samuelj

File Attachment

2000f179coverv05bjpg

GENOCIDE

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction is the most wide-ranging textbook on geno-cide yet published The book is designed as a text for upper-undergraduate andgraduate students as well as a primer for non-specialists and general readers interestedin learning about one of humanityrsquos enduring blights

Over the course of sixteen chapters genocide scholar Adam Jones

bull Provides an introduction to genocide as both a historical phenomenon and ananalytical-legal concept

bull Discusses the role of imperalism war and social revolution in fueling genocidebull Supplies no fewer than seven full-length case studies of genocides worldwide each

with an accompanying box-textbull Explores perspectives on genocide from the social sciences including psychology

sociology anthropology political scienceinternational relations and genderstudies

bull Considers ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo with attention to historical memory andgenocide denial initiatives for truth justice and redress and strategies ofintervention and prevention

Written in clear and lively prose liberally sprinkled with illustrations and personaltestimonies from genocide survivors Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction isdestined to become a core text of the new generation of genocide scholarship Anaccompanying website (wwwgenocidetextnet) features a broad selection ofsupplementary materials teaching aids and Internet resources

Adam Jones PhD is currently Associate Research Fellow in the Genocide StudiesProgram at Yale University His recent publications include the edited volumesGendercide and Genocide (2004) and Genocide War Crimes and the West History andComplicity (2004) He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch(wwwgendercideorg)

GENOCIDE

A Comprehensive Introduction

Adam Jones

First published 2006by Routledge2 Park Square Milton Park Abingdon Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby Routledge270 Madison Ave New York NY 10016

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor amp Francis Group an informa business

copy 2006 Adam Jones

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic mechanical or other means now known or hereafter invented including photocopying and recording or in any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataJones Adam 1963ndashGenocide a comprehensive introduction Adam Jonesp cmIncludes bibliographical references and indexISBN 0ndash415ndash35384ndashX (pbk alk paper) ndash ISBN 0ndash415ndash35385ndash8 (hardback alk paper) 1 Genocide 2 GenocidendashCase studies I TitleHV63227J64 20063046rsquo63ndashdc222005030424

ISBN10 0ndash415ndash35385ndash8 ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash35385ndash4 (hbk)ISBN10 0ndash415ndash35384ndashX ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash35384ndash7 (pbk)ISBN10 0ndash203ndash34744ndash7 ISBN13 978ndash0ndash203ndash34744ndash7 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor amp Francis e-Library 2006

ldquoTo purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor amp Francis or Routledgersquoscollection of thousands of eBooks please go to wwweBookstoretandfcoukrdquo

For Jo and David Jones givers of lifeand for Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes saver of lives

So let us not talk falsely now the hour is getting lateBob Dylan ldquoAll Along the Watchtowerrdquo

CONTENTS

List of illustrations xiiiAbout the author xvIntroduction xviii

PART 1 OVERVIEW 1

1 The Origins of Genocide 3

Genocide in prehistory antiquity and early modernity 3The Vendeacutee uprising 6Zulu genocide 7

Naming genocide Raphael Lemkin 8Defining genocide The UN Convention 12Bounding genocide Comparative genocide studies 14

Discussion 19Personal observations 22

Contested cases 23Atlantic slavery 23Area bombing and nuclear warfare 24UN sanctions against Iraq 25911 26Structural and institutional violence 27

Is genocide ever justified 28Suggestions for further study 31Notes 32

2 Imperialism War and Social Revolution 39

Imperialism and colonialism 39Colonial and imperial genocides 40

Imperial famines 41The Congo ldquorubber terrorrdquo 42The Japanese in East and Southeast Asia 44The US in Indochina 46

vii

The Soviets in Afghanistan 47A note on genocide and imperial dissolution 48

Genocide and war 48The First World War and the dawn of industrial death 51The Second World War and the ldquobarbarization of warfarerdquo 53Genocide and social revolution 55The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo 56

Suggestions for further study 59Notes 60

PART 2 CASES 65

3 Genocides of Indigenous Peoples 67

Introduction 67Colonialism and the discourse of extinction 68The conquest of the Americas 70

Spanish America 70The United States and Canada 72Other genocidal strategies 75A contemporary case The Maya of Guatemala 77

