Street of the Dead);

Bugis Street – Transvestites Gentrification – upmarket, too inaccessible for the public (cost) e.g. Dempsey Road, Clarke Quay Dilution of place/ national identity e.g. Haji Lane in Kampong Glam Tourism and commercialization e.g. Chinatown Organic vs. planned landscapes – e.g. Chinatown is not portrayed as an upbeat area but elderly

create alternate landscapes there Lack of public consultation – e.g. Buangkok Village – last Malay village

Lecture 10: Public Housing in Singapore – More Than Just A Roof Over One’s Head

Housing during Colonial Times

Black and White colonial bungalows owned by British Kampung & Shophouses (Chinatown, Kampung Glam) and Slums & Squatters (Organic

landscapes created by the locals, not the state) owned by locals 1918 – Housing Commission Report were produced suggesting that housing improvements were

neededo Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT) was set up by the colonial British – responsibility

was to condemn houses perceived to be unfit for human habitation as well as to eradicate slum property in the city

o However SIT did not have much power (or funds) to build houses and could only condemn slums and squatters – hardly enough to take care of locals

o Queenstown – first new town developed but was not planned hence cluster of individual estates (medium-rise apartment blocks)

o Lack of effectiveness and distrust of high rise housing type led many to condemn the SIT

Housing after Independence

Housing Development Board (Public Housing Authority) established to replace SITo Statutory board under MND and hence had legal powerso Primary role was to solve the nation’s housing crisis

Bukit Ho Swee Fire changed people’s mindset of living in slums, squatters and kampongs Distinctive features of HDB landscape:

Light industries and factories – get people to work near their houses (decentralization) & enabled women to get into the workforceTown centres and connectivity – integrated with MRTsVoid decks – easier for the state to control the population e.g. Block staircasesGardens, parks and playgrounds – higher quality of lifeSheltered-covered walkways – protected from weather elementsMulti-storey carparks – solving parking problemsOther amenities – swimming complex, hawkersHanging Laundry out of housesLong and winding corridors

Provide public housing units with modern amenities including electricity, clean drinking water and modern sanitation

Each flat was self-sufficient but communal, recreational and educational facilities in the neighbourhood were lacking in the initial stages

o Focused on a spatial distribution pattern for public housing development – residents relocation to locations sufficiently close to central area amenities and did not cause great dislocation – important in the socialization of the households into accepting high-rise public housing estates

With more land secured further, new towns were builto Fortuitous that there was enough land to plan for a town centre as well as a hierarchy of

neighbourhood centres that would meet the daily needs for goods and serviceso Town centre – gardens, bus interchange, cinema, supermarkets, wet market, hawker etco Sufficiently populated to allow for the provision of estate services at short distanceso ‘Chequerboard’ – range of facilities are repeated at fixed distances, repetitive and

homogenous landscapeo Long Range Concept Plan brought educational, communal and recreational facilities

o HOWEVER difficult for visitors to distinguish one town from another – number streets and apartment blocks, colour of apartment blocks (limited impact)

Public Housing & Nation Building

Instill pride in the nation and strengthen commitment and loyaltyo Encouraged people to have a stake in country so that they will have a sense of belonging

to the country: Home Ownership Scheme – allowed using of CPF to purchase flats; periodic revision of the household income ceiling for eligibility to buy flat so more people are able to buy houses; rules on singles relaxed under Single Singapore Citizen Scheme; helping hand for lower income families to own flats; grants and legislations to encourage and help people buy and own flats; better provisions for the elderly through studio flats

Owning a home was closely bound up with finding employmento Inculcating a sense of pride, place and belonging: Use of physical and architecture design

to enhance sense of price for estate and community bonding; precinct concept; winning international accolades and awards (global city vision) e.g. Pinnacle @ Duxton, Tampines (UN model), Punggol; innovative architectural features; giving residents a greater stake in managing estates

A repository of key ideologies of nation building and acceptable social valueso Social Integration: inter-racial interaction through ethnic quotas, interclass mixing

through estate upgrading and building flats for varied income groups in estates, intergenerational mixing

