genetic change in egypt

8/13/2019 Genetic Change in Egypt

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Genetical Change in Ancient Egypt

Author(s): A. Caroline Berry, R. J. Berry and Peter J. UckoSource: Man, New Series, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Dec., 1967), pp. 551-568Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and IrelandStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2799339.

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GENETICAL CHANGE IN ANCIENT EGYPTA. CAROLINE BERRYUniversityollege ondon

R. J. ERRYRoyal reeHospitalchool fMedicine,ondonPETERJ.UCKOUniversityollegeondon

Egypthas been subject o numerousnfiltrations,ontacts nd colonisationsthroughoutts ong history,ut to whatextentncomers ontributedo thegenepool of thepopulationsnot clear.Mostspeculationn thepasthasbeendirectedto theorigin ather han hedegree f racialmixing f bothforeignersnd ocalinhabitantst differenteriods fEgyptian istory.uch nterpretationsavebeenbasedprimarilyn artisticepresentations.orexample,Kees I96I: 36) wrote:'Judgingy the mall culpturesromHierakonpolis,he eliefsnd rockpaintings,thepeoplewho were n authority,ncludinghe victoriousgyptian ings, tillbelonged o themysteriouselicatelyormed acewith hortkulls romwhich heAmratianseveloped' see lsoPetrie 90I: 252-4). Such nterpretationsf artisticrepresentationsaybe correct,utthey ufferrom hedifficultyhatbothcon-clusions nd the assessmentf their ignificance ust nevitably e speculative(seeMorse, rothwell Ucko 964: 524-8; Ucko 96$: 222-3). This sattestedbythe endencynthepast summarisedyChantre904) topostulatellsorts fimprobable acial malgamsnEgypt:mixtures fpeople representingsingularvariety f groups viz. Libyan,Caucasian,Arab, Pelasgian,Negro, Bushman,Mongol, Hamitic,Hamito-Semitic-even ed Indian nd Australianboriginal)werealleged ohavemigratednto the Nile valley.The fantasticature f thesespeculations as exposedbyElliot SmithI9II), althoughvenhe recognisednArmenoid dmixture ith arlyDynastic opulations.The work undertakenn about I900 on skeletal emains lso purported orecognise umerous aceswithcontinuedusions etween everal ub-sectionsfthem hroughouthehistoryfEgypt e.g.MacIver 9oo; Thomson& MacIverI905; Petrie906). Indeed, eithI90$: 92) complainedhat he iteraturetthattime ncludedhopeless ontradictionsf three, ix, one and two races. Suchcontradictionstillpersist espite he work of Morant i925) who recognisedmerely single pper nda singleowerEgyptian ype:for xample, alkenburger(I947) divided skeletalmaterial nto Cromagnon,Negro and Mediterraneantypes.

Thisconfusionmay be surprisingnthe ight fall thematerialvailable romEgyptbutcan to someextent e understoodn thecontext fEgyptian istory(see below) with tsfrequentnd ntensiveontacts ith foreigners'rom eigh-bouringountries.ndoubtedly, owever,hemajor lementeading oconfusionhasbeenthe ackof usable eneticalmarkersnosteologicalmaterialor valuating

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5S2 A. CAROLINE BERRY, R. J. BERRY AND PETER J. UCKOpopulationmovementsndmnixingseeBerry, vans & Sennitt967; Berry&SmithMs.).Thisarticlesanattemptomeasurehangenancientgyptbyusingnon-metricalkullvariants o characteriseifferentamplesgenetically,atherthanby thetwo 'classical' sources f information-artisticepresentationsndmetricalvaluationsfskeletalmaterial.ExternalumannfluencesnEgyptTo give thenecessaryackground o the nterpretationf studies n hiumanremains,t is necessaryt theoutset o outline nd discuss hemore mportantcontacts f Egyptwiththeoutsideworld,for he extent ndeffectsf some ofthese renotgenerallynown.

TABLE. Chronology fEgypt.Date Period CultureB.C.c. 4500 ? Predynastic BadarianTasian)Predynastic AmratianEarlyNaqada:Naqada I)Predynastic GerzeanLateNaqada:Naqada II)c. 3200-2680 Archaic:Dynasties -IIIc.268o-2258 Old Kingdom: ynastiesV-VIc.2258-2052 Ist ntermediateeriod:Dynasties II-XC.2134-I786 Middle Kingdom: DynastiesXI-XIIC.1786-i570 2nd Intermediateeriod:Dynasties III-XVII, includingheHyksos eriodC. 1570-Io85 New Kingdom orEmpire: DynastiesXVIII-XXc. xo85-332 LatePeriod:Dynasties XI-XXXI, includinghePersianndSaitePeriodsc. 332-30 PtolemaicEgyptC.30 B.C.-64I A.D. Roman and ByzantinePeriods

For thepredynasticeriod before . 3,200 B.C.) (seetable ) textual roofofforeignncursionss, ofcourse,acking, ut thechangenmaterial ulturewhichdefineshebeginningftheGerzean ulture asoften een nterpretedyEgypto-logists s reflectinghe rrival f a newpeople ntoEgypt.This assumed hangeinpopulation s commonlyorrelated ith inguisticnalysis f ancient gyptianwhichfinds hat he anguage omprises oth Hamitic' and Semitic'elements.The 'Semitic' elements re presumed o have arrivedwiththe bearers f theGerzean ulturee.g.Baumgartel965: 21). Invasion r nfiltrationy peoplefromoutside gyptsalsogenerallyssumedoexplain he pparentlyudden mergenceof literacy, ingshipnd urbanisationt the timeof thefounding f the firstliterate ynastyc. 3,200 B.C.). This assumptions basedon theappearance f avariety f foreign' lementsn the material ulture fEgypt at this ime e.g.cylindereals of Mesopotainianype,motifs esemblinghose ofJemdetNasrMesopotamia, anelled brick rchitecture,tc.) whichapparently ad no ante-cedentsnprehistoricgypt.At the ametime heresevidence rom he nalysisofpotteryypes f contactwithPalestine. his wasprobably two-way radingrelationshiphich ontinuedhroughoutheFirst ynasty ndwhichbythe ndofthearchaic eriod c. 2,700 B.C.) culminatedn a permanentgyptian radingrelationship iththe port of Bybloson theLevantine oast.During the first



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GENETICAL CHANGE IN ANCIENT EGYPT 553dynastiesfEgypt lso therewas, udgingfrom tonevessel ypes, lose contactbetween gypt ndCrete.