Australiarsquos Aborigines and the Namibian Herero 78Genocide in Australia 78The Herero genocide 80

Denying genocide celebrating genocide 81Complexities and caveats 83Indigenous revival 85Suggestions for further study 87Notes 89

4 The Armenian Genocide 101

Introduction 101Origins of the genocide 102War massacre and deportation 105

The course of the Armenian genocide 106The aftermath 112The denial 113Suggestions for further study 115Notes 116

5 Stalinrsquos Terror 124

The Bolsheviks seize power 125Collectivization and famine 127The Gulag 128

C O N T E N T S

viii

The Great Purge of 1937ndash38 129The war years 131The destruction of national minorities 134Stalin and genocide 135Suggestions for further study 137Notes 138

6 The Jewish Holocaust 147

Introduction 147Origins 148

ldquoOrdinary Germansrdquo and the Nazis 150The turn to mass murder 151Debating the Holocaust 157

Intentionalists vs functionalists 157Jewish resistance 158The Allies and the churches Could the Jews have been saved 159Willing executioners 160Israel and the Jewish Holocaust 161Is the Jewish Holocaust ldquouniquely uniquerdquo 162

Suggestions for further study 163Notes 165

7 Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge 185

Origins of the Khmer Rouge 185War and revolution 1970ndash75 188A genocidal ideology 190A policy of ldquourbiciderdquo 1975 192ldquoBase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo 194Cambodiarsquos holocaust 1975ndash79 195Genocide against Buddhists and ethnic minorities 199Aftermath Politics and the quest for justice 200Suggestions for further study 202Notes 202

8 Bosnia and Kosovo 212

Origins and onset 212Gendercide and genocide in Bosnia 216The international dimension 219Kosovo 1998ndash99 220Aftermaths 222Suggestions for further study 224Notes 224

C O N T E N T S

ix

9 Holocaust in Rwanda 232

Introduction Horror and shame 232Background to genocide 233Genocidal frenzy 238Aftermath 245Suggestions for further study 246Notes 247

PART 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 259

10 Psychological Perspectives 261

Narcissism greed and fear 262Narcissism 262Greed 264Fear 265

Genocide and humiliation 268The psychology of perpetrators 270

The Zimbardo experiments 274The psychology of rescuers 275Suggestions for further study 281Notes 282

11 The Sociology and Anthropology of Genocide 288

Introduction 288Sociological perspectives 289

The sociology of modernity 289Ethnicity and ethnic conflict 291

Ethnic conflict and violence ldquospecialistsrdquo 293ldquoMiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294Anthropological perspectives 296Suggestions for further study 301Notes 302

12 Political Science and International Relations 307

Empirical investigations 307The changing face of war 311Democracy war and genocidedemocide 314Norms and prohibition regimes 316Suggestions for further study 320Notes 321

C O N T E N T S

x

13 Gendering Genocide 325

Gendercide vs root-and-branch genocide 326Women and genocide 329Gendercidal institutions 330Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331Are men more genocidal than women 332A note on gendered propaganda 334Suggestions for further study 336Notes 337

PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343

14 Memory Forgetting and Denial 345

The struggle over historical memory 345Germany and ldquothe search for a usable pastrdquo 349

The politics of forgetting 350Genocide denial Motives and strategies 351Denial and free speech 354Suggestions for further study 358Notes 358

15 Justice Truth and Redress 362

Leipzig Constantinople Nuremberg Tokyo 363The international criminal tribunals Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366

Jurisdictional issues 367The concept of a victim group 367Gender and genocide 367

National trials 368The ldquomixed tribunalsrdquo Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370

Another kind of justice Rwandarsquos gacaca experiment 370The Pinochet case 371The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373International citizensrsquo tribunals 375Truth and reconciliation 377The challenge of redress 379Suggestions for further study 381Notes 382

16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388

Warning signs 389Humanitarian intervention 392

C O N T E N T S

xi

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

GENOCIDE

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction is the most wide-ranging textbook on geno-cide yet published The book is designed as a text for upper-undergraduate andgraduate students as well as a primer for non-specialists and general readers interestedin learning about one of humanityrsquos enduring blights

