GENERAL SCOPE AND USES OF

PHYSICAL/BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Course name: Physical Anthropology

Paper No. & Title: B.A./B.Sc. Anthropology 2nd semester

Paper –II

Topic No. & Title: 1/15 Definition and Scope of Physical

Anthropology

Objective:

The topic aims to give a general background and focus of

the subject physical anthropology. The area of study, both in

the early and the later stages are discussed. The changing

trends of the subject from anthropometric studies

(measurement of body parts), calculation of indices and

computation of statistics to the study of understanding

processes and mechanisms involved in the problem are

discussed. In the later stage, it becomes more analytical and

critical with a major objective of developing consistent

hypothesis which should be verified experimentally. The

changing trends lead to the establishment of various new

fields of physical anthropology broadening its horizon.

Content & Script of the Programme

Introduction:

What is Man? Was he created one fine morning? Or is

he the product of evolution? Man is a social being and as

such a biological one. Over the years, human societies have

undergone considerable changes in various aspects of their

physical, cultural and socio-economic conditions. People do

differ in their skin color, eye color and shape, height, hair

color and texture etc. How is that

people from very cold climatic

regions are observed to be very fair

in complexion while people from the

tropical regions dark? What would

be the skin color of a child, if one of

the parents belongs to the Negroid

race while the other a Caucasoid or

Mongoloid race? Racism is the

discrimination based on body traits like skin color, blood

etc. Does any pure race exist at all? No scientist can tell

your race from a drop of your

blood. Is this quality dependent

upon the marriage pattern,

inbreeding or outbreeding practiced

by the society? How can inbreeding

be measured? How can the risk of

having anomalies be predicted?

Genetic disorders in a family and

population level can be detected by

various techniques. Now, one can also compare and

comprehend genetic diversity in population with reference

to normal and abnormal trait variation.

Physical growth and

development is a natural and

continuous process. Food,

nutrition and exercise have their

effects on it. How can the

children suffering from

malnutrition be detected? Is there an ideal growth standard

for Indian children? What are the temporal and secular

changes observed in growth patterns? What are the

methods and techniques available to study and assess the

growth rate? Is there an age specific growth? It is observed

that among the old people there is retardation in growth

pattern.

Such a list of questions could be extended stretching to

any number of areas and disciplines as far as their relation

to man is concerned. The attempts to put together all these

jigsaw puzzle of man as a biological being in his past,

present and the future is dealt by the branch of

anthropology called Physical anthropology. In the

contemporary context the term Physical anthropology and

Biological anthropology are synonymous.

Definition of Physical Anthropology:

The emergence of anthropology as

a branch of science goes back to the

remote past. But Aristotle was given

the credit in the 16th century only for

coining the term anthropology. The

development of Physical anthropology

as an organized and systematic

discipline started in the 2nd half of the

19th century.

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, a

German physician (1752-1840) is

regarded as the father of Physical

anthropology. Physical anthropology is

the oldest branch of anthropology,

which was established much earlier

than the other branches. It is the

study of man as a living organism. The important aspects

studied in this branch of anthropology are human biology,

human variation and human evolution.

Paul Broca (1871) defined Physical anthropology as the

science whose objective is the study of humanity

considered as a whole, in its parts and in relationship to the

rest of nature.

Juan Comas (1968) defined Physical anthropology as a

biological science that deals with the origin, development

and varieties of man as a member of the animal kingdom.

It is concerned with the biological basis of man’s ability to

use culture, the evolution of this ability, its present

development and its feature.

Scope of Physical Anthropology:

The study of Physical anthropology in the early period

was characterized by anthropometric studies (measurement

of body parts), calculation of indices and computation of

statistics. The purpose of old or early period studies were

primarily classification and correlation by which it was

thought that the description and

differences was enough for solving

the problem. As such there was no

place for theory because it was

realized that the facts speak for

themselves. The interpretations of

the results remained a mere

speculation. Anthropologists of olden

period were only satisfied with the reporting of variation

such as the size and shape of brow ridges, form of the nose,

growth in the pre-maxillary suture, evolution of lower jaw,

genetic structure of population etc., as facts by observation

and measurement and never went into the causative factors.