Throughout hehistory fEgypt, exts efer o the nhabitantsf the modemrepublic f the Sudanbydifferentames, ometimesescribinghemby habitat,making t clear hat heywereconsideredoreignershospoke anguages istinctfromAncient gyptian. o the west ivedseveral ifferentroups fpeopletowhom theEgyptians ave particularames nd whomtheynotonlydescribedsforeignersutalso distinguishedrom hemselvesn artisticepresentations.Atmanyperiodsn itshistorygyptreceivedvisitors' oth from hese reasand from urtherfield. orexample, lreadyn theearlyFourth ynasty ,000Nubianswere arriedff oEgypt ndpresumablylaced n servitude.here s alsoinscriptionalvidenceater n theOld Kingdom hatNubianswereemployedntheEgyptian rmy.Duringthefirst ntermediateeriodtherewereprobablyincursionsnto hedelta rom henorth.ntheTwelfth ynasty gyptmayhavecontrolled alestine nd Syria, nd northern' eoples beganarrivingn Egypteither o settle r to trade.So greatbecame the nfluence f thesepeople thateventually,n the ragmentationfthe dministration,n c. ,720 B.C. theywereable to proclaim hemselvess pharaohs nd gain powerover northerngypt.There s ittle vidence hat hisHyksos' periodwasduetoany arge cale nvasionofEgypt.Following hereconquestfEgyptbythe ThebanDynasty New Kingdom),Egypt stablishednempirewhich t tsgreatestxtenttretchedrom heEuph-rates o the ourthataract. reat umbers fcaptives eredeliberatelyarriedff,sometobeused n abour orces ndsometo be distributedsrewards oEgyptianofficersnd soldiers.On thehighest olitical lane,pharaohs t this imecon-tractediplomaticmarriages ith oreign rincessesrom arious arts ftheNearEast,but thesewill have affectedhe racial ompositionfthecourt nd itsde-pendendes ather han f thebulkof thepeople.Mercenariesuringhe arly art ftheNewKingdomweremainly rom pperNubia. Lateron peoplecalledthe Sherdenwere muchemployed,ndrewardedfor heir ervices ithplotsof and which hey nd their escendantslike otherveterans) ultivatediCerny 965). These Sherdenwere the fore-runnersfnumerous eopleswho descended pontheeasternMediterraneanittoral uringthe thirteenthentury .C. At firstmany of these ncursions ere probablypeaceful.TheseroamingsftheMeshweshnd theLibu nupper gyptwerebuta ramificationfa large calepenetrationfLibyan ribesnthenorth,n thedelta,andbelowMemphis tHeracleopolis.hispenetrationasprobablynthewholepeacefulndresultedntheoccupationf thewestern eltawhere ibyans, ndertheirhiefs,ounded number fprincipalitiesachwith nimportantown s tscentre'c:erny965: is). In c. 950 B.C., however, neLibyanfamily et tself pas rulersfEgypt ndfor henext 00 years gyptwasgovernedyrival Libyan'dynasties.ronm. 730 B.C. Egyptfellunder he ruleoftheEgyptianisedtate fNapataon theupperNile. Thisrulewas endedbytheAssyrian onquerorAsh-urbanipaln 663 B.C. There sno evidence nder ither fthese oreign egimesof any argescale ncursionfforeignersntoEgypt exceptfor few southernofficials ainlyn theThebaid.Assyria ell fewyears fter erconquest fEgypt nda nativedynastyuled



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554 A. CAROLINE BERRY, R. J. BERRY AND PETER J. UCKOinEgyptuntil he conquest y theAchaemenid ambysesn S2S B.C. Only thehighest fficialsn the and wereexpatriate ersians, orAchaemenid olicy n-volvedruling hroughhenative ureaucracy.During heSaiteperiod hefirst reek rading olonywas setup nthe gyptiandelta.Alexanderonquered gypt n332B.C. and after isdeath argenumbersfGreek oldiers ere ettlednthedelta nd theFayum.By thereign fPtolemy IPhiladelphus he bulk of theadministrationad passed nto Greekhands, itieswithGreek itizenshipndspecial rivilegesad beenfoundedndtheFayumhadbecome argely Greekprovince. here s no doubtthat gyptiansndGreekslived ideby side nd ntermarried.The Roman conquest fEgyptmade ittle ifferenceo this ituation; reekscontinued orun hecountry,heRomanpresence eingmarked nlyby egion-aries ndcertain ighofficials.DespiteEgypt's ong historyf contactswithforeign eoples, herefore,t isclear hat heres infact ittle vidence o suggestontinuedacial dmixture e-tween he ndigenous gyptian opulationndforeigneoples o theextenthatsignificanthanges o thebasicEgyptian enepool occurredhroughoutgyptianhistory. ees's statementI96I: 34)that gyptwas a landwith .. an ethnicallydisparateopulation'must ependargelynthe nfluencef' Semitic' orthernersin thedelta n the econdmillennium.C., thedegree fNubian nfluenceouth fEdfuthroughoutgyptian istory,ndon the extent fGreekpenetrationntolowerEgypt nd the Fayum n the third nd second enturies.C.ProcedureThe onlydirect nd objective vidence boutpopulationmixing s from hestudyof human remains. uch investigationsre especially mportantor thepredynasticeriodbecause hey re theonlymeans fchecking eductionsboutpopulationswhich are exclusively ased on archaeologicalnalysis f materialculture.Althoughthe genetical nterpretationf craniometricifferencessdifficulte.g. De Beer I965) even withmodermtatisticalnalysese.g. CrichtonI966), greatweight asoften eenplacedon slightrchaeologicalvidencewhereanalysisf craniometricatahassuggestedhe rrival f a new race' during re-dynasticrprotodynasticimesseediscussionn Arkell& Ucko I965: I53, I55).Hence t eemedworthwhileore-investigateuchofthe vailablematerial singnon-metricalariants s geneticalndicators.Although on-metricalariants ave beenusedby anthropologistsormanyyears reviewed yBrothwell963; I965), it is only ince heir enetical ontrolinthemousewasdeterminedyGriunebergnd hisco-workersGriineberg963)that heir sefulnessncomparisonsfnon-living opulationsouldbeappreciated.Theextrapolationfmousegeneticso man s notwithout anger,utbothhumanfamily nd population tudies n non-metricalariationreviewed y Berry npress) upporthe ontentionhat hevariantsre nheritedna similar ay nbothmice andmen. Furthermoreowe & ParsonsI967) haveshown theenviron-mental actorso be of ittlemportance hen nformationnincidence f a largenumber fvariantss combined. here s no doubt hat on-metricalariantsaveconsiderabledvantages ver morphologicalmeasurementsormanyanthro-