Precinct allowed for greater opportunities for neighbours to interact socially when they use common or public spaces and facilities provided

Ethnically mixed neighbourhoods were equally varied in terms of the income, occupational and educational backgrounds

Critics of ethnic quotas emphasis the inability for the smaller ethnic groups to make electoral claims to stronger representation at the political level && support for cultural spaces that a spatially diffused small ethnic group might find difficult to create and sustain

o Normative family ideology concretized in public housing landscapes – emphasis on marriage, three-tiered extended family, Asian values of filial piety; various schemes e.g. Join Balloting, Multi-Tier, Multi-Generational Flat, Married Child, Fiance / Fiancee scheme

Concern about the trend towards the nuclearisation of the family and the future need for the care of older residents

Generally meet the needs of the average young nuclear Singapore family onlyo Harmonious living between races – Social integration; Social cohesion – grassroot

dinners, lion dances, taichi exercises Tool of political legitimacy

o Nation building: symbol of the government’s success in delivering the goods; means of influencing everyday ways of living, shaping acceptable practices and values and controlling citizen participation and civil life ,e.g. CCs/ RCs mobilized for national events, dengue education programme, recycling project – useful in knowing the state is there for the residents

o Opposition estates given lower priority in terms of maintenance serviceso Executive condominiums used to quell dissatisfaction of “sandwiched class” as a means

of winning over votes

The Role of the State

Grassroots organisations such as CCs were put in place to provide community leadership and the platform for community mobilization

PA (statutory board of grassroots organization) HDB work closely with the grassroots organisations to develop a sense of community and place

identity among public housing residents Delineation of territorial coverage does not always refer to the new town boundaries or lines or

neighbourhood delineation employed by the HDB, hence place identity cues might be confusing Town councils decentralize day-to-day management of public housing estates. Boundaries are

defined by electoral boundaries and chaired by MPso Clean and keep in good repair of public housing estates

Community Development Councils have been introduced because of political agendas to foster community bonding across ethnic and social groups

HDB Success

Residents know an average of 10 persons but most of the interactions were extensiveo Development of the spatial integration of the multi-ethnic and socially mixed population

HDB had been successfully strategic about the socialization of the people into the idea of living in modern high-rise homes provided with modern sanitation, tap water supply and electricity

HDB developed its pioneering estates in and around the urban fringes near to where people where living (near the city). Small neighbourhood centres with basic facilities proved sufficient to prevent a major dislocation of everyday life for people moving into the public housing estates

o Revitalised the CBD New towns with a wider range of facilities

o Discouragement of car ownership has probably been aided Estates clean and green and generally vandalism- and graffiti-free Sustain its effort at keeping up with SG’s rising affluence – upgrading projects, community

development (convenience vs. community), new town design to create stronger place identity Design and architectural features not helpful – lesser long winding corridors Low level of participation in community activities – people do not bother Racial mixing not as high as desired Inevitable market forces pushing prices up Design, Build & Sell Scheme – not highly subsidized and developers benefit most Burning of joss paper, laundry – killer litter?, karaoke, void decks – weddings vs. funeral Discrimination against singles, unmarried mothers and gay couples Singaporeans vs. PRs

Lecture 11: Globalizing Singapore’s Economic Landscapes

Global Cities and Globalisation

Globalisation: intensification of related processes in which physical distance has been overcome and barriers lowered or removed to facilitate the cross-border flows of peoples, goods, capital and information

Resulting in increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of placeso Brings about space-time compression – places that are thousand miles away can be

connected by things like the interneto Economic cooperation – TNSs, ease of cross border capital flow

Homogenization or Glocalisationo Spatial variation actually still existso Combination of globalisation and localization: global forces made to fit into local context

and how global forces incorporate into different local setting e.g. Macdonald’s menus Global City vision for Singapore – cannot have a narrow vision and rely only on Malaysia;

Singapore is too small – no raw materials and small domestic marketo Strategies: Industrial development and tourism policies

First Industrial Revolution (1960s – 1970s)