A new chapter in the study of Physical anthropology was

opened in the year 1900 as at that

time Mendel’s law of Inheritance was

developed. In course of time the study

of Physical anthropology became more

specialized with newer inventions and

discoveries. The angle of vision of the

scholars is being changed considerably.

This new achievement in Physical anthropology is the result

of the direct cause of complete re-orientation in some of the

field of study. Anthropologists of later or new period are

mainly interested in understanding the processes and

mechanisms involved in the problem. Here the theory is

critical and the major objective is to develop consistent

hypothesis which should be verified experimentally.

Therefore the interpretation involved the tasks of testing the

hypothesis and its validity. So the new period of Physical

anthropology begins where the old period ends. Though the

aims and interest of both the traditions are the same, the

emphasis of new period is re-orientation in methodology

comprehension and interpretation.

The new period anthropologists

have started investigations into a

number of new areas to understand

genetic relationship and to trace

possible ancestors. It also studies the

dynamics of diversity of mankind

that includes bio-chemical, Human

genetics covering Haemoglobin, Haptoglobin and

Transferrins, analysis of

evolutionary factors such as

Mutation, Natural selection,

Genetic drift and Gene flow and

Primate biology involving the

study of blood group, genetics

and local evolutionary factors of

non human primates such as monkeys and apes. A large

number of dimensions of academic research and applied

importance of Physical anthropology have developed into a

number of specialized fields. Mention may be made of

Human population genetics, Genetic demography or Demo-

genetics, Human evolution, Paleo-anthropology, Human

growth and development, Human bio-chemical genetics,

Forensic anthropology, Human cytogenetics, Ecology or

Environmental anthropology, Anthropometry, Nutritional

anthropology, Dermatoglyphics, Physiological anthropology,

Primatology, Medical anthropology, Kinanthropology, Genetic

engineering, Twins study, Molecular anthropology, Neuro-

anthropology, Human osteology etc.

Physical anthropologists are interested in studying

primates, the close relative of man, from different angles

for different reasons. It is

studied in relation to geological

and temporal sequence,

comparative anatomy, their

behavior both in natural setting

and laboratory and fossil remains

so as to understand the

evolutionary stages and certain fundamental aspects on

man. The study of fossil remains gives the evidence of the

gradual development of man from his non-human

ancestors. The study of fossil

evidence of Dryopithecus,

Ramapithicus, Australopithecus,

Homo erectus and other Hominid

fossils is used in tracing the

evolution of mankind. By the

method of reconstruction, the

physical appearances and rudimentary cultural features of

the ancestors of human are derived. The study of

transmission from every pre-hominid to a hominid stage is

characterized by a change to a fully erect posture,

bipedalism, teeth structure and jaw structure, sagittal

crest, relative height and brain size of the species,

opposable thumb and the prolongation of immaturity. The

ancestor of modern man Homo sapiens had existed for

approximately the past 50,000 years. The anatomical and

morphological changes that occurred over the past

millions of years have produced this species of mankind.

Physical anthropology used the general principle of

biology and utilized the finding of anatomy, Physiology,

Embryology, Zoology etc. It studies the origin and

evolution of man, man’s physical character and form of

diversity. The theories of Lamarckism, Darwinism and

Modern Synthesis which are derived from the biological

form are useful in explaining the evolutionary process of

man. It also analyses the bio-social adaptation of different

human population living in different geographical and

ecological zones. The effect of adaptation to high altitudes,

heat and cold stress tolerance on different geographical

population will help in finding out the ways and means of

combating the bio-chemical and physiological changes in

the human body.