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GENETICAL CHANGE IN ANCIENT EGYPT 555pologicalpurposes. n practical erms coring f variations quickandeasy;age(at any rate n mature ndividuals) nd sex do not affect on-metricalariation;lack of correlationsetween haracters akes the computation f multivariatestatistics uch simpler han s the case for metrical haracters; nd there regrounds or believing hat estimates f divergence etween amplesbased ondifferencesn non-metrical ariant ncidencemore accurately eflect eneticaldifferenceshan tatisticsalculated rommetrical ata Berry& SmithMs).All the skullswe used were classified or thirty on-metricalariantsforanatomical escriptions,ee Berry& Berry967) by one of us (A.C.B.). Juvenileswereexcluded.The frequenciesf eachvariantn sixteen ifferentopulationsampleswere tabulated.Thereare two ways of nterpretinguchdata.The firsts to takeeachvariantseparatelyndtrace ts ncidencendifferentopulations.hishasbeenthenormalprocedurewithpastworkerse.g.Hess I945; Brothwell96I). Howevera moredigestiblemethodof assimilatinghe crude data is to calculate multivariatedistance tatisticased on all the variants. here are severalwaysofdoing this:Laughlin JorgensenI956) and BrothwellI958) haveused version fPenrose's'size and shape' statistic,ut we prefer method evised y C. A. B. Smith ndfirst sed to measure hange n inbred trains f mice by Grewal I962). In thismethod single measure f divergence'scalculated etween achpairofpopu-lations. he validity f estimatingenetical istancen thiswayhasbeen discussedby Berry I964), Berry, vans & SennittI967), Howe & Parsons I967), andBerry & Smith Ms). The measureof divergence etween two populations

(I, 2) of size n1 nd n2 s taken s (01i02)2-(iIn.+ i/n2) or ny variant, here0is the ngular ransformationf thepercentagencidencep),measuredn radians,such thatO= sin-' (i - 2p). This has the advantage ver the more usual angulartransformation0= sin'VIp in degrees) hat hevariance f0 in a sample f sizenisnearly/n ndependentlyf thevalue of n, nstead f820-7n.The meanmeasureofdivergence or ll thirtyharactersn two populationssa quantitativexpres-sion of the separation f the populations. he virtual bsence of correlationbetween ariantsmakespermissiblehe averaging f measures fdivergenceorindividual ariants ithout aving o performhe omplex djustmentsecessaryincomputingimilar tatisticsrom keletalmeasurements,hich end o be muchmorehighly orrelatedRao I948).Astandard rincipalomponentnalysis as lsobeen arried uton the awdata.SampleslassifiedWe usedthree riterianselecting ur material:

I. Accessibility:ll the materialwe used was preserved ither n the Sub-Department f Anthropology,ritishMuseum NaturalHistory) hereafterreferredoasB), ortheDuckworth aboratoryftheFacultyfArchaeologyand Anthropologyf theUniversityf Cambridgereferredo as C). As faraswe knowall the majorcollections f Egyptian keletalmaterialnGreatBritain re at one or other f these laceswiththe exception f two smallseries romAswan ndEl Amrah n the anatomy epartmentsf Edinburghand Aberdeen niversities,espectively.



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5S6 A. CAROLINE BERRY, R. J. BERRY AND PETER J. UCKO2. Reliable dated ontext: t s unfortunatehatmuchof theexistingiteratureisbasedoninadequately atedmaterialfor xample, eeMassoulard'sI949)

despairingffortso separate atedfrom ndated redynastic aterial).3. Availability f at least thirty rania n reasonable onditionn each series(although ne ofour series nlycontained wenty-eightpecimens).Since t was necessaryo study ctual pecimens, e werenotable to makeuseof a number f series orwhich rchaeologicalnd metrical atawere available(e.g.Jackson937: I44-53), but orwhichhe kulls ere ost, e-buriedrnon-identifiablerom xisting ecords. urthermore e had to limitour study omaterial vailable nGreatBritain.We classifiedixteen amples romfourteen ocalities fig. ), a totalof 775skulls:I. Forty-eightadarian pecimens rom he ite f Badari C). Theseform artofthematerialmeasured y StoessigerI927) and Derry Morant 935) and canbepresumed o be welldated o theBadarian eriod. t snot mpossiblehat fewspecimens ere of ater redynasticatefrom he ite f DeirTasa, butwhereverithas provedpossible ocheck articularraves n which raniawerefound, heyhavebeen ndubitablyadarian.2, 3, 4. Material rom aterpredynasticeriods s availablefrom he sites fNaqada, Abydos,Diospolis Parva,Hierakonpolis nd El Amrah, ut ittle f itcanbe reliably ated.For the present tudyt was decided o avoid combiningpredynastic aterial rom ifferentites.As a consequence,material rom ll sitesexceptNaqada andHierakonpolis as too small o be used.Several undredkulls ere xcavated yPetrie tNaqada C), andheapparentlyfirstivided hematerialnto hree roups: D 30-40, SD 4I-69, SD 70-80.However hiseftmany xampleswhich ouldnotbe dated Fawcett9OI-2: 422;Petrie906: 42), so tllat n the iteraturehewhole series as often eencombinedas homogeneous nd representinghe 'Naqada race' (e.g. Fawcett 9OI-2;Crichton966). Thisprocedures illegitimatend has been attacked y severalauthorse.g.Thomson Maclver9o5: I3I, Morant925). In the resenttudyonlythose pecimens hich ould be identified ith equence atedgraveshavebeen ncluded.Although here s dispute boutthevalueofsequencedating seeArkell & Ucko i965), this eems he onlyway to date thisparticularmaterial.Sequencedateshave beenadopted s theywerepublishedn PetrieI920: plates5I-2). We have separatedhe materialnto:2. an earlypredynasticroupof28specimensSD 30-39); 3. a general redynasticroup f32 specimensdefinitelyfpredynastic ate, but which could not be more accuratelyssigned articularsequence ates);4. a latepredynasticroupof30 specimensSD 43-69).Specimens ated to SD 40-2 have beenomitted o avoidanyoverlap etween

thefirst wogroups. heremust emain ome doubt s to the ccuracy fdatingoften kulls rom raveswithnumbers elowgoo,because heymayhaveorigi-natedfrom allasand notNaqada.S. Fifty kullsfrom total of c. i5o at C) fromHierakonpolis hich mustpresumablye of latepredynasticate, lthough omore ccuratenformationsavailableQuibell& Green902: 22; Garstang907: 136-7; Kemp 963: 26).



