genetic disorders in portraits
TRANSCRIPT
American Journal of Medical Genetics 66:33A39 (1996)
Genetic Disorders in Portraits
Alan E.H. Emery Green College, Oxford, UK
Many artists have depicted genetic disor- ders in portrait paintings. In some instances such disorders can be identified in self-por- traits, most notably the tetralogy of Fallot in the Dutch painter Dick Ket, or in portraits of the famous, such as the Habsburg jaw in the Emperor Charles V. But it is in other por- traits that most examples can be found, such as the different types of dwarfism depicted by Velazquez. A table listing over 70 exam- ples is provided. o 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
KEY WORDS: genetics, portraits, art
INTRODUCTION The relationship between paintings and disease is a
broad one. It is possible to consider, for instance, chang- ing attitudes in society toward the depiction of disease. Dwarfs, for example, were considered quite differently in Pharaonic Egypt, ancient Greece and Roman civili- sations and, much later, by painters such as Velazquez [Dasen, 19881. Another aspect is the effect on their work of diseases in artists themselves. A most notable example is colour blindness [Trevor-Roper, 19881, in such artists as Charles Meryon (1821-1868), Fernand L6ger (1881-1955) and Piet Mondrian (1872-1944). Failing sight leading ultimately to blindness is well- documented in the English painters Malcolm Drum- mond (1880-1945) and Percy Wyndham Lewis (1882-1957) and the Russian painter Mikhail Vrubel (1856-1910). There are many examples of figure and colour distortion resulting from cataracts, a particu- larly interesting example being that of Claude Monet (1840-1926). The range of colours in his paintings changed significantly after his cataracts were removed. Madness has also affected style as well as the content of paintings. This has been extensively reviewed by MacGregor [1989]. Also, physical disease can have a significant effect on an artist’s work [Emery and Emery, 1994al. The painful and disabling effects of arthritis are clearly visible in the later works of Pierre Auguste Renoir (1841-1919), and of scleroderma in the case of Paul Nee (1879-1940).
Received for publication February 13, 1996. Address reprint requests to Allan E.H. Emery, Ingleside, Upper
West Terrace, Budleigh Salterton, Devon EX9 6NZ, England.
0 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Perhaps the most obvious relationship between art and medicine, however, is the depiction of diseases as well as medical diagnosis and treatment [Emery and Emery, 1992, 1994al. Here we shall only consider the depiction of genetic disease in portraits.
GENETIC DISORDERS IN SELF PORTRAITS Several artists have themselves suffered from ge-
netic conditions which have been revealed in their self portraits. Congenital strabismus is inherited as a mul- tifactorial trait. Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) had a di- vergent squint which is clearly evident in his self por- traits of 1491 (Fig. 1) and 1498. The same defect is also obvious in his portraits of his Mother (1514), Caspar Sturm (1520) and a Laughing Peasant Woman (1505, Fig. 2).
Pyknodysostosis, an autosomal recessive disorder cbaracterised by short stature, bony fractures, and a large anterior fontanelle, is believed to have affected Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901) whose parents were in fact, first cousins. He frequently portrayed his deformities in various caricatures as well as in the painting Au Moulin Rouge (1892).
Yet another example, and in many ways the most re- vealing and instructive, is the Dutch painter, Dick Ket (1902-1940). It seems likely that he suffered from tetralogy of Fallot with dextrocardia; his numerous self portraits over many years clearly show the progressive development of finger clubbing, cyanosis and plethora (Fig. 3). Synophrys is well-illustrated in various self portraits of the artist Frida Kahlo (1907-1954). There are also examples of genetic conditions in a number of other self portraits.
GENETIC DISORDERS IN THE PORTRAITS OF THE FAMOUS
Portraits of the famous occasionally reveal genetic disorders in the sitter, the relevance of which the artist himself may have been unaware. The most renowned is the presence of the Habsburg jaw in the Emperor Charles V depicted in his 1547 portrait by Titian (c 1487-1576). Other examples include Crouzon’s dis- ease in Count Guriev (1821) by Ingres, syndactyly in Canon Nicolai Aegidius (1517) by Quentin Massys, fe- male hirsutism in Magdalena Ventura (1631) by Rib- era, phocomelia in Charles Emmanuel I (1573) by Ar- genta, strabismus in Count Tommaso Inghirami (1513-1514) by Raphael and in the Duke of Prussia (1528) by Lucas Cranach. Other examples are given in
Genetic Disorders in Portraits 335
Fig. 1. Self Portrait (1491) Albrecht Durer. (Reproduced by kind permission of the Universitatsbibliothek, Erlangen-Niirnberg.)