Over the course of sixteen chapters genocide scholar Adam Jones

bull Provides an introduction to genocide as both a historical phenomenon and ananalytical-legal concept

bull Discusses the role of imperalism war and social revolution in fueling genocidebull Supplies no fewer than seven full-length case studies of genocides worldwide each

with an accompanying box-textbull Explores perspectives on genocide from the social sciences including psychology

sociology anthropology political scienceinternational relations and genderstudies

bull Considers ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo with attention to historical memory andgenocide denial initiatives for truth justice and redress and strategies ofintervention and prevention

Written in clear and lively prose liberally sprinkled with illustrations and personaltestimonies from genocide survivors Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction isdestined to become a core text of the new generation of genocide scholarship Anaccompanying website (wwwgenocidetextnet) features a broad selection ofsupplementary materials teaching aids and Internet resources

Adam Jones PhD is currently Associate Research Fellow in the Genocide StudiesProgram at Yale University His recent publications include the edited volumesGendercide and Genocide (2004) and Genocide War Crimes and the West History andComplicity (2004) He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch(wwwgendercideorg)

GENOCIDE

A Comprehensive Introduction

Adam Jones

First published 2006by Routledge2 Park Square Milton Park Abingdon Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby Routledge270 Madison Ave New York NY 10016

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor amp Francis Group an informa business

copy 2006 Adam Jones

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic mechanical or other means now known or hereafter invented including photocopying and recording or in any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataJones Adam 1963ndashGenocide a comprehensive introduction Adam Jonesp cmIncludes bibliographical references and indexISBN 0ndash415ndash35384ndashX (pbk alk paper) ndash ISBN 0ndash415ndash35385ndash8 (hardback alk paper) 1 Genocide 2 GenocidendashCase studies I TitleHV63227J64 20063046rsquo63ndashdc222005030424

ISBN10 0ndash415ndash35385ndash8 ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash35385ndash4 (hbk)ISBN10 0ndash415ndash35384ndashX ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash35384ndash7 (pbk)ISBN10 0ndash203ndash34744ndash7 ISBN13 978ndash0ndash203ndash34744ndash7 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor amp Francis e-Library 2006

ldquoTo purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor amp Francis or Routledgersquoscollection of thousands of eBooks please go to wwweBookstoretandfcoukrdquo

For Jo and David Jones givers of lifeand for Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes saver of lives

So let us not talk falsely now the hour is getting lateBob Dylan ldquoAll Along the Watchtowerrdquo

CONTENTS

List of illustrations xiiiAbout the author xvIntroduction xviii

PART 1 OVERVIEW 1

1 The Origins of Genocide 3

Genocide in prehistory antiquity and early modernity 3The Vendeacutee uprising 6Zulu genocide 7

Naming genocide Raphael Lemkin 8Defining genocide The UN Convention 12Bounding genocide Comparative genocide studies 14

Discussion 19Personal observations 22

Contested cases 23Atlantic slavery 23Area bombing and nuclear warfare 24UN sanctions against Iraq 25911 26Structural and institutional violence 27

Is genocide ever justified 28Suggestions for further study 31Notes 32

2 Imperialism War and Social Revolution 39

Imperialism and colonialism 39Colonial and imperial genocides 40

Imperial famines 41The Congo ldquorubber terrorrdquo 42The Japanese in East and Southeast Asia 44The US in Indochina 46

vii

The Soviets in Afghanistan 47A note on genocide and imperial dissolution 48

Genocide and war 48The First World War and the dawn of industrial death 51The Second World War and the ldquobarbarization of warfarerdquo 53Genocide and social revolution 55The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo 56

Suggestions for further study 59Notes 60

PART 2 CASES 65

3 Genocides of Indigenous Peoples 67

Introduction 67Colonialism and the discourse of extinction 68The conquest of the Americas 70

Spanish America 70The United States and Canada 72Other genocidal strategies 75A contemporary case The Maya of Guatemala 77

Australiarsquos Aborigines and the Namibian Herero 78Genocide in Australia 78The Herero genocide 80

Denying genocide celebrating genocide 81Complexities and caveats 83Indigenous revival 85Suggestions for further study 87Notes 89

4 The Armenian Genocide 101

Introduction 101Origins of the genocide 102War massacre and deportation 105

The course of the Armenian genocide 106The aftermath 112The denial 113Suggestions for further study 115Notes 116