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GENETICAL CHANGE IN ANCIENT EGYPT 557

M1EDITERR/NEAN Je M

Gizeho PENINSULla' F o olTarkhan OFSIN~qlSedment >\1

'n,* X~Boadri |Abydos) QurnehANoqad Thebes\Hierakonpolis) \

L BYAN fstCatsxroctAswon 0 o >LOWER NUBIA4 t o sDESERT / tXv \

UPPER 7lNUBIA Kierma

0 100 200 /mile's %Jbe/ Moyca

FIGURE . Map ofEgypt howingites romwhich kulls avebeenclassified.



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558 A. CAROLINE BERRY, R. J. BERRY AND PETER J. UCKO6. A sampleof62 skulls fDynasty date from heroyaltombs t Abydos(B and C), all fromgraveswhich bordered round the pharaohs' arge tombs,

beingmost ikely hose f craftsmenndworkers.7. FiftyskullsC) fromTarkhan, aidto be ofDynasty -II, butaboutwhichno furtheretails re known Petrie9I4: 43-4).8. Fifty kullsC) from edment, aid to be ofDynasty X, butabout whichnothingurthersknownPetrie Brunton924; Woo I930-I).9. Fifty-fourkullsC) fromQumeh, aid obe ofDynasty I, but gain boutwhichnothing urthersknown.io. Seventy-eightkullsC) fromQau: the materialwas initially ivided ntothatwhich ouldbe accepted sfalling ithin runton'selativeequenceVI-VIII(44 specimens),ndthat alling ithin is equenceX-X (34specimens)BruntonI927: 5-8),butthetwo groups id not differnd so werecombined.i i. Fifty kullsfrom vera thousandnthe E' series t C: Davin & Pearson1924) from hesiteof Gizeh,dated to DynastiesXXVI-XXX. Although hiscemeteryfMemphisncluded hegraves fmany oreigners,llthose hat ouldbe checked roved o haveEgyptian ames nd t canreasonablye assumed hatthiss a goodSaite amplePetrie907: 29).

I2. Fifty-twokulls B) from he site ofHawara whichalthough argely m-possible o date ccuratelyannot ave beenearlierhan irstentury.D. andnotlater han ourthentury.D. In allcaseswhere t waspossible ocorrelateumanremains ithgravedetails hey roved obe Greek' i.e. peopleofwidely iffer-ing racial riginswho hadacquiredGreek itizenship).13, 14. We made use of twosamples rom heupperNilevalley nNubia: 5oskullsC) from ermadated otheTwelfth o ThirteenthynastiesCollett93 3),where thepopulationhasoften een assumed o be quitedistinct rom hat ofEgypt seebelow),and32skullsC) from he ite fJebelMoya aboveKhartoum(Mukherjee, ao & Trevor 9SS).I5, i6. Finallywe included wo non-Nilepopulation amples: 4 skulls romLachishn PalestineB)of bout 00B.C. (Risdon939), and56AshantikullsB)aboutwhichno accurate etails fprovenancere known.

ResultsThe frequenciesf ndividual ariants re set outin table2. In some cases hefrequenciesrebasedon lowernumbershan he otals or hepopulation,ecauseof the need to use damaged pecimens.Measures f divergenceogetherwithestimatesf he tandardrrors f hose tatisticsregivenn table .Certainamplesdidnot differrom ach other nd were combined ormostof thecomparisons.Table 3 also shows thenumbers f differencesn thefrequenciesf individualvariantssignificant'according o a conventional estof significance)t both

the5 percent. nd i percent.probabilityevelsfor ll population omparisonsmade.Finallywe carried ut a principal omponent nalysis o testwhether hemeasuresfdivergenceetween opulations ereusually heresult fdifferencesinthefrequenciesfonly fewvariants,rwhethernumber fdifferentariantswerenormallynvolved. he results f this nalysisre shownntable .



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GENETICAL CHANGE IN ANCIENT EGYPT 559;q > Soo 6 m +oo o oo o 'n os t+o??-m?H H o~ en "I "

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56o A. CAROLINE BERRY, R. J. BERRY AND PETER J. UCKO

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GENETICAL CHANGE IN ANCIENT EGYPT 56ITABLE 4. Principal component analysisof non-metricalvariantfrequenciesEgyptian andNubianpopulationsnly).Componentsrderedccording Latentootf So-calledercentagear-to magnitudef latent oot correlationatrix ianceaccountedor by(and hence ot quivalento each omponentthenumberingn table )*I 5.72 I9.742 4'74 16-343 3.98 I3.724 3'32 II.465 2@59 8-956 21I4 7.397 IP74 5X988 I.25 4.3I9 I*14 3*94

IO 0o9I 31I3II 077 2.67I2 0?36 1.25I3 0-32 IlIO14-30 0 0*i.e.The firstomponentsthebestdiscriminantor achpopulationomparison.his s aweighted ombinationfthevariantrequency.

