genetics of viruses and bacteria virus size bacteria are prokaryotes w ith cells much smaller and...
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Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria
Virus Size Bacteria are
prokaryotes with cells much smaller and more simply organized than those of eukaryotes
Viruses are smaller and simpler than bacteria
Virus Bacterium
Animalcell
Animal cell nucleus0.25 µm
The Discovery of Viruses: Scientific Inquiry
Tobacco mosaic disease stunts growth of tobacco plants and gives their leaves a mosaic coloration
In the late 1800s, researchers hypothesized that a particle smaller than bacteria caused the disease
In 1935, Wendell Stanley confirmed this hypothesis by crystallizing the infectious particle, now known as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
Viruses: “Non-living” Entities Small packages of nucleic acids in a
protein coat Are NOT cells—no cytoplasm and do
not perform metabolic reactions Obligate intracellular parasites—
dependent upon other cells for replication
Types of Viruses DNA viruses
Genome is DNA RNA viruses
Genome is RNA Smaller than DNA viruses Lack of proofreading—leads to
evolution rate
Viruses have a Specific Host Range Recognition by complementary fit
between external viral protein and specific cell surface receptor sites
http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/mhunt/rep1.jpg
Bacteriophages
Viruses that infect bacteria
Set in motion a genetic takeover of bacteria, such as Escherichia coli
Viruses Replicate Inside Living Cells
Obligate intracellular parasites Viruses lack enzymes needed for
metabolism and have no structures to make proteins
Use cells own machinery to replicate viruses
Pathogen: agent that causes disease Viruses damage cells during replication
Reproductive Cycles of Phages Phages are the
best understood of all viruses
Phages have two reproductive mechanisms: the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle
Lytic Cycle Lysogenic Cycle
Results in the death of the host cellVirulent phageBacterial defenses—restriction enzymes cut up certain phage DNA
Replicates without destroying the hostTemperate virusThe viral DNA incorporated into the host DNA (prophage)
Lytic Cycle
Virulent Viruses-reproduce only by lytic cycle
Temperate Viruses-reproduces by lytic cycle or lysogenic cycle
Reproductive Cycles of Animal Viruses
• Two key variables in classifying viruses that infect animals: DNA or RNA? Single-stranded or double-stranded?
Class/Family Envelope Examples/Disease
I. Double-stranded DNA (dsDNA)
Adenovirus No Respiratory diseases, animal tumors
Papovavirus No Papillomavirus (warts, cervical cancer): polyomavirus (animal tumors)
Herpesvirus Yes Herpes simplex I and II (cold sores, genital sores); varicella zoster (shingles, chicken pox); Epstein-Barr virus (mononucleosis, Burkitt’s lymphoma)
Poxvirus Yes Smallpox virus, cowpox virus
Class/Family Envelope
Examples/Disease
II. Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA)
Parvovirus No B19 parvovirus (mild rash)
III. Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)
Reovirus No Rotavirus (diarrhea), Colorado tick fever virus
Class/Family Envelope Examples/Disease
IV. Single-stranded RNA (ssRNA); serves as mRNA
Picornavirus No Rhinovirus (common cold); poliovirus, hepatitis A virus, and other enteric (intestinal) viruses
Coronavirus Yes Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
Flavivirus Yes Yellow fever virus, West Nile virus, hepatitis C virus
Togavirus Yes Rubella virus, equine encephalitis viruses
Class/Family Envelope Examples/Disease
V. ssRNA; template for mRNA synthesis
Filovirus Yes Ebola virus (hemorrhagic fever)
Orthomyxovirus Yes Influenza virus
Paramyxovirus Yes Measles virus; mumps virus
Rhabdovirus Yes Rabies virus
VI. ssRNA; template for DNA synthesis
Retrovirus Yes HIV (AIDS); RNA tumor viruses (leukemia)
Animal Viruses1. Glycoproteins on viral envelope
recognize/bind specific receptors on host cell
2. Viral envelope fises with cell’s plasma membrane, and the capsid and viral genome enter the cell
3. Cellular enzymes remove capsid4. Viral genome serves as template
for replication of RNA strandsa. Templates for new RNAb. Serve as mRNA for protein
synthesis5. Vesicles transport glycoproteins
to cell’s plasma membrane6. Capsid forms around viral
genome7. Virus buds from the cell
After entering the cell, viral DNA uses host nucleotides and enzymes to replicate itself