Fig. 3. SelfPortrait (1939; Dick Ket). (Reproduced by kind permis- sion of the Gemeentemuseum, Arnhem.)
Table I. However, in many portraits of the famous who are now known to have had a genetic disfiguring disor- der, this has often been deliberately obscured by the artist, who after all may not have wished to offend his patron!
GENETIC DISORDERS IN OTHER PORTRAITS Certain well-defined congenital malformations and
genetic disorders can frequently be identified in paint- ings throughout the ages [Emery, 1991; Emery and Emery, 1994bl. The most notable examples are to be found in the paintings of Velazquez (1599-1660) who portrayed various types of dwarfs in the court of King Philip IV of Spain. Another, but much less well-known, source of portraits of individuals with various genetic disorders, most notably those associated with micro- cephaly (Figs. 4 and 5 ) , is to be found in the patient books of Alexander Morison [Morison, 18401. He is credited with having given the first course of formal lec- tures in psychiatry in Britain in 1823. His notes are beautifully illustrated throughout with crayon draw- ings and water colours of his patients.
Many other examples of genetic disorders in por- traits are given in Table I. However, it has to be admit- ted that in some cases the diagnosis is speculative and
Fig. 2. Laughing Peasant Woman (1505) Albrecht Darer. (Repro- duced by kind permission of the British Museum, London.)
TAB
LE I.
Por
trai
ts W
hich
DeD
ict V
ario
us C
onge
nita
l Abn
orm
aliti
es a
nd G
enet
ic D
isor
ders
*
Pain
ting
Dia
gnos
is
Tit
le (d
ate)
L
ocat
ion
Art
ist
Alb
inis
m
Nud
e G
irl o
n a
Fur
(193
2)
Blin
dnes
s
Cle
ft li
p C
rouz
on's
dise
ase
Dig
ital a
bnor
mal
itie
s A
bsen
t dig
it
The B
lind
Man
of G
amba
zo
Boy
with
Cle
ft Li
p (1
902)
C
ount
N.D
. Gur
iev
(182
1)
Ern
est R
einh
old
(190
8)
or T
he S
ense
of T
ouch
(163
2)
Poly
dact
yly
Self
Por
trai
t w
ith S
even
Fin
gers
(19
12)
Synd
acty
ly
Dow
n sy
ndro
me
Port
rait
of a
Can
on (I
dent
ifie
d as
Nic
olai
Aeg
idiu
s) (1
517)
Ec
ce H
omo
(c. 1
510)
A
Chi
ld w
ith
Non
disj
unct
ion
(nd)
Duc
henn
e m
uscu
lar d
ystr
ophy
(?)
Sick
Boy
(19
15)
Dw
arfi
sm - D
ispr
opor
tiona
te s
hort
sta
ture
A
chon
drop
lasi
a Th
e Dw
arf M
orga
nte
(c. 1
552)
Arr
igo
pelo
so, P
ietr
o m
atto
and
A
mon
nan
o (c
. 159
8-16
00)
Don
Bal
tasa
r C
arlo
s wit
h a
Dw
arf (
1631
-32)
C
alab
azas
(163
7-16
39)
Fran
cesc
o R
avai
cal
led
Bajo
cco
(177
3)
Gri
mac
es e
t mis
eres
(18
88)
The D
war
f DoE
a M
erce
des
(189
9)
Seba
stic
in d
e M
orra
(c.
164
4)
The H
eide
lber
g C
ourt
Dw
arf
Arag
ones
e D
war
f (18
25)
Pseu
do-a
chon
drop
lasi
a E
l Pri
mo
(164
4)
Perk
eo (c
. 173
0)
Spon
dylo
-epi
phys
eal d
yspl
asia
(?)
Isab
ella
Cla
ra E
ugen
ia w
ith
her D
war
f (c.