DiscussionThere are no meansat themoment f measuringotalgenetical ifferencesbetweenpopulationsn terms f numbers f gene substitutionsMcLaren &Walker 966). With the echniquest ourdisposal,ll we can do isexpress heno-typicdifferencesn arbitrarynits. urthermoret is difficulto assesswhat s a'significant' enetical ifferenceetween wo samples. he convention asbeenadopted n thepresent ontext o regard measure f divergences indicatingmeaningfulifference'significant')f t is more thandouble ts standardrror.Divergences hich regreaterhan wice heir tandard rrorre ndicated yanasteriskntable3; a double steriskndicates value of overthree ormeasure fdivergenceivided y ts tandard rror. esultshavebeenpresentednthiswayto makeclearthebasicproblem fdecidingwhetherhe non-metrical ethodis useful or genetical onmparisonsf theseparticular umanpopulations.Allexceptone of thecomparisonsnvolvingKeirma, achish nd the Ashanti redistinguishedrom llother opulationsy a value twice heirtandardrrorandthemajorityfcomparisonsetween achish nd theAshantind other opula-tions yvaluesgreaterhan hree imes heir tandard rror).As these reexactlythepopulations hichwe wouldexpect, n cultural nd archaeologicalvidence,biologicallyo differ ostfrom heEgyptians f any period,t seems easonabletoaccept hat hemethod ivesmeaningfulesults or his uman keletalmaterial.Moreover bout three opulations nly would be expected o be 'significantlydifferent'y chance,whereas here re 52 'significant ifferences'n table 3.

Furtherupport or hevalidityfthis on-metricalnalysis anbe seen nthefactthat heEarly ndGeneral redynasticaqada samples idnotdifferrom achother, hat heArchaicmaterial rom wo differentiteswas homogeneous, ndthat heMiddleKingdom amples rom ifferentites-as wellas the wo samplesoriginally ivided rom he iteof Qau (see above)-were indistinguishableromeach other. These threehomogeneousgroups were used for most of the



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562 A. CAROLINE BERRY, R. J. BERRY AND PETER J. UCKOcomparisons,s allmadegood archaeologicalnd cultural ense. he sample romHierakonpolis5) was kept eparate rom heEarly nd GeneralNaqada samples(z and 3) for although t did not differsignificantly'rom hem, either id itdifferrom heLateNaqada sample4)whichwas distinctrom heotherNaqadasamples.ThisLate Naqada sample 4) is significantlyifferentrom ll other opulationswith which t has been compared, xceptthe other ate predynasticne fromHierakonpolis. he GeneralNaqada sample alls etween heEarly nd Lateones,as would be expected.Virtually ll thedivergence f the Late from heEarlyNaqada sample s accounted or n terms f decrease n thefrequency f a singlevariantno.2I) from 5 percent.too per cent. table ). There an be no doubtthat his s a realdifferencendnot scoring rror,stheNaqada skullswereclassi-fied trandom efore eing orted ntotheir hree roups.A significant'opula-tiondivergenceasedononly single ariant ccursnthis ne case n ourstudy;theprincipal omponent nalysistable ) makes tclear hat n average numberofvariants ontribute ecreasinglyo the population ivergences,he best temdiscriminatingyabout 0 percent.The LateNaqada sample sdistinctnall itscomparisons,heHierakonpolis neless o, but naddition hey othhave a lowfrequency f variant I. The lowest ncidence f thisparticular ariant n otherpopulations as in the Ashanti opulation f Ghana although heLate Naqadasample s overall ess ike the Ashanti opulation hanthe Early Naqada one).Howeverthis hange n one variant t the nd of predynasticimes eems o havebeenonly temporaryne,and ater gyptian amples resimilarn this espectto theearlier redynasticopulations.If it is to be accepted hat hisnon-metrical ethod s useful n analysing heEgyptian keletalmaterial,everalndividual omparisons equire xplanationnthe light of Egyptological nowledge.However, the most striking actthatemerges rom study ftable3 is theremarkable egree fhomogeneityn thepopulation fEgyptovera period f about5,ooo years, ffectivelyhe amecon-clusion sfrommetricalnalysissee below).Oursamples idnot ncludematerialfrom ither he deltaproper r theEdfu-Aswan rea which re the most ikelyto have contained oreignettlers. oreoverwe do notknowthedegree f ad-mixturewhich took place between gyptians nd foreignerst any periodofEgyptian istorysee above).Neverthelesshegenetical onstancyhownbyourresultss not as surprisings it might t first eem, f one takes nto account heextent f thehistoricallyttestedncursionsntoEgypt throughouttshistory.This doesnot meanthat here re no heterogeneitiesr changesn ourresults-clearly here re-but at no time are theremajordiscontinuitieshichmightimplyreplacement f the population n a large scale by a geneticallyifferentpeople.Comparisonsith raniometricork

Osteometryfancient gyptian opulations egan over a hundred ears go(e.g. Morton 844) but much of the earlier iteratures virtuallymeaninglessbecause fthe ack of standardisationf techniquesndthe advancesngeneticaland statistical nderstandingince that time (for reviews, ee Batrawi I946;