The general laws and principles applied to the study of

human genetics as a field of Physical anthropology are

derived from the study of plants and animals. It helps in

understanding the processes of replication and variation

among human population. It also helps in analyzing the

matter of inheritance of diseases, normal and abnormal

characteristics, to know the cause of human variations

both individual and racial. The study of human races

involves the consideration of the present day frequencies

of human physical characteristics as well as the probable

mechanisms like Mutation, Gene recombination,

Chromosomal alteration, Selection, Genetic drift,

Hybridization, Isolation etc. which are brought about by

specific adaptation to the natural environment in the

region they live. On the basis of the differences in

phenotypic and genotypic characters such as Serology,

Dermatoglyphics, Anthropometry etc. classification of the

human population is made into races, ethnic groups, and

Mendelian populations or endogamous groups. It tries to

erase the myth regarding the concept of racism, the

concept of pure and impure, inferior or superior race and

attempts to establish the principles of classification. One of

the best classifications of human population is derived

from the knowledge of human genetics.

Another trend is the study of blood groups. Blood

groups were discovered in the course of experiment on

cross reaction between the bloods of different individuals.

The main medical

significance has to this day

remained connected to

blood transfusion. For

anthropologist the blood

group is considered as an

ideal indicator of historical

connection between human

groups. It facilitates the

study of genetic

composition and origin of

the population that lived

thousands of years ago as

their proportion remains

stable from generation to generation. It is also utilized in

genetic counseling to partners entering into marriage to

know their blood groups and their compatibilities and

incompatibilities. It also used in medico-legal cases of

paternity dispute and to persons belonging to different

blood groups who are prone to different diseases such as

‘A’ group person to lungs diseases, ‘B’ to rheumatic fever,

‘O’ to duodenal and peptic ulcers and ‘AB’ to leprosy etc.

to take precaution with necessary regard to diet and

infection. In modern clinical genetics the analysis of multi

factorial genetic system is of increasing importance.

Investigation on blood group supports the hypothesis that

individuals with blood group ‘O’ are little more fit than

those with blood group ‘A’. People with ‘O’ blood group

have longer life expectancy.

Anthropometry, the science of measurement of the

human body has traditionally been concerned with the

study of human evolution and the

formation and differentiation of race

of mankind. Great emphasis has

been given by the anthropologist to

standardize the various

measurements on the living and

also on the skeleton. Sheldon’s

Somatotype system may be

regarded as an important advancement in this connection.

Now, anthropometry is used in designing equipment and

work space so as to increase the safety and efficiency of

job performance thereby reducing accidents.

Anthropometry is now extensively utilized as an index of

nutritional status. It plays the most important role in the

nutritional assessment of an individual regardless of age

and sex. In recent years anthropometry has been

harnessed in games and sports. Olympic athletes are

studied scientifically from the point of view of i) Family

status, ii) Genetic features and iii) Anthropometric

characters.

Conclusion:

Thus, Physical anthropology deals with primates,

development of human species, bio-cultural studies of

human diversity, the hominid fossil evidence, comparative

anatomy, human ecology, growth and nutrition, bio-

chemical variation and human genetics which help to

reconstruct a complete picture of man as a biological being.

Physical anthropology is also deeply concerned about the

influence of culture and environment on human body.

Cultural factors like mating, interbreeding and outbreeding,

modification of body, migration and social isolation influence

the biology of mankind. One of the most important

challenging tasks of the Physical anthropology is explaining

the complexity between biological and cultural factors.

GLOSSARY:

Adaptation = An evolutionary process by which an organism

becomes adjusted to its environment; a feature fitted through

Natural selection for some special activity.

Bipedalism = Movement with two legs.

Chromosome = The physical unit of hereditary, of most gene

carried, comprising of DNA and protein.

Darwinism = Evolution through natural selection.

Demo-genetics = Study of genetic in population.

Dermatoglyphics = Study of dermal ridges of finger, palm,

sole and toe.

Ecology or Environmental Anthropology = Study of

interrelationship between organism (man) and their

environment.

Environment = The complex of external condition, abiotic and

biotic affecting organism.

Evolution = The genetic changes in population that over

generations lead to new types of organisms.

Fossils = Any preserved remains or traces of past life, more

than about 10,000 years old, embedded in rock either as

mineralized remains or as impressions casts or tracks.

Gene flow = The exchange of genes among population, either

directly by migration or indirectly by the diffusion of genes

over many generations.

Genetic frequency = The proportion of the various alleles at a

locus within a population.