158
0)
Dw
arfi
sm-P
ropo
rtio
nate
sh
ort s
tatu
re (h
orm
one
defi
cien
cy)
Car
dina
l Gra
nvel
laS
Dw
arf
Cou
rt D
war
f Est
evan
illo
(156
3-68
) an
d D
og (c
. 156
0)
Phi
lip N
an
d th
e Dw
arf
Sopl
illo
(c. 1
618)
Scot
tish
Nat
iona
l Gal
lery
of
Mod
ern
Art
(Edi
nbur
gh)
Prad
o (M
adri
d)
Tre
tiak
ov G
alle
ry (M
osco
w)
Her
mit
age
(St.
Pete
rsbu
rg)
Mus
ee d
e B
eaux
-Art
s (B
russ
els)
St
edel
ijk
Mus
eum
(A
mst
erda
m)
Roy
al M
useu
m o
f Art
s (A
ntw
erp)
D
omka
pite
l (A
ache
n)
Priv
ate
Col
lect
ion
Form
erly
Sta
dtis
che
Kun
stsa
mm
lung
C
hem
nitz
Dep
osita
del
la
Sopr
inte
nden
za (F
lore
nce)
M
useo
Naz
iona
li di
C
apod
imon
te (
Nap
les)
Is
abel
la S
tew
art G
ardn
er
Mus
eum
(Bos
ton)
Pr
ado
(Mad
rid)
K
unst
mus
eum
(C
open
hage
n)
Mus
ee d
u Pe
tit P
alai
s (P
aris
) M
usee
d'O
rsay
(Pa
ris)
Pr
ado
(Mad
rid)
Pr
ado
(Mad
rid)
K
urpf
alzi
sche
s M
useu
m
(Hei
delb
erg)
Fo
gg A
rt M
useu
m
(Cam
brid
ge,
Mas
sach
uset
ts)
Prad
o (M
adri
d)
Lou
vre
(Par
is)
Staa
tlic
he
Kun
stsa
mm
lung
en
(Kas
sel)
Pr
ado
(Mad
rid)
Ott
o D
ix (1
891-
1969
)
Juse
pe d
e R
iber
a (1
591-
1652
)
Mik
hail
Vru
bel(
1856
-191
0)
Jean
-Aug
uste
-Dom
iniq
ue In
gres
(178
0-18
67)
Osk
ar K
okos
hka
(188
6-19
80)
Mar
c C
haga
ll(1
887-
1985
)
Que
ntin
Mas
sys
(c. 1
465-
1530
)
Mas
ter o
f Aac
hen
Alt
ar (
acti
ve 1
495-
1525
) Jo
sef W
arka
ny, F
ront
ispi
ece
of h
is te
xtbo
ok
(190
2-19
92j
Kar
l Sch
mid
t-R
ottlu
ff (
1884
-197
6)
Ang
elo
di C
osim
o B
ronz
ino
(150
3-15
72)
Ago
stin
o C
arra
ci (1
557-
1602
)
Vel
azqu
ez (
1599
-166
0)
Vel
azqu
ez (
1599
-166
0)
Jens
Juel
(l74
5-18
02)
Fer
nand
Pel
ez (
1843
-191
3)
Igna
cio
Zul
oaga
(18
70-1
945)
V
elaz
quez
(15
99-1
660)
V
elas
quez
(15
99-1
660)
Jo
hann
Geo
rg D
atha
n (1
7034
. 176
4)
Vic
ente
Lop
ez-y
-Por
tana
(17
72-1
850)
Teo
doro
Fel
ipe
de L
iafi
o (c
. 151
5-15
90)
Ant
honi
s va
n D
asho
rst (
calle
d A
nton
io M
oro)
Ant
honi
s van
Das
hors
t (ca
lled
Ant
onio
Mor
o)
(151
9-15
75)
(151
9-15
75)
Rod
rigo
de
Vil
land
rand
o (d
. 162
2)
(con
tinue
d)
Dw
arfi
sm-
Mis
cella
neou
s M
ucop
olys
acch
arid
osis
(?)
Oth
er/v
ario
us
Epi
derm
olys
is b
ullo
sa
(Syp
hilis
?)