It uses host materials and machinery to produce capsid proteins
Viral DNA and capsid proteins assemble into new virus particles, which leave the cell
Plant Viruses Plant viruses are
serious agricultural pests Most plant viruses
• Have RNA genomes• Enter their hosts via
wounds in the plant’s outer layers
• Injuries, insects feeding, contaminated farming tools
• Once infected, virus spreads through plasmodesmata
Protein RNA
Figure 10.19
RNA as Viral Genetic Material The broadest variety of RNA genomes is
found in viruses that infect animals Retroviruses use reverse transcriptase
to copy their RNA genome into DNA HIV is the retrovirus that causes AIDS
•Genetic flow : RNA DNA
•2 identical strands of RNA•Infects white blood cells
HIV virus
Vaccinations Antibiotics don’t work—no metabolic
reactions to interfere with Vaccines—harmless derivatives of
pathogenic microbes that stimulate the immune system to mount defenses against the actual pathogen Parts of viruses, modified or killed viruses
are injected into the body Allows immune system to make antibodies
against specific markers on the viral coat• HIV mutates too fast for immune system to keep
up with
Influenza Vaccine Influenza, also known as the
flu, is a contagious disease that is caused by the influenza virus. It attacks the respiratory tract in humans (nose, throat, and lungs). The flu is different from a cold. Influenza usually comes on suddenly and may include these symptoms: Fever Headache Tiredness (can be
extreme) Dry cough Sore throat Nasal congestion Body aches
Emerging Viruses
Emerging viruses are those that appear suddenly or suddenly come to the attention of scientists
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) recently appeared in China
Outbreaks of “new” viral diseases in humans are usually caused by existing viruses that expand their host territory
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Young ballet students in HongKong wear face masks toprotect themselves from thevirus causing SARS.
The SARS-causing agent is acoronavirus like this one(colorized TEM), so named forthe “corona” of glyco-proteinspikes protruding form theenvelope.
Emerging Viruses RNA viruses have unusually high
mutation rate Spread of virus from one host
species to another Dissemination of a virus from a
small, isolated populations to widespread epidemics
Global View of HIV epidemicas of 2008
http://www.who.int/hiv/facts/en/hiv_global2003sm.jpg
Viruses and Cancer Tumor viruses can transform cells
into cancerous cellsViral Group Examples/
DiseasesCancer Types
Retrovirus HTLV-1/adult leukemia
Leukemia
Herpesvirus Epstein-Barr/ infectious mononucleosis
Burkitt’s lymphoma
Hepatitis B virus Chronic Hepatitis Liver cancer
Viruses and Cancer Virus inserts viral nucleic acids into host
cell DNA Insertion is permanent-provirus never excises Insertion for DNA tumor viruses
straightforward Oncogenes-genes found in viruses or as
part of normal eukaryotic genome; trigger transformation of a cell to a cancerous state Usually more than one must be activated to
transform a cell
Viroids Smaller and simpler than viruses Small, naked, circular RNA molecules that
do not code for proteins Disrupt normal plant metabolism,
development, and growth by causing errors in gene regulation
Affect many commercial plants—tomatoes, potatoes, chrysanthemums
Thought to have originated from escaped introns—sequences similar to self-splicing introns
Chrysanthemum with chrysanthemum chlorotic mottle viroid
Green tomato infected with tomato spotted wilt virus
Prions Pathogens that are proteins Cause several degenerative brain
diseases (Scrapie in sheep, “Mad Cow” disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease)
Prions: Hypothesis for Propagation
INFECTIOUS PRION PROTEINS have a different shape, which they impose on normal prion proteins in a chain reaction that ends in sickness and death.
A hypothesis of how infectious protein particles, or prions, cause disease: PrPSc - an abnormal protein - communicates with its normal twin - PrPc - creating an abnormal form, that will eventually harm neurons. (Adapted by Leigh Coriale Design and Illustration, with permission, Science [July 12], 1996, American Association for the Advancement of Science.)
Normal BrainKuru Infected Brain
It exists only among a single tribe in Papua New Guinea. The afflicted tribe - the Fore Highlanders - describe it as the "laughing death", because it leads to loss of coordination accompanied by dementia.