Genotypic = The set of alleles at a particular locus.

Haptoglobin = Oxygen storing protein in the muscle.

Haemoglobin = Oxygen carrying protein of the blood..

Homo erectus = Early Fossil Man, Pithecanthropus,

Sinanthropus.

Human Bio-chemical Genetics = Study of inheritance and

variation of Biochemical.

Human Cytogenetic = Study of human cell structure.

Human genetics = Study of human inheritance.

Human Oesteology = Study of human Skeleton.

Hybridization = Mixing of two different characters.

Isolation = Separated from others may be geographical or

Social.

Kinanthropology = Anthropological study on Sports.

Lineage = A line of common descent.

Mutation = An alteration in an individual’s genetic

constitution.

Natural selection, = The differential survival and reproduction

of individuals of different genotypes within a population.

Neuroanthropology = Anthropological study on Brain

development.

Nutritional Anthropology = Anthropological study on Nutrition.

Paleoanthropology, = Study of Early period; fossils remains.

Phenotypic = The observable and measureable characters of

an organism, as a result of the interaction of genotype and

environment.

Physiological Anthropology = Anthropological study on human

physiology like in adaptation.

Primatology = Studies of primates.

Races or ethnic groups = Division of mankind base on

Biomorphological and Genetic Characters.

Summary:

Physical anthropology attempts to unravel the mystery of

the long evolution of man through a span of billions of years

resulting in the creation of human being of different races

with a large variety of physical, cultural and socio-economic

conditions. This field of science attempts to put together all

the scattered pieces of the jigsaw puzzle of man as a

biological being. Physical anthropology also attempts to show

man’s ability to use culture, the evolution of this ability and

progress from a primate to a being capable of adjusting to the

environment.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) and Answer:

Q1. State the differences between the early and later period

of Physical anthropology.

Answer: The anthropologists of old period were only

satisfied with the reporting of variation such as in the size and

shape of brow ridges, form of the nose, growth in the pre-

maxillary suture, evolution of lower jaw, genetic structure of

population etc. as facts by observation and measurement,

where they had never gone into the causative factors. In the

later period the study has become more specialized with the

newer invention and discoveries. The angle of vision of the

scholars is being changed considerably which are evidenced

by the work of Harrison, Weiner, Tanner and Barnicot (1977).

This new achievement in physical anthropology is the result of

the direct cause of complete re-orientation in some of the

fields of study. Anthropologists of later or new period are

mainly interested in understanding the processes and

mechanisms involved in the problem. Here, the theory is

critical and the major objective is to develop consistent

hypothesis which should be verified experimentally. Therefore

the interpretation involves the tasks of testing the hypothesis

and its validity.

Q2. What is the importance of Serology in anthropological

studies?

Answer: The study of blood is called Serology. The study of

Serology includes Haemoglobin, Haptoglobin, Transferrins etc.

For anthropologists blood group is considered as an ideal

indicator of historical connection between human groups. It

facilitates the study of genetic composition and origin of the

population lived thousands of years ago as their proportion

remains stable from generation to generation. Not only to this

it also utilizes in genetic counseling of partners entering into

marriage to know their blood groups and their compatibilities

and incompatibilities. It is also used in medico legal cases of

paternity dispute and to persons belonging to different blood

group who are prone to different diseases. Blood is one of the

important sources for DNA of an individual. The different

variant and the inheritance of Haemoglobin, Haptoglobin and

Transferrins are studied. It also analyzes that why an

abnormal variant which have great disadvantage in

adaptation still exist. Mention may be made of occurrence of

Hbs, Hbc, thalessiamia etc in the population.

Q3. Why Physical anthropology study primates and hominid

fossil?

Answer: Physical anthropologists study primates, the close

relatives of man from different angles for different reasons. It

is studied in relation to geological and temporal sequences,

comparative anatomy, behavior both in natural and

laboratory, and fossil remains so as to understand the

evolutionary stages and certain fundamental aspects on man.