5 Stalinrsquos Terror 124

The Bolsheviks seize power 125Collectivization and famine 127The Gulag 128

C O N T E N T S

viii

The Great Purge of 1937ndash38 129The war years 131The destruction of national minorities 134Stalin and genocide 135Suggestions for further study 137Notes 138

6 The Jewish Holocaust 147

Introduction 147Origins 148

ldquoOrdinary Germansrdquo and the Nazis 150The turn to mass murder 151Debating the Holocaust 157

Intentionalists vs functionalists 157Jewish resistance 158The Allies and the churches Could the Jews have been saved 159Willing executioners 160Israel and the Jewish Holocaust 161Is the Jewish Holocaust ldquouniquely uniquerdquo 162

Suggestions for further study 163Notes 165

7 Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge 185

Origins of the Khmer Rouge 185War and revolution 1970ndash75 188A genocidal ideology 190A policy of ldquourbiciderdquo 1975 192ldquoBase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo 194Cambodiarsquos holocaust 1975ndash79 195Genocide against Buddhists and ethnic minorities 199Aftermath Politics and the quest for justice 200Suggestions for further study 202Notes 202

8 Bosnia and Kosovo 212

Origins and onset 212Gendercide and genocide in Bosnia 216The international dimension 219Kosovo 1998ndash99 220Aftermaths 222Suggestions for further study 224Notes 224

C O N T E N T S

ix

9 Holocaust in Rwanda 232

Introduction Horror and shame 232Background to genocide 233Genocidal frenzy 238Aftermath 245Suggestions for further study 246Notes 247

PART 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 259

10 Psychological Perspectives 261

Narcissism greed and fear 262Narcissism 262Greed 264Fear 265

Genocide and humiliation 268The psychology of perpetrators 270

The Zimbardo experiments 274The psychology of rescuers 275Suggestions for further study 281Notes 282

11 The Sociology and Anthropology of Genocide 288

Introduction 288Sociological perspectives 289

The sociology of modernity 289Ethnicity and ethnic conflict 291

Ethnic conflict and violence ldquospecialistsrdquo 293ldquoMiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294Anthropological perspectives 296Suggestions for further study 301Notes 302

12 Political Science and International Relations 307

Empirical investigations 307The changing face of war 311Democracy war and genocidedemocide 314Norms and prohibition regimes 316Suggestions for further study 320Notes 321

C O N T E N T S

x

13 Gendering Genocide 325

Gendercide vs root-and-branch genocide 326Women and genocide 329Gendercidal institutions 330Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331Are men more genocidal than women 332A note on gendered propaganda 334Suggestions for further study 336Notes 337

PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343

14 Memory Forgetting and Denial 345

The struggle over historical memory 345Germany and ldquothe search for a usable pastrdquo 349

The politics of forgetting 350Genocide denial Motives and strategies 351Denial and free speech 354Suggestions for further study 358Notes 358

15 Justice Truth and Redress 362

Leipzig Constantinople Nuremberg Tokyo 363The international criminal tribunals Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366

Jurisdictional issues 367The concept of a victim group 367Gender and genocide 367

National trials 368The ldquomixed tribunalsrdquo Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370

Another kind of justice Rwandarsquos gacaca experiment 370The Pinochet case 371The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373International citizensrsquo tribunals 375Truth and reconciliation 377The challenge of redress 379Suggestions for further study 381Notes 382

16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388

Warning signs 389Humanitarian intervention 392

C O N T E N T S

xi

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

GENOCIDE

A Comprehensive Introduction

Adam Jones

First published 2006by Routledge2 Park Square Milton Park Abingdon Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby Routledge270 Madison Ave New York NY 10016

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor amp Francis Group an informa business

copy 2006 Adam Jones

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic mechanical or other means now known or hereafter invented including photocopying and recording or in any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataJones Adam 1963ndashGenocide a comprehensive introduction Adam Jonesp cmIncludes bibliographical references and indexISBN 0ndash415ndash35384ndashX (pbk alk paper) ndash ISBN 0ndash415ndash35385ndash8 (hardback alk paper) 1 Genocide 2 GenocidendashCase studies I TitleHV63227J64 20063046rsquo63ndashdc222005030424