Alet
heia
Tal
bot a
nd H
er T
rain
(c. 1
630)
Q
ueen
Hen
riet
ta a
nd h
er D
war
f Si
r Je
ffrey
Hud
son
(c. 1
633)
K
ing
Cha
rles
ZZ o
f Spa
in A
tten
ding
an
Aut
o-da
-fe'
Acco
mpa
nied
by
his
Thre
e Dw
arfs
(16
80)
Port
rait
of t
he C
ourt
Dw
arfe
ss M
lle,
Mar
iche
n (1
684-
1715
)
The M
inia
turi
st
And
reas
uon
Beh
n (1
700)
The
Salz
burg
Cou
rt D
war
f Fr
anz
uon
Mei
chel
bock
(c.
172
7)
Nic
hola
s Fe
rry,
cal
led
Be'be
', W
ith D
og (
c. 1
760)
Po
rtra
it of
the
Dw
arf C
ount
J.
Bor
uwla
ski,
1793
-183
7 (n
d)
Aben
dges
ells
chaf
t (Ev
enin
g G
athe
ring
) (c
. 184
7) (S
elf-
port
rait
)
Chr
ist B
efor
e Pi
late
(c.
142
0)
The D
ispu
te o
f St.
Cat
heri
ne (1
525)
Cha
rles
Em
man
uel I
as
a C
hild
wit
h hi
s C
ourt
Dw
arf
(bef
ore
1572
) A
rchd
uke
Ferd
inan
d w
ith
a C
ourt
D
war
f (16
04) (
hypo
thyr
oidi
sm?)
E
l Niii
o de
Val
leca
s - Fr
anci
sco
Lezc
ano
(163
7) (h
ypot
hyro
idis
m?)
D
war
f wit
h a
Dog
(16
43)
Jaco
ba M
aria
van
Was
sena
er o
r B
erna
rdin
a M
argr
iet v
an
Raes
feld
(16
60)
Gre
gori
o th
e D
war
f (1
908)
H
ead
of a
Youn
g M
an (E
arly
16
C)
Her
itage
(189
9)
Var
ious
sel
f por
trai
ts (s
ee te
xt)
The B
eard
ed W
oman
of P
eiia
rand
a (c
. 159
0's)
M
agda
lena
Ven
tura
(163
1)
Wom
an w
ith
a Be
ard
(195
7)
Empe
ror
Cha
rles
Va
t Muh
lber
g (1
547)
Fallo
t's te
tral
ogy
wit
h de
xtro
card
ia
Fem
ale
hirs
utis
m
Hab
sbur
g ja
w
Alte
Pin
akot
hek
(Mun
ich)
N
atio
nal G
alle
ry
(Was
hing
ton)
Pr
ado
(Mad
rid)
Nat
iona
lhis
tori
ske
Mus
eum
pa
Fre
deri
cksb
org
(Hill
ergd
, Den
mar
k)
Gri
psho
lm P
alac
e, S
wed
ish
Nat
iona
l Por
trai
t Gal
lery
(S
tock
holm
) D
euts
ches
His
tori
sche
s M
useu
m (
Ber
lin)
Mus
ee H
isto
riqu
e L
orra
in
(Nan
cy)
Mus
eum
Nar
odow
e (K
rako
w, P
olan
d)
Staa
tlic
he M
usee
n,
Preu
ssis
cher
Kul
turb
esitz
(B
erli
n)
Lan
desm
useu
m (M
ainz
)
Boy
man
s-va
n B
euni
ngen
M
useu
m (
Rot
terd
am)
Gal
leri
a Sa
baud
a (T
urin
)
Kun
sthi
stor
isch
es M
useu
m
Prad
o (M
adri
d)
Form
erlv
Led
erer
Col
lect
ion
(Vie
nna)
(Vie
nna)
M
auri
tshu
is (
The
Hag
ue)
Her
mit
age
(St.