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GBNETICAL CHANGE IN ANCIENT EGYPT 563Massoulard 949: ch. io). The generallyccepted ositions that f Risdon I939,followingMorant 925 and Smith & Jones 908). He grouped ow values ofPearson's coefficientf racial ikeness'a multivariatetatisticasedon metricaldata)between airs f twenty-twogyptian nd neighbouringopulationsmalesonly) two morewere ddedbyBatrawi & Morant 947), and concludedhat hepopulations ell into two classes,with much greater imilarities ithin thanbetween lasses. hesetwenty-foureriesnclude llthose onsideredo havebeentreatedn a reliablemanner.The two classes re the mainbasis of Morant's onclusion hat in earlypre-dynasticimes herewere two distinctacesofman iving nEgypt;one in theThebaid ndtheother,t s supposed,n theFayum. heymaybe called heUpperandLower Egyptian aces.Theywere as closely elated o one another s twoadjacent eopleare generally ound o be, and there an be no doubtthat heydivergedrom he amebranch fthehuman ree tno very arly ate.TheLowerEgyptian ype eems o have remained nchanged rom arlyDynastic oPtole-maictimes xcept hat relativelymall art f thepopulationwasmodified eryslightly, ossibly y admixturewith some unknown oreign ace. The UpperEgyptian ypewas slowly ransformedrom hevery arliest imesnwhichwehaveacquaintance ith t, and by late Dynastic imes he population fUpperEgyptwasofalmost ure LowerEgyptian ype. . These wo types epresentheextremes f the pure nativeEgyptianpopulationfromEarly PredynasticoPtolemaic imes nd the relations etween hem reof the same nature s thosewhich wo allied, djacent nd contemporaneousaceswould bearto oneanotherin general. he vastmajority ftheDynastic eries f crania romUpperEgyptare ntermediateetween he Upperand Lower Egyptian imes' I925: 4, 5).Our more imited atado not fall neatly ntotwosuch groups. urthermoreforthe twenty istance tatisticsalculated or thesame or similar) opulationcomparisonsythe raniometricorkers nd ourselves,here s a strong egativecorrelationf -o048 ? O*I7. This s a surprisingesult, ecause n thetwo otheroccasions n which correlationetween istancetatisticsasedon metrical ataanddistancetatisticsalculated rom on-metricalatahas been ttemptedBerry,Evans & Sennitt967; Berry& SmithMs), therehas been a positive orrela-tion of the orderof 30-40 per cent. f it is accepted hatgenetical ifferencesbetween opulationsan be detected,nd to someextentmeasured, ytheuseofmultivariatetatistics,hismustmean that ither hedata or the material f thecraniometric orkers r ourselvesre faulty. owever,the coefficientf raciallikenessthe tatisticalculated y he raniometricians)asbeen riticisedn purelystatisticalroundsFisher 936; Seltzer937), and BarnardI934-5) concluded nthese rounds hattwas n nefficientoolfor he omparisonfthe gyptianopu-lations. espite hese riticisms,ndthe nadequacies f samples sedbythe arlymetricalnvestigators,e feel tuseful o discuss he nterpretationfour resultsin the context f the results enerallyccepted yEgyptologistsndwhich rederived rommetricaltudies,lbeit- ithin naccuratehronologicalramework.The earliestredynasticultureohaveyielded uman emainsstheBadarian.StoessigerI927: I44) claimed hat heBadariansfrom hesiteofBadari)weredistinctromater redynasticopulationsnbeing omewhatmore olichocephalicand prognathousnd somewhat arrowern theparietal egion nd shorterf

3-M.



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564 A. CAROLINE BERRY, R. J. BERRY AND PETER J. UCKOface than aterpredynasticeoples.However a later tudy Morant 937: 63-6)emphasisedhat heremains f thisdatefrom he ites f Badari nd Mostageddaweredefinitelyfthe amepopulation,nd t wasshown hat heywerenotunlikethe ther redynasticopulations. he Badarian ype'differedromater xamplesby havinga greater egreeof prognathismnd a lower nasal index,but thisdifferencendicated o more thanthat heywerenot members f preciselyhesame population.Morant claimed also that theBadarianswere more closelyrelatedothe arly redynasticopulation hat ucceededheBadarian han o thelate predynasticne and also showed hat heBadarianswere quitedistinct romRoman Egyptians.2 ur results gree with thoseof Stoessigern so far as theBadarian population ppears significantlyifferentrom the later predynasticpopulations romNaqada andHierakonpolis.t is not possible rom ur data tomake ny ssessmentstohow closely r distantlyelated hevarious amplesre.From our results he Badarians ppear distinctrom ll otherpopulationswithwhich hey ad beencomparedincluding raeco-Egyptianst Hawara, s alreadyclaimed y Morant) xcept or hose ftheOld Kingdom, nd those romGizehand Lachish. t is verydifficulto envisage nysituation hereby he Badarianswouldbegeneticallyelated o either f these atepopulationsndyetnot to theMiddle Kingdom populations, nd we must conclude thatthe non-metricalanalysis oes not n this asedistinguishetweenwhatmusthave been disparatepopulations.

It has commonly een claimedwithregard o the Badarians and also fortheprehistoricopulation fKhartoumDerry 949: 32-3) which some authorities(e.g. Arkell 956: I23-6) consider ulturallyelated o theBadarian)thattheyexhibit everalNegrofeatures hich aterdisappear rom heNile valleypopula-tions.ndeedMorant1925: 8) expressedhehomogeneityf thehistoricgyptianpopulationsn terms ftheir reedom romNegro blood .., it s notpossible odetect he lightestffectfany uch Negro)admixturehat an have taken laceafter arlyPredynasticimes'.Most authors re at painsto disclaim ny Negroelementn theEgyptian opulationsfter hepredynasticeriod xceptforthepopulation fSudaneseKerma e.g. Falkenburger947: I44). Although heresno doubt hatmetricalndcraniometricatado distinguishub-Saharanopula-tions rom omeother opulations,hebasicweakness f all claims odistinguishor decryNegroelements n thebasisof metricalnalysess theabsence fanyrigorous opulation omparisonso isolateparticulareatures hichcanbe de-scribedsnegroid.t is typical f this nsatisfactoryituationhat .P. I928: 68),although asing imselfntirelyn the riginal toessigereport,ould ummarisethe Badarian kullmaterialn termswhichdenied nyseriousNegro element:'It is rathermoreprognathoushantheNaqada skullsbutanyresemblanceoNegrotypesre o distantstobar near onnexion,nd f herewere ny elation,itmusthavebeena long wayback n evolutionaryistory.. Badarianswereafellow-branchiththe ndians, othradiating rom omeAsiatic entre'. Ournon-metricalnalysis oesnot enableus to sayanythingboutso-calledNegrofeaturesut t snoticeablehat heKerma ample smuchmoredistinctrom llotherpopulationsincludingheBadarian) n our datathan n thecraniometricevidence. here s thus ittle vidence fanykindto supportheclassificationftheBadarians s eitherNegro or Hamitic see Arkell & Ucko I965: I55), a