ISBN10 0ndash415ndash35385ndash8 ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash35385ndash4 (hbk)ISBN10 0ndash415ndash35384ndashX ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash35384ndash7 (pbk)ISBN10 0ndash203ndash34744ndash7 ISBN13 978ndash0ndash203ndash34744ndash7 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor amp Francis e-Library 2006

ldquoTo purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor amp Francis or Routledgersquoscollection of thousands of eBooks please go to wwweBookstoretandfcoukrdquo

For Jo and David Jones givers of lifeand for Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes saver of lives

So let us not talk falsely now the hour is getting lateBob Dylan ldquoAll Along the Watchtowerrdquo

CONTENTS

List of illustrations xiiiAbout the author xvIntroduction xviii

PART 1 OVERVIEW 1

1 The Origins of Genocide 3

Genocide in prehistory antiquity and early modernity 3The Vendeacutee uprising 6Zulu genocide 7

Naming genocide Raphael Lemkin 8Defining genocide The UN Convention 12Bounding genocide Comparative genocide studies 14

Discussion 19Personal observations 22

Contested cases 23Atlantic slavery 23Area bombing and nuclear warfare 24UN sanctions against Iraq 25911 26Structural and institutional violence 27

Is genocide ever justified 28Suggestions for further study 31Notes 32

2 Imperialism War and Social Revolution 39

Imperialism and colonialism 39Colonial and imperial genocides 40

Imperial famines 41The Congo ldquorubber terrorrdquo 42The Japanese in East and Southeast Asia 44The US in Indochina 46

vii

The Soviets in Afghanistan 47A note on genocide and imperial dissolution 48

Genocide and war 48The First World War and the dawn of industrial death 51The Second World War and the ldquobarbarization of warfarerdquo 53Genocide and social revolution 55The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo 56

Suggestions for further study 59Notes 60

PART 2 CASES 65

3 Genocides of Indigenous Peoples 67

Introduction 67Colonialism and the discourse of extinction 68The conquest of the Americas 70

Spanish America 70The United States and Canada 72Other genocidal strategies 75A contemporary case The Maya of Guatemala 77

Australiarsquos Aborigines and the Namibian Herero 78Genocide in Australia 78The Herero genocide 80

Denying genocide celebrating genocide 81Complexities and caveats 83Indigenous revival 85Suggestions for further study 87Notes 89

4 The Armenian Genocide 101

Introduction 101Origins of the genocide 102War massacre and deportation 105

The course of the Armenian genocide 106The aftermath 112The denial 113Suggestions for further study 115Notes 116

5 Stalinrsquos Terror 124

The Bolsheviks seize power 125Collectivization and famine 127The Gulag 128

C O N T E N T S

viii

The Great Purge of 1937ndash38 129The war years 131The destruction of national minorities 134Stalin and genocide 135Suggestions for further study 137Notes 138

6 The Jewish Holocaust 147

Introduction 147Origins 148

ldquoOrdinary Germansrdquo and the Nazis 150The turn to mass murder 151Debating the Holocaust 157

Intentionalists vs functionalists 157Jewish resistance 158The Allies and the churches Could the Jews have been saved 159Willing executioners 160Israel and the Jewish Holocaust 161Is the Jewish Holocaust ldquouniquely uniquerdquo 162

Suggestions for further study 163Notes 165

7 Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge 185

Origins of the Khmer Rouge 185War and revolution 1970ndash75 188A genocidal ideology 190A policy of ldquourbiciderdquo 1975 192ldquoBase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo 194Cambodiarsquos holocaust 1975ndash79 195Genocide against Buddhists and ethnic minorities 199Aftermath Politics and the quest for justice 200Suggestions for further study 202Notes 202

8 Bosnia and Kosovo 212

Origins and onset 212Gendercide and genocide in Bosnia 216The international dimension 219Kosovo 1998ndash99 220Aftermaths 222Suggestions for further study 224Notes 224

C O N T E N T S

ix

9 Holocaust in Rwanda 232

Introduction Horror and shame 232Background to genocide 233Genocidal frenzy 238Aftermath 245Suggestions for further study 246Notes 247

PART 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 259

10 Psychological Perspectives 261

Narcissism greed and fear 262Narcissism 262Greed 264Fear 265

Genocide and humiliation 268The psychology of perpetrators 270

The Zimbardo experiments 274The psychology of rescuers 275Suggestions for further study 281Notes 282