Genetics of Bacteria
The Bacterial Chromosome One double-stranded, circular
molecule of DNA Located in nucleoid region, so
transcription and translation can occur simultaneously
Many also contain extrachromosomal DNA in plasmids
Binary Fission
Genetic Recombination Produces New Bacterial Strain
Transformation Transduction Conjugation
Gene transfer occurs separately from bacterial reproduction
Transformation Alteration of bacterial cell’s
genotype by uptake of naked, foreign DNA from the environment
Transformation Biotech companies use this
technique to artificially introduce foreign genes into bacterial genomes (human insulin, human growth hormone)
Transduction
Gene transfer from one bacterium to another by a bacteriophage
Plasmids Short, circular DNA molecules
outside the chromosome Carry genes that are beneficial but
not essential Replicate independently of
chromosome Episomes—plasmids that can be
incorporated into chromosome
Conjugation Direct transfer of genetic material
between bacterial cells that are temporarily joined (bacterial sex)
Sex pili
“male” “female”
“Maleness” results from presence of F factor—segment of DNA in chromosome or in F plasmid
F+
F-
Conjugation
R Plasmids Contain genes that confer antibiotic
resistance
Medical consequences:resistant strains of pathogens due to overuse of antibiotics
Transposition of Genetic Elements The DNA of a cell can also undergo
recombination due to movement of transposable elements within the cell’s genome
Transposable elements, often called “jumping genes,” contribute to genetic shuffling in bacteria
Insertion Sequences
The simplest transposable elements, called insertion sequences, exist only in bacteria
An insertion sequence has a single gene for transposase, an enzyme catalyzing movement of the insertion sequence from one site to another within the genome
Insertion sequence
Transposase gene
53
Invertedrepeat
35
Invertedrepeat
Transposons Transposable elements
called transposons are longer and more complex than insertion sequences Discovered by Barbara
McClintock In addition to DNA required
for transposition, transposons have extra genes that “go along for the ride,” such as genes for antibiotic resistance
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53
35
Transposon
Insertion sequence
Insertion sequence
Antibioticresistance gene
Transposase geneInverted repeat
Individual bacteria respond to environmental change by regulating their gene expression
A bacterium can tune its metabolism to the changing environment and food sources
This metabolic control occurs on two levels: Adjusting activity of metabolic enzymes Regulating genes that encode metabolic
enzymes
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Regulation of enzymeactivity
Regulation of enzymeproduction
Enzyme 1
Regulation of gene expression
Enzyme 2
Enzyme 3
Enzyme 4
Enzyme 5
Gene 2
Gene 1
Gene 3
Gene 4
Gene 5
Tryptophan
Precursor
Feedbackinhibition
Operons: The Basic Concept In bacteria, genes are often clustered into operons,
composed of Regulatory gene —makes repressor protein that blocks
RNA polymerase Promoter region —DNA sequence that RNA polymerase
binds to start transcription Operator region —an “on-off” switch; can block RNA
polymerase if region is blocked by repressor protein Structural genes —DNA sequences that code for several
related metabolic enzymes that direct production of some end product
An operon can be switched off by a protein called a repressor
A corepressor is a small molecule that cooperates with a repressor to switch an operon off
Repressible and Inducible Operons: Two Types of Negative Gene Regulation A repressible operon is one that is usually on;
binding of a repressor to the operator shuts off transcription
The trp operon is a repressible operon An inducible operon is one that is usually off; a
molecule called an inducer inactivates the repressor and turns on transcription
The classic example of an inducible operon is the lac operon, which contains genes coding for enzymes in hydrolysis and metabolism of lactose
Inducible enzymes usually function in catabolic pathways
Repressible enzymes usually function in anabolic pathways
Regulation of the trp and lac operons involves negative control of genes because operons are switched off by the active form of the repressor
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Promoter Promoter
DNA trpR
Regulatorygene
RNApolymerase
mRNA
3
5
Protein Inactiverepressor
Tryptophan absent, repressor inactive, operon on
mRNA 5
trpE trpD trpC trpB trpA
OperatorStart codonStop codon
trp operon
Genes of operon
E
Polypeptides that make upenzymes for tryptophan synthesis
D C B A
Repressible Operon
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DNA lacl
mRNA5
3
lac operon
Lactose present, repressor inactive, operon on
lacZ lacY lacA
RNApolymerase
mRNA 5
Protein
Allolactose(inducer)
Inactiverepressor
-Galactosidase Permease Transacetylase
Inducible Operon
Positive Gene Regulation Some operons are also subject to positive
control through a stimulatory activator protein, such as catabolite activator protein (CAP)
When glucose (a preferred food source of E. coli ) is scarce, the lac operon is activated by the binding of CAP
When glucose levels increase, CAP detaches from the lac operon, turning it off
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Inactive lacrepressor
DNA
cAMP
lacl
CAP-binding site
Promoter
ActiveCAP
InactiveCAP
RNApolymerasecan bindand transcribe
Operator
lacZ
Lactose present, glucose scarce (cAMP level high): abundant lacmRNA synthesized
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DNA lacl
CAP-binding site
Promoter
RNApolymerasecan’t bind
Operator
lacZ
Inactive lacrepressor
InactiveCAP
Lactose present, glucose present (cAMP level low): little lacmRNA synthesized
Both plates of E.coli are transformed by pGLO plasmid as seen by growth on LB with ampicillin. The upper plate also contains arabinose, the inducer for the green fluorescent protein. This is visualized under UV light. The lower plate does not glow even though it has transformed cells because the media lacks arabinose.