Objectives:o Developmental and pragmatic approach – labour-intensive, export-oriented

industrialization programme in manufacturingo Create massive employment through labour-intensive, export oriented industrialization

programme – much restlessness amongst Singaporeans, want to get a better lifeo Attract foreign investments into Singapore – US trying to relocate labor intensive

operations, Singapore try to attract themo Encourage technology transfer

Strategies:o Maintain low cost of production – Employment Act in 1968: 39 to 44 hours; Salary based

on performance to keep wages in check Resulted in a highly disciplined workforce and allowed Singapore to enter into

the new international division of labour dominated by TNCs as they set up factories in developing countries

o Image of efficient and corruption-free government – confidence to investo Open policy to encourage FDI from TNCs – tax incentiveso Infrastructure building – roads, utilities, factories: to be efficient

Statutory boards like PUB were set upo Building a number 1 workforce – train workers to have relevant skillso State Capital: Companies such as Jurong Shipyard were set up as state-owned companies

as the state did not see private capital as being adequate in providing the necessary industrial support for foreign firms

o CPF was set up to provide long-term security – money is invested wisely and helps the state to finance its national development plans

Key State Institutionso Economic Development Board

Promote investment, train manpower, solve unemployment and develop industrial sector

o Jurong Town Corporation

Low cost production sites for foreign manufacturing firms; manage industrial hubs in Singapore as well e.g. Jurong, Mandai, AMK, Bedok

o Industrialization aided by regional neighbours following protectionist policies e.g. Malaysia, Indonesia

Successful in attracting FDI especially from the US, UK, Netherlands, Germany and Japan By the late 1970s, Singapore becoming too expensive

o Other countries have better value for low cost labour intensive manufacturing industryo Regional neighbours began to abandon protectionist policies to pursue FDI-oriented

development strategies - increasingly footlooseo Rise of a global ‘new’ economy: Beginning of era of knowledge-intensive economyo Crippled local and private entrepreneurship

Second Industrial Revolution (1980s – 1990s)

Economy had to be re-structured accordingly in line with global economic trendso Drive out labour-intensive manufacturingo Attract FDI in services and knowledge-based industries – important for Globalisation

Wages were increased to attract highly-skilled and innovative workers from abroado Manufacturing industries could not survive and hence relocated

Introduction of the Skills Development Fund to aid upgrading of labour skills Focus on higher level- and value-added industries e.g. Petrochemicals, financial, IT, R&D

o Fusionpolis @ Buona Vista: Info-comm & mediaJurong Island: PetrochemicalWater Fabrication Park: Electronics industrySingapore Science Park: Scientific research & industriesChangi Business Park: Engineering & Logistics

A*STAR – set up to oversee Singapore’s research institutes; dedicated to biomedical science, IT and engineering, innovative work

Improving infrastructure and urban environment to attract foreign talent to relocate to Singapore

o Singapore’s image as a vibrant city to live and work – great working opportunity + good quality of life – vibrant city

o Special schemes to attract foreign talent in key industries Top Down Approach because indigenous entrepreneurship is underdeveloped in Singapore and

hence would hinder regionalization efforts if led by domestic firms. Secondly, the state has sufficient economic power through its GLCs to lead the regionalization drive

o The state has taken direct equity stake in large infrastructural development projects in the region, often using inter-state relations to facilitate and raise the profile of these investment projects

o Many GLCs have been privatized to raise more capital for overseas ventures e,g, SIA Going Regional

o Bringing the region in: Regional HQs Incentive schemes from statutory boards to attract regional offices or regional

HQs (SG’s aspiration to be an international business hub) e.g. Operational Headquarters Scheme and Business Headquarters Scheme

Encourage TNCs to locate high-end operations in Singapore – use Singapore as command & control centre to coordinate operations

Relocate labour- and land-intensive operations to nearby cheaper locationso Going out of Singapore: overseas investments and industrial parks

The need for an external wing. With global competition, heavy reliance on foreign TNCs alone is not sufficient in achieving its long term goals

The need to develop indigenous economic capabilities that can tap into growth potentials in other countries