11 The Sociology and Anthropology of Genocide 288

Introduction 288Sociological perspectives 289

The sociology of modernity 289Ethnicity and ethnic conflict 291

Ethnic conflict and violence ldquospecialistsrdquo 293ldquoMiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294Anthropological perspectives 296Suggestions for further study 301Notes 302

12 Political Science and International Relations 307

Empirical investigations 307The changing face of war 311Democracy war and genocidedemocide 314Norms and prohibition regimes 316Suggestions for further study 320Notes 321

C O N T E N T S

x

13 Gendering Genocide 325

Gendercide vs root-and-branch genocide 326Women and genocide 329Gendercidal institutions 330Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331Are men more genocidal than women 332A note on gendered propaganda 334Suggestions for further study 336Notes 337

PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343

14 Memory Forgetting and Denial 345

The struggle over historical memory 345Germany and ldquothe search for a usable pastrdquo 349

The politics of forgetting 350Genocide denial Motives and strategies 351Denial and free speech 354Suggestions for further study 358Notes 358

15 Justice Truth and Redress 362

Leipzig Constantinople Nuremberg Tokyo 363The international criminal tribunals Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366

Jurisdictional issues 367The concept of a victim group 367Gender and genocide 367

National trials 368The ldquomixed tribunalsrdquo Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370

Another kind of justice Rwandarsquos gacaca experiment 370The Pinochet case 371The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373International citizensrsquo tribunals 375Truth and reconciliation 377The challenge of redress 379Suggestions for further study 381Notes 382

16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388

Warning signs 389Humanitarian intervention 392

C O N T E N T S

xi

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

First published 2006by Routledge2 Park Square Milton Park Abingdon Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby Routledge270 Madison Ave New York NY 10016

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor amp Francis Group an informa business

copy 2006 Adam Jones

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic mechanical or other means now known or hereafter invented including photocopying and recording or in any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataJones Adam 1963ndashGenocide a comprehensive introduction Adam Jonesp cmIncludes bibliographical references and indexISBN 0ndash415ndash35384ndashX (pbk alk paper) ndash ISBN 0ndash415ndash35385ndash8 (hardback alk paper) 1 Genocide 2 GenocidendashCase studies I TitleHV63227J64 20063046rsquo63ndashdc222005030424

ISBN10 0ndash415ndash35385ndash8 ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash35385ndash4 (hbk)ISBN10 0ndash415ndash35384ndashX ISBN13 978ndash0ndash415ndash35384ndash7 (pbk)ISBN10 0ndash203ndash34744ndash7 ISBN13 978ndash0ndash203ndash34744ndash7 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor amp Francis e-Library 2006

ldquoTo purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor amp Francis or Routledgersquoscollection of thousands of eBooks please go to wwweBookstoretandfcoukrdquo

For Jo and David Jones givers of lifeand for Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes saver of lives

So let us not talk falsely now the hour is getting lateBob Dylan ldquoAll Along the Watchtowerrdquo

CONTENTS

List of illustrations xiiiAbout the author xvIntroduction xviii

PART 1 OVERVIEW 1

1 The Origins of Genocide 3

Genocide in prehistory antiquity and early modernity 3The Vendeacutee uprising 6Zulu genocide 7

Naming genocide Raphael Lemkin 8Defining genocide The UN Convention 12Bounding genocide Comparative genocide studies 14

Discussion 19Personal observations 22

Contested cases 23Atlantic slavery 23Area bombing and nuclear warfare 24UN sanctions against Iraq 25911 26Structural and institutional violence 27

Is genocide ever justified 28Suggestions for further study 31Notes 32

2 Imperialism War and Social Revolution 39

Imperialism and colonialism 39Colonial and imperial genocides 40

Imperial famines 41The Congo ldquorubber terrorrdquo 42The Japanese in East and Southeast Asia 44The US in Indochina 46

vii

The Soviets in Afghanistan 47A note on genocide and imperial dissolution 48

Genocide and war 48The First World War and the dawn of industrial death 51The Second World War and the ldquobarbarization of warfarerdquo 53Genocide and social revolution 55The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo 56

Suggestions for further study 59Notes 60

PART 2 CASES 65

3 Genocides of Indigenous Peoples 67

Introduction 67Colonialism and the discourse of extinction 68The conquest of the Americas 70