Pet
ersb
urg)
Fo
gg A
rt M
useu
m
(Cam
brid
ge,
Mas
sach
uset
ts)
Mun
ch M
useu
m (
Osl
o)
Gem
eent
emus
eum
(Am
hem
) Pr
ado
(Mad
rid)
Ler
ma
Foun
datio
n (T
oled
o)
Priv
ate
Col
lect
ion
(UK
) Pr
ado
(Mad
rid)
Pete
r P
aul R
uben
s (1
577-
1640
) A
ntho
ny V
an D
yck
(159
9-16
41)
Fran
cisc
o R
izi (
1608
-168
5)
Jaqu
es #
Aga
r (1
640-
1715
)
Dav
id v
on K
raff
t (16
55-1
724)
Fra
ns v
on S
tam
part
(?) (
1675
-175
0)
Ano
nym
ous
(mid
-18t
h ce
ntur
y)
Unk
now
n G
erm
an p
aint
er
Ado
lph
von
Men
zel(
1815
-190
5)
Mas
ter
of t
he O
bers
tein
Alt
ar (a
ctiv
e 14
00-1
420)
Ja
n P
rovo
ost (
c. 1
465-
1529
)
Gia
com
o V
ighi
, cal
led
d'A
rgen
ta (
c. 1
510-
1573
)
Jose
ph H
eint
z th
e E
lder
(156
4-16
09)
Vel
azqu
ez (
1599
-166
0)
Juse
pe d
e R
iber
a (1
591-
1652
)
Jan
Ste
en (c
. 162
5-16
79)
Igna
cio
Zul
oaga
(18
70-1
945)
H
ans
Hol
bein
The
You
nger
(14
97/8
-154
3)
Edv
ard
Mun
ch (
1863
-194
4)
Dic
k K
et (
1902
-194
0)
Juan
San
chez
Cot
an (
1561
-162
7)
Juse
pe d
e R
iber
a (1
591-
1652
) L
.S. L
owry
(188
7-19
76)
Tit
ian
and
lite
rall
y hu
ndre
ds o
f oth
ers
(c. 1
487-
1576
)
(con
tinue
d )
TAB
LE I
. (c
ontin
ued)
Pain
ting
Dia
gnos
is
Tit
le (d
ate)
L
ocat
ion
Art
ist
Hem
iple
gia
Hyp
ertr
icho
sis
univ
ersa
lis
Noo
nan’
s syn
drom
e (?
)
Ost
eoge
nesi
s Im
perf
ecta
Pect
us c
arin
atum
Phoc
omel
ia
Prad
er-W
illi s
yndr
ome
(?)
Pykn
odys
osto
sis
Stra
bism
us
Syno
phry
s
Whi
te f
orel
ock
(acq
uire
d?)
The
Clu
bfoo
ted
Boy
(164
2)
Port
rait
of P
eter
Gon
zale
s an
d hi
s C
hild
ren
(c. 1
582)
A
mon
g Th
ose
Left
(192
9)
Arc
hille
Em
pera
ire
(182
0-18
98),
Aixo
is P
aint
er (
c. 1
868)
Ag
osta
the
Pig
eon-
Che
sted
Man
&
Ras
ha th
e Bl
ack
Dov
e (1
929)
C
harl
es E
mm
anue
l Z o
f Sav
oy a
s a
Chi
ld A
ccom
pani
ed b
y a
Dw
arf
(157
3)
Eug
enia
Mar
tinez
Val
lejo
, La
Mon
stru
a (c
. 168
0)
Var
ious
sel
f por
trai
ts
Toul
ouse
-Lau
trec
at t
he N
atan
son’
s in
Vill
eneu
ue-s
ur-Y
onne
(189
7)
Self
Port
rait
(c. 1
491)
Port
rait
of t
he A
rtis
t (14
93)
Laug
hing
Pea
sant
Wom
an (1
505)
D
iirer
’s M
othe
r (1
514)
C
ount
Tom
mas
o In
ghir
ami
Cas
par S
turm
(152
0)
Fedr
a Zn
ghir
ami
(151
6)
Mar
grav
e A
lbre
cht
von
Bra
nden
burg
,
Por
trai
t of C
alab
azas
(c.
163
2)
Arc
hiba
ld C
ampb
ell (
c. 1
660)
Littl
e G
irl w
ith
a Sq
uint
(c.