‘SINGAPORE UNLIMITED’; alongside ‘Regionalisation 2000’ Regionalisation 2000: aim of creating a global city with total business capabilities so that

Singapore would not only be an attractive location for global TNCs but also function as a deal springboard to the AP region for TNCs that wished to venture into the region.

o EOS would be generated and enable SG to play a leading role in the growth of the region 1993 – new state intiatives

o Develop local entrepreneurs so they can go and invest overseas but continue to contribute to Singapore’s economy

o Build up the external wing of the Singapore economy Principles for Overseas Investment

o Spread out investmento Build upon strength in traditional areas – should not weaken historical linkso Go into new markets with a long term view – investors should go for a steady and

durable relationshipo Investments must benefit host countries – generous in technology transfer and

manpower training to help them grow fastero Good corporate citizens – support host countries in cultural and civic activities

Factors motivating firms to venture overseaso Market presenceo Host country being located in an important growth region in the industryo The need to serve customers in host regions or countries with quality and customized

products and/or serviceso The need to maintain regional coverage of operations in order to complete their

networks of global operationso Lack of market growth potential within Singapore’s domestic economy

Strategic Economic Plan (1990s) – 2 pronged regional approacho 1. Push for Singapore investors to go abroad; selling technological know-howo 2. ‘Regional Industrial Parks’ program unveiled to tap into regional opportunities – sell

management expertise Region Industrial Parks programme

o Singapore government developing and managing self-contained industrial estates in Asiao Offering high quality ‘secondary’ factors of production e.g. infrastructure and

administrationo Aim to generate profits through sale of industrial units and management charges to

supplement Singapore’s economyo Also serves as test beds for Singaporean companies going abroad – confidenceo E.g. Suzhou Industrial Park, Eco Business Park (Tianjin, China), International Technology

Park (Bangalore, India), Iskandar Development Region (Johore, Malaysia) Access to resources that Singapore lacks; take advantage of large markets that are close by Susceptible to global economic conditions e.g. 1997 Global Financial Crisis Regional Parks: Regulations in host countries and lack of understanding of the local cultures (e.g.

Suzhou Industrial Park); lack of help for private firms as compared to GLCs

Tourism to the Global Economy

Major contributor to economic growth and important job generator – need and desire for Singapore to get onto the tourism bandwagon

Factors impacting upon tourism in Singapore

o Rising competition from Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and China – launching new tourism development plans

o Singapore’s small size, lack of natural resources and attractions will pose increasing difficulties for Singapore to maintain visitor arrivals and tourism receipts

o Asia Pacific as major region of growth – West to Asia tourism shift Under Tourism 21, the vision for a Tourism Capital was spelled out. The fundamental element of

the report was that of Singapore’s tourism spaces needed to be reconfigured both domestically and beyond

o Enhancing Singapore as a tourist destinationo Enhancing Singapore as a tourism business centreo Singapore as a regional hub for tourism-related activitieso Regional export of tourism products and serviceso Cross-border tourism developments and cooperation without the state & government

Bringing the World to Singapore

Attracting tourists into the countryo World Class Tourism infrastructure – hotels, Changi Airporto BT-MICE – Suntect, Expoo Sports/ Events Venue – F1, YOG, Asian Youth Gameso Tourist Attractions – Night Safari, Zoo, Bird Parko World-Class Cultural & Entertainment Hub – Concerts @ Esplanade, MBS, USS, RWS

Attracting tourism enterprises to the country – Hard Rock, Star Cruises, Club Med Developing Singapore as a regional tourist hub to use our facilities – Medical Hub, Education Hub Overcommercialisation of landscapes – Disneyfication e.g. Chinatown Ethical and moral disputes – e.g. Casino – moral degregation ‘Hardware’ with no ‘heartware’ - .e.g not service-oriented and not professional Identity crisis – “Us vs. Them”, weakening our culture and identity Logistics (traffic/ illegal hostels) – compromise on their welfare Loss of familiarity – overcommercialisation e.g. CHIJMES & Clarke Quay Competition between partners – tourism hub status is highly contested

o Cruise Hub: PhuketAir Hub: Bangkok, HK, KLMedical Hub: Bangkok, PenangEducation Hub: KLMICE Hub: Bangkok, Manila