Spanish America 70The United States and Canada 72Other genocidal strategies 75A contemporary case The Maya of Guatemala 77

Australiarsquos Aborigines and the Namibian Herero 78Genocide in Australia 78The Herero genocide 80

Denying genocide celebrating genocide 81Complexities and caveats 83Indigenous revival 85Suggestions for further study 87Notes 89

4 The Armenian Genocide 101

Introduction 101Origins of the genocide 102War massacre and deportation 105

The course of the Armenian genocide 106The aftermath 112The denial 113Suggestions for further study 115Notes 116

5 Stalinrsquos Terror 124

The Bolsheviks seize power 125Collectivization and famine 127The Gulag 128

C O N T E N T S

viii

The Great Purge of 1937ndash38 129The war years 131The destruction of national minorities 134Stalin and genocide 135Suggestions for further study 137Notes 138

6 The Jewish Holocaust 147

Introduction 147Origins 148

ldquoOrdinary Germansrdquo and the Nazis 150The turn to mass murder 151Debating the Holocaust 157

Intentionalists vs functionalists 157Jewish resistance 158The Allies and the churches Could the Jews have been saved 159Willing executioners 160Israel and the Jewish Holocaust 161Is the Jewish Holocaust ldquouniquely uniquerdquo 162

Suggestions for further study 163Notes 165

7 Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge 185

Origins of the Khmer Rouge 185War and revolution 1970ndash75 188A genocidal ideology 190A policy of ldquourbiciderdquo 1975 192ldquoBase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo 194Cambodiarsquos holocaust 1975ndash79 195Genocide against Buddhists and ethnic minorities 199Aftermath Politics and the quest for justice 200Suggestions for further study 202Notes 202

8 Bosnia and Kosovo 212

Origins and onset 212Gendercide and genocide in Bosnia 216The international dimension 219Kosovo 1998ndash99 220Aftermaths 222Suggestions for further study 224Notes 224

C O N T E N T S

ix

9 Holocaust in Rwanda 232

Introduction Horror and shame 232Background to genocide 233Genocidal frenzy 238Aftermath 245Suggestions for further study 246Notes 247

PART 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 259

10 Psychological Perspectives 261

Narcissism greed and fear 262Narcissism 262Greed 264Fear 265

Genocide and humiliation 268The psychology of perpetrators 270

The Zimbardo experiments 274The psychology of rescuers 275Suggestions for further study 281Notes 282

11 The Sociology and Anthropology of Genocide 288

Introduction 288Sociological perspectives 289

The sociology of modernity 289Ethnicity and ethnic conflict 291

Ethnic conflict and violence ldquospecialistsrdquo 293ldquoMiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294Anthropological perspectives 296Suggestions for further study 301Notes 302

12 Political Science and International Relations 307

Empirical investigations 307The changing face of war 311Democracy war and genocidedemocide 314Norms and prohibition regimes 316Suggestions for further study 320Notes 321

C O N T E N T S

x

13 Gendering Genocide 325

Gendercide vs root-and-branch genocide 326Women and genocide 329Gendercidal institutions 330Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331Are men more genocidal than women 332A note on gendered propaganda 334Suggestions for further study 336Notes 337

PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343

14 Memory Forgetting and Denial 345

The struggle over historical memory 345Germany and ldquothe search for a usable pastrdquo 349

The politics of forgetting 350Genocide denial Motives and strategies 351Denial and free speech 354Suggestions for further study 358Notes 358

15 Justice Truth and Redress 362

Leipzig Constantinople Nuremberg Tokyo 363The international criminal tribunals Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366

Jurisdictional issues 367The concept of a victim group 367Gender and genocide 367

National trials 368The ldquomixed tribunalsrdquo Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370

Another kind of justice Rwandarsquos gacaca experiment 370The Pinochet case 371The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373International citizensrsquo tribunals 375Truth and reconciliation 377The challenge of redress 379Suggestions for further study 381Notes 382

16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388

Warning signs 389Humanitarian intervention 392

C O N T E N T S

xi

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

For Jo and David Jones givers of lifeand for Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes saver of lives

So let us not talk falsely now the hour is getting lateBob Dylan ldquoAll Along the Watchtowerrdquo