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GENETICAL CHANGE IN ANCIENT EGYPT s65classificationhich an only ead to considerableonfusion:The southern roup,which s clearly f Hamitic origin, onsists f people withsmallphysique fnegroid ypewhich re however ifferentrom ealNegroes' Vandier952: I2).The classical istinctionetween heUpper and LowerEgyptian ypes as alsoled osomemisunderstandingndfor erryI939: 5I; I947: 249-5I) and thersthe redynasticopulation as the outhernace summarisedn a secondaryourceby GardinerI96I: 392) as dolichocephalic,hortish nd with Negro features)whereas hepopulation f theOld Kingdomand laterrepresentshe northernrace tall ndwith arge kulls Gardiner96I)). In fact, swe haveseen,Morant'soriginal istinctions a geographical ne, and only econdarily temporalne.The changenpottery ype romWhite Cross-linedo Decoratedbetween heearly nd the atepredynasticeriod Amratiano Gerzean) asbeen nterpretedysome e.g. Baumgartel965: 2i) as duetothe rrivalnto gypt f newgroup fpeople. There is no anthropometricvidenceto support his conclusion ndfurthermore,s one of us hasarguedrecentlyArkell& Ucko i965: I53, I55),theres no good archaeologicalvidence o supportuch n nvasion fforeigners.Whether urfindingsn thebasisof one non-metricalariant or 'significant'differenceetweenEarlyand Late Naqada populations hould be accepted simportantupportor he heory f nvasion o start heGerzean eriod sopentodebate. ven if t s maintainedn thebasis f ournon-metricalindingshat heEarly and Late Naqada populationswere reallygenetically ifferent,t mustbenotedthat n late predynasticimes at Hierakonpolis his difference as lessaccentuatednd that y archaic imes, t east t Tarkhan nd Abydos, hepopula-tion gain resembled heearlier redynasticopulation othoverall nd n termsof thevariantrequencyhichwasdifferentn LateNaqada. Neverthelesst sthisdistinctionetween southernUpper)andnorthernLower)racewhichhas edmany gyptologistsopostulate dynasticnvasion tthebeginningfthe FirstDynasty. husEmery I96I: 39-40) writes hat towards he closeof thefourthmillenniUM .C. we find eople pparentlyormingcivilisedristocracyr masterraceruling verthewhole ofEgypt .. a people whoseskulls re ofgreaterize[equated y Derry i956: 8o) withgreaterranial apacitynda larger rain],ndwhosebodieswere argerhan hose fthenatives,hedifferenceeing o markedthatny uggestionhat hese eoplederived rom he arliertocks mpossible. 'DerryI947: 249-5 I) maintainedhat heheightfthepredynastickull xceededits widthwhilefor historic opulations rom gypt the oppositewas true ndthat he ctualheight f the kullwas greater han n thepredynasticne.Shouldthis ifferencee real, t mayreflect o more han he lready otedgeographicaldifference.ur data how no differenceetween he arly redynasticopulationofNaqada and either he archaic opulation f Tarkhan r the workmen' ofarchaicAbydos. t is also nterestingo notethatwe foundno differenceetweenthe atepre-dynasticopulationfHierakonpolisnd the rchaic opulations. hisgives omeadded support o those e.g. Arkell& Ucko i965: iss) who questionthenecessityf nvoking n nvasionnto gypt n order o explain he mergenceoftheFirst ynasty fEgypt.Craniometric orkon material rom hedynastic eriods f ancient gypt scomparativelyittle.We have seenthat raniometricianslaimthatmosthistoricpopulations ifferedittle rom heArchaicnorthern)opulations. ur data from



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566 A. CAROLINE BERRY, R. J. BERRY AND PETER J. UCKOHierakonpolis, rom Archaic,Middle Kingdomand Saite sites)confirm hisfinding,uttheMiddleKingdomand Saitepopulationsre distinctrom achother.Althought s oftenssumedhat heKermapopulation asnegroidsee bove),Barnard1934-5; 367) found o significantifferenceetween his opulationndthatfrom heSixth o Twelfth ynasties t Denderehwhere t is possible hattheremayhave beena largeforeignmercenlaryopulation t this ime).OuranalysishowsKerma obe distinctrom ll other opulationsxamined. urther-moreBarnard laimed hatt s onlywiththePtolemaic eriod hat significantchangentheEgyptian opulation ecomesnoticeable,or hePtolemaic opula-tion rom enderehssignificantlyifferentoth rom he arlier opulationtthesame siteand fromtheKermapopulation.Our analysis howsno differencebetween he Egyptianpopulation f Gizeh and thelaterGreekpopulation fHawara.We cannot xplain his esult.To sumup,the nalysesfbothmetricalnd non-metricalatabasedonskeletalremainshow similarityetweenamples hichsat variance ith nassumptionof great acial nterminglinguringnyperiod fEgypt's istoricalevelopment.Thiscanmean:

i. that he echniquessed renot ensitivenough o reveal ny ntermningling;2. more ikely, hat he ncomers erefew nnumber elative o theexistingpopulation,nd didnot nfluencehegene-pool f future enerationsoany

marked egree;3. that he ncomers idnot differeneticallyrom heEgyptian opulation.NOTESWe aregratefulothe ateDr J.C. Trevor f theDuckworth aboratory,ambridge,ndDrK. P. Oakley ftheBritish useumNatural istory)or ccess othe kull ollectionsntheir are.Mr A. J.Lee drewthefigure. ur thanksredue to ourcolleaguesMr D. R.Brothwell,r D. Dixon,Professor. Griineberg,.R.S., andProfessor. A. B. Smith ortheir ommentsnd criticismsf ourmanuscript,nd especiallyo Dr J.P. Garlick ndMrH. S. Smith ormuch aluable iscussion.

I It s nterestingonote hatntryingodefimeTasian ultures distinctromheBadarian,BruntoniI937: 27) describedasian kulls s strongly arked ypeswithwiderheads ndmuch quarerawsthan heBadarianrAmratiannes.Bruntonvendated particularravebythe ype f kull ssociateditht.That heres ittlerchaeologicalrcraniometricvidencefora separate asiancultures now fairlylear seeBaumgartel955: 2I-II; Arkell&Ucko I965: i5o).2 Secondaryourcesypicallyeducewhat re xtremelyomplex raniometricata oa fewgeneralisedentences,.g. The studyofhe umankeletonsromEl-BadarindEl-Mustageddahas hown hat lreadytthatarly gethe opulation asofmixed rigin,omehaving fineanid omea heavily uilt kull.Their kullswereclosely elatedo those fthepeopleofNaqada and F' (Baumgartel965: I3).

REFERENCESArkell, .J. 956. ReviewofBaumgartel,.J.The culturesf rehistoricgypt. iblthcarient.13, I23-7.& P. J.Ucko I965. Review ofpredynasticevelopmentn theNile valley.Curr.Anthrop., I45-66.Barnard, . M. I934-5. Secular ariationsfskull haractersn four eriesfEgyptiankulls.Ann. ugen. , 352-7I.Batrawi, . I946. The racialhistoryfEgypt ndNubia.2, The racialrelationshipsftheancientndmodern opulationsfEgypt nd Nubia.J.R. anthrop.nst. 6, 13 -56.& G. M. Morant 947. A study fa First ynastyeries fEgyptiankulls romSakkarandofanEleventhynastyeriesrom hebes. iometrika4, 8-27.