The study of fossils remains gives the evidence of the gradual

development of man from his non-human ancestor. The

ancestor of modern man Homo sapiens has existed for

approximately the past 50,000 years. The anatomical and

morphological changes that have occurred over the past

million of years have produced this species of mankind. The

study of fossil evidence of Dryopithecus, Ramapithicus,

Australopithecus, Homo erectus and other Hominid fossils is

use in tracing the evolution of mankind. By the method of

reconstruction, the physical appearances and rudimentary

cultural features the ancestor of human are derived. The

theories of Lamarckism, Darwinism and Modern Synthesis

which are derived from the biological form are useful in

explaining the evolutionary process of man. It also analyses

the bio-social adaptation of different human population living

in different geographical and ecological zones. The effect of

adaptation to high altitudes, heat and cold stress tolerance on

different geographical population will help in finding out the

ways and means of combating the bio-chemical and

physiological changes in the human body.

Q4. How is Human race studied?

Answer: The study of human races involves the

consideration of the present day frequencies of human

physical characteristics as well as the probable mechanisms

like Mutation, Gene recombination, Chromosomal alteration

selection, Genetic drift, Hybridization, Isolation etc. which

brought about by specific adaptation to the natural

environment in the part of the world they live. On the basis of

the differences in phenotypic and genotypic characters such

as Serology, Dermatoglyphics, Anthropometry etc.

classification of the human population is made into races,

ethnic groups, Mendelian populations or endogamous groups

etc. It tries to erase the myth regarding the concept of

racism, the concept of pure and impure, inferior or superior

race and attempt to establish the principles of classification.

One of the best classifications is derived from the knowledge

of human genetics.

Quiz:

Q.1. The father of Physical Anthropology is

A) Aristotle. B) G.J. Mendel. C) J.F. Blumenbach. D) Juan Comas.

Q.3. Physical Anthropology is also known as

A) Paleoanthropology. B) Biological Anthropology.

C) Physiological Anthropology. D) Molecular Anthropology.

Q.4. Mendel’s work was rediscovered in the year

A) 1700. B) 1800. C) 1900. D) 1909.

Q.5. In medico legal cases Blood group is used in

A) Paternity Dispute. B) To confirmed pure or impure race. C) Blood transfusion. D) both B and C.

Q.6. The branch of physical Anthropology that study in the field of Games and sports is

A) Kinanthropology. B) Human Oesteology. C) Physiological Anthropology. D) Neuroanthropology.

Q.7. Dermatoglyphics is the study of

A) Brain. B) DNA finger print. C) Ridges on the finger, palm, sole and toe. D) Skin color.

Assignment:

Q1. How is the study of Physical Anthropology helped by other sciences?

Q2. Trace the development history of Physical Anthropology.

Q3. How does the study of primates and hominid fossils help to understand the human evolution?

Q4. Discuss the Social relevance of Anthropometry in the society.

Q5. Define Racism. How is it different from the biological concept of race?

Reference:

Lasker, Gabriel ward 1960, A Brief Introduction to

Physical Anthropology, The Evolution of Man; Holt

Rinehart and Winston, New York- Chicago- San Francisco

Toronto, London.

Ember, Carol R.; Melvin Ember 1995, Anthropology;

Prentice-hall of India Private Limited New Delhi 110001.

Roy, Indrani Basu 2003, Anthropology the study of Man;

S. Chand & Company LTD. Ram Nagar, New Delhi 110055.

Harrison, G.A.; Weiner, J.S.; Tanner, J.M.; Barniocot, N.A.;

Reynolds V. 1977, Human Biology; 2Edn. OxfordUniversity

Press, Oxford.

Comas, J. 1972, Manual of Physical Anthropology; C.C

Thomas, Springfield.

Janusch, John Buettner 1969, Origin of Man, Physical

Anthropology; Wiley Eastern Private Limited, New Delhi.

Reddy, V. Rami 1992, Physical Anthropology, Evolution

and Genetics of Man; Published by V. Indira 517 Reddy and

Reddy Colony, Tirupati 517501, Andhra Pradesh.

Sodhi H.S. 1991, Sports Anthropometry, A

Kinanthropometric Approach; Anova Publication Mobali.