196
1)
Var
ious
sel
f-po
rtra
its
(151
3-15
14)
Duk
e of
Pru
ssia
(15
28)
Jam
es M
cNei
ll W
hist
ler (
1885
)
Jam
es M
cNei
ll W
hist
ler (
c. 1
895)
Lou
vre
(Par
is)
Kun
sthi
stor
isch
es M
useu
m
(Vie
nna)
M
useu
m o
f Art
, Car
negi
e In
stit
ute
(Pit
tsbu
rgh)
M
usee
d’O
rsay
(Par
is)
Priv
ate
Col
lect
ion
Nat
iona
l Gal
lery
(T
urin
)
Prad
o (M
adri
d)
Mus
ee T
oulo
use-
Lau
trec
(A
lbi,
Fran
ce)
Erl
ange
n-N
urnb
erg
Uni
vers
itats
bibl
ioth
ek
Lou
vre
(Par
is)
Bri
tish
Mus
eum
(L
ondo
n)
Kup
fers
tich
kabi
nett
(Ber
lin)
M
useu
m o
f Fin
e A
rts
Mus
ee C
onde
(C
hant
illy
) Pi
tti (
Flor
ence
) H
erzo
g A
nton
Ulr
ich
Mus
eum
(B
raun
schw
eig)
C
leve
land
Mus
eum
of A
rt
Nat
iona
l Por
trai
t Gal
lery
(E
dinb
urgh
) G
race
fiel
d A
rt C
entr
e (D
umfr
ies,
Sco
tlan
d)
Mus
eum
of M
oder
n A
rt
(New
Yor
k) &
pri
vate
co
llect
ions
(New
Yor
k)
(Bos
ton)
Met
ropo
litan
Mus
eum
Kup
fers
tich
kabi
nett
(Ber
lin)
Juse
pe d
e R
iber
a (1
591-
1652
) B
avar
ian
(art
ist u
nkno
wn)
Ivan
Le
Lor
rain
e A
lbri
ght
(189
7-19
83)
Paul
Cez
anne
(183
9-19
06)
Chr
isti
an S
chad
(189
4-19
82)
Gia
com
o V
ighi
cal
led
Arg
enta
(?-1
573)
Juan
Car
refi
o de
Mir
anda
(161
4-16
85)
Hen
ri d
e T
oulo
use-
Lau
trec
(18
64-1
9011
E
doua
rd V
uilla
rd (
1868
-194
0)
Alb
rech
t Dur
er (1
471-
1528
)
Alb
rech
t D
urer
(147
1-15
28)
Alb
rech
t D
urer
(147
1-15
28)
Alb
rech
t D
urer
(147
1-15
28)
Rap
hael
(148
3-15
20)
Alb
rech
t D
urer
(147
1-15
28)
Rap
hael
(148
3-15
20)
Luc
as C
rana
ch (1
472-
1553
)
Vel
azqu
ez (
1599
-166
0)
Dav
id S
coug
all (
activ
e 16
54-1
677)
Joan
Ear
dley
(192
1-19
63)
Frid
a K
ahlo
(19
07-1
954)
Will
iam
Mer
ritt
Cha
se (1
849-
1916
)
Tho
mas
R. W
ay (1
861-
1913
)
*In
mos
t cas
es th
e in
form
atio
n ha
s be
en p
erso
nally
che
cked
by
the
auth
or
Genetic Disorders in Portraits 339
Figs. 4 and 5. Portraits of patients with mental retardation and microcephaly. (Plate lxxx [p. 2191 and Plate xci [p. 2471 reproduced from A. Morison’s The Physiognomy of Mental Diseases (1840) with kind permission of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.)
the specific diagnosis is not always entirely clear [Kunze and Nippert, 1986; Enderle et al., 19941. In re- cent times we are likely to be more confident of the di- agnosis when this is particularly stated by the artist. Sir Roy Calne is Professor of Surgery in Cambridge and
Fig. 6. Boy After a Liver Transplant (1989) Sir Roy Calne. (Repro- duced by kind permission of the artist.)
a noted artist. His 1989 portrait of a boy recovering from a liver transplant who is stated to have Wilson’s disease is a case in point (Fig. 6).
CONCLUSIONS Portraits of the artist himherself, or of others, may
wittingly or unwittingly document a congenital abnor- mality or genetic disorder in the subject. Such works of art provide a fascinating study for those with interests in the field as well as widening our enjoyment of paint- ings in general.
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Enderle A, Meyerhofer D, Unverfehrt G (1994): “Small People-Great Art: Restricted Growth From an Artistic and Medical Viewpoint.” Hamm, Germany: Artcolor Verlag.
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MacGregor JM (1989): “The Discovery of the Art of the Insane.” Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Morison A (1840): “The Physiognomy of Mental Diseases.” London: Longman (Many original illustrations are also in his Patient Book held by the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh).
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