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GENETICAL CHANGE IN ANCIENT EGYPT 567Baumgartel,. J. 955. The ulturesfprehistoricgypt,. London:OxfordUniv.Press.1965. Predynasticgypt. ambridge:Univ. Press.Berry, . C. & R. J. Berry967. Epigenetic ariationnthehuman ranium.. Anat.OI,36I-79.Berry, . J. 964. The evolution fan island opulation fthehousemouse. volution,an-caster, a I8, 468-83.- n press. he biology fnon-metricalariationnmice ndmen. n The keletaliologyof arlier umanopulationsed.) D. R. Brothwell. ondon., I. M. Evans & B. F. C. Sennitt967. The relationshipsndecology f Apodemussylvaticusrom heSmall sles f the nnerHebrides, cotland. . Zool.152, 333-46.- & C. A. B. Smith.Ms.Thegeneticalharacterizationf rat opulationsromkeletaldata.Brothwell, . R. i958. The use of non-metricalharactersf the skull n differentiatingpopulations. t. Ges.Anthrop., 03-9.196I. The biology f earlier uman opulations.n Sciencen archaeologyeds) D. R.Brothwell E. Higgs.London:Thames& Hudson.

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239-50.Fawcett, . D. I9OI-2. A second tudy fthevariationnd correlationf thehuman kullwith pecial eferenceotheNaqadacrania. iometrika, 408-67.Fisher, . A. I936. 'The coefficientf racial ikeness' ndthefuturefcraniometry..R.anthrop.nst. 6, 57-63.F. P. I928. The Badarian kull. n The Badarian ivilisationy G. Brunton& G. Catoni-Thompson.ondon:Quaritch.Gardiner,. I96I. Egypt f he haraohs.xford:Univ.Press.Garstalig,.J. 907. ExcavationstHierakonpolis,tEsna, nd nNubia.Atn.Serv. , 32-48.Grewal,M. S. I962. The rate fgenetic ivergencen theC57BL strainfmice.Genet. es.Camb. , 226-37.Griineberg,. I963. The athologyfdevelopment.xford:Blackwell.Hess,L. i945. Themetopicuture nd themetopic yndrome.um.Biol.17, I07-36.Howe,W. L. & P. A.Parsons967. Genotypend nvironmentnthedeterminationfminorskeletalariantsndbodyweightnmice.J. Embryol.xp.Morph.7, 283-92.Jackson, .W. I937. Osteology. n CemeteriesfArmant by R. Mond & 0. H. Myers(Egypt xplor. oc.mem. 2).Oxford:Univ. Press.Kees,H. I96I. Ancientgypt: culturalopography.ondon:Faber.Keith,A. I905. Review of The ncientacesf heThebaid y A. Thomson& D. R. Maclver.Man, , 9I-6.Kemp,B. J. I963. Excavations t Hierakonpolisort, 905: a preliminaryote.J. Egypt.Archaeol. 9, 26-8.



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568 A. CAROLINE BERRY, R. J. BERRY AND PETER J. UCKOLaughlin,W. S. & J. B. Jorgensen956. Isolate ariationnGreenlandicskimo rania. ctaGenet. , 3-12.MacIver, . R. I900. Recent nthropometricork nEgypt. .R. anthrop.nst. 0,95-I03.McLaren, . & P. M. B. Walker966. Discriminatingower frodenteoxyribonucleiccidon ncubationnagar.Nature,ond. 11, 486-90.Massoulard,. I949. Pr6histoiretprotohistoire'EgypteTrav.M6m. nst. thnol. 3). Paris:Institut'Ethnologie.Morant,G. M. I925. A study fEgyptian raniologyrom rehistorico Roman times.Biometrika7, I-52.I935. A study f predynasticgyptian kulls romBadari based on measurementstaken yMissB. N. StoessigerndProfessor. E. Derry. iometrika7, 293-308.1937. The predynasticgyptiankulls rom adari. n Mostagedday G. Brunton.London:Quaritch.Morse, ., D. R. Brothwell P.J.Ucko 964. Tuberculosisnancient gypt. m.Rev.resp.Dis. 90, 524-4I.Morton, . G. I844. Crania egyptiacaTrans.Am.phil.Soc. 9). Philadelphia: ennington;London:Madden.Mukherjee, ., C. R. Rao &J. C. Trevor955. The ncientnhabitantsfJebel oya Sudan).Cambridge: niv.Press.Petrie,W. M. Flinders9OI. The races fearly gypt. .R. anthrop.nst. 1, 248-55.I906. Migrations.J.. anthrop.nst. 6, I-44.I907. Gizeh ndRifehPubl.Brit. ch. Archaeol. gypt 3). London:Quaritch.I914. The British choolofArchaeologynEgypt. .Egypt. rchaeol., 43-4.I920. PrehistoricgyptPubl.Brit.Sch. Archaeol. gypt 1). London:Quaritch.& G. Brunton924. SedmentPubl.Brit.Sch.Archaeol. gypt34, 35). London:Quaritch.Quibell, .E. & F. W. Green902. Hierakonpolis.(Mem.Egyptian es. Acc.5). London:Quaritch.Rao, C. R. I948. The utilizationfmultiple easurementsnproblemsfbiologicallassifica-tion.J.R. statist.oc. O, I59.Risdon,D. L. I939. A studyfthe ranial ndother uman emains rom alestinexcavatedatTellDuweir Lachish) y theWeilcome-Marstonrchaeologicalesearchxpedition.Biometrika1, 99-I66.Seltzer, . C. 1937. A critique f thecoefficientfracial ikeness. m.J. phys.Anthrop.3,IOI-9.Smith,G. Elliot 9II. The ancient gyptiansnd their nfluencepon thecivilizationfEurope.London,New York:Harper.& F. WoodJones908. Report nthehuman emains. ull.archaeol.urv.Nubia ,29-55.Stoessiger,. N. I927. A studyftheBadarianraniarecently xcavatedby the BritishSchoolofArchaeologynEgypt. iometrika9, iio-5o.Thomson, . & D. R. Maclver 9o5. The ncientacesf heThebaid.xford:Clarendon.

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