Bringing Singapore to the World

Overcome our limitations, capitalize on the growth of the AP region, improve political ties Encourage local companies to venture abroad

o Enhance Singapore’s capabilities as a source of tourism investments and products for the region and beyond e.g. Raffles Hotels & Resorts, Banyantree, Millenium Hotesl & Resorts

Providing tourism consultancy serviceso Sharing of expertise and knowledge in both public sector planning and private sector

development Singapore-Vietnam Tourism Co-op Singapore-India Tourism Co-op Singapore Airport Singapore Zoo

o Overseas tourism/ trade fairs/ events e.g. Shanghai expo, STB in Vietnam

Strategic alliances with neighbours – regional tourism & reconfiguring tourism spaceo E.g. Jewels of the Mekong, Pearl River Deltao E.g. Malaysia-Singapore Tourism Council, Agreement of Tourism Cooperation between

Indonesia and Singapore, ASEAN Tourism Centreo Indonesia-Malaysia-Singapore Growth Triangle – beach/ golf/ hotel resorts and marinas

are physically built in Indonesia with Singapore capital and Singapore serves as the gateway for embarking and disembarking visitors e.g. Bintan Beach International Resort. Tourism developments/ services provided to Malaysia

Formal regionalism – phenomenon whereby countries collaborate with proximate neighbours through muturally beneficial projects

Regionalism

Social and economic benefits Promote political goodwill Provide more lifestyle choices for the population Promotion of the Singapore brand name synonymous with efficiency, reliability, honesty and

integrity Enhances regional attractiveness – reduction of cost through collective marketing Overcome spatial limitations and increase market for tourism products, services etc. Unhelpful government policies in host countries Corruption Economic and political uncertainty Undevelopmed infrastructure Low staff skills, unskilled labour Cultural clash/ shock Others e.g. bureaucracy and language Neo-colonialism – no respect for others Socio-cultural impacts on local communities – Bintan & Batam: sex industry? Overdependence on foreign hospitality and cooperation Singapore subject to local instabilities – e.g. Political Competition to Singapore’s own attractions

Case Study: The IMS-GT

Each of the triangle’s three nodes has specific comparative advantage due to differences in factor endowments

o Singapore: Skilled labour, business services, control and management functions and excellent transport and communication linkages with other global cities

o Johor: skilled and semi-skilled labour at lower costs, land and recreationo Batam & Riau Islands: provide low-cost labour, land, and natural amenities (beach)o A firm can thus capitalize on these CA by locating various operations or functions here

Batamindo Industrial Park in Batam (40% Singapore, 60% Salim Group)o Singapore: Design, physical development and management of the estateo Indonesia: Labour recruitmento Self-contained with its own power supply, water treatment plant, sewerage system,

telecommunication services and accommodation for workers Lifestyle changes in Singapore and the demand for leisure sites have induced urban

developments in Johor and Riauo Growing environmental consciousness and increased emphasis on quality of lifeo Weekend getaways – megaresort, golf courses etc

Political factors and security issues are important considerations

o The 2 partners are parts of larger political bodies – creates tensions when different countries have different agendas and are subject to different national priorities

SGV hopes the growth triangle will increase regional amity and the SG investment and technology transfer will improve relations with neighbouring states

Case Study: Suzhou Industrial Park

Singapore’s expertise in planning, China’s growth potential, and the desire for closer economic ties between the 2 countries

Initial Stage: Keppel Corp; transferred ‘software’ to Suzhou – administrative expertise and economic planning capabilities; Singapore had direct equity in the township

BUT Chinese authorities stated the Suzhou New District – a rival for TNC investmentso Singapore failed to appreciate the mercantilist nature of the Chineseo Resulted in gambles that would not ordinarily be taken by astute businessmeno Transferred to Chinese management – SG: 35% stakes