CONTENTS

List of illustrations xiiiAbout the author xvIntroduction xviii

PART 1 OVERVIEW 1

1 The Origins of Genocide 3

Genocide in prehistory antiquity and early modernity 3The Vendeacutee uprising 6Zulu genocide 7

Naming genocide Raphael Lemkin 8Defining genocide The UN Convention 12Bounding genocide Comparative genocide studies 14

Discussion 19Personal observations 22

Contested cases 23Atlantic slavery 23Area bombing and nuclear warfare 24UN sanctions against Iraq 25911 26Structural and institutional violence 27

Is genocide ever justified 28Suggestions for further study 31Notes 32

2 Imperialism War and Social Revolution 39

Imperialism and colonialism 39Colonial and imperial genocides 40

Imperial famines 41The Congo ldquorubber terrorrdquo 42The Japanese in East and Southeast Asia 44The US in Indochina 46

vii

The Soviets in Afghanistan 47A note on genocide and imperial dissolution 48

Genocide and war 48The First World War and the dawn of industrial death 51The Second World War and the ldquobarbarization of warfarerdquo 53Genocide and social revolution 55The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo 56

Suggestions for further study 59Notes 60

PART 2 CASES 65

3 Genocides of Indigenous Peoples 67

Introduction 67Colonialism and the discourse of extinction 68The conquest of the Americas 70

Spanish America 70The United States and Canada 72Other genocidal strategies 75A contemporary case The Maya of Guatemala 77

Australiarsquos Aborigines and the Namibian Herero 78Genocide in Australia 78The Herero genocide 80

Denying genocide celebrating genocide 81Complexities and caveats 83Indigenous revival 85Suggestions for further study 87Notes 89

4 The Armenian Genocide 101

Introduction 101Origins of the genocide 102War massacre and deportation 105

The course of the Armenian genocide 106The aftermath 112The denial 113Suggestions for further study 115Notes 116

5 Stalinrsquos Terror 124

The Bolsheviks seize power 125Collectivization and famine 127The Gulag 128

C O N T E N T S

viii

The Great Purge of 1937ndash38 129The war years 131The destruction of national minorities 134Stalin and genocide 135Suggestions for further study 137Notes 138

6 The Jewish Holocaust 147

Introduction 147Origins 148

ldquoOrdinary Germansrdquo and the Nazis 150The turn to mass murder 151Debating the Holocaust 157

Intentionalists vs functionalists 157Jewish resistance 158The Allies and the churches Could the Jews have been saved 159Willing executioners 160Israel and the Jewish Holocaust 161Is the Jewish Holocaust ldquouniquely uniquerdquo 162

Suggestions for further study 163Notes 165

7 Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge 185

Origins of the Khmer Rouge 185War and revolution 1970ndash75 188A genocidal ideology 190A policy of ldquourbiciderdquo 1975 192ldquoBase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo 194Cambodiarsquos holocaust 1975ndash79 195Genocide against Buddhists and ethnic minorities 199Aftermath Politics and the quest for justice 200Suggestions for further study 202Notes 202

8 Bosnia and Kosovo 212

Origins and onset 212Gendercide and genocide in Bosnia 216The international dimension 219Kosovo 1998ndash99 220Aftermaths 222Suggestions for further study 224Notes 224

C O N T E N T S

ix

9 Holocaust in Rwanda 232

Introduction Horror and shame 232Background to genocide 233Genocidal frenzy 238Aftermath 245Suggestions for further study 246Notes 247

PART 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 259

10 Psychological Perspectives 261

Narcissism greed and fear 262Narcissism 262Greed 264Fear 265

Genocide and humiliation 268The psychology of perpetrators 270

The Zimbardo experiments 274The psychology of rescuers 275Suggestions for further study 281Notes 282

11 The Sociology and Anthropology of Genocide 288

Introduction 288Sociological perspectives 289

The sociology of modernity 289Ethnicity and ethnic conflict 291

Ethnic conflict and violence ldquospecialistsrdquo 293ldquoMiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294Anthropological perspectives 296Suggestions for further study 301Notes 302

12 Political Science and International Relations 307

Empirical investigations 307The changing face of war 311Democracy war and genocidedemocide 314Norms and prohibition regimes 316Suggestions for further study 320Notes 321

C O N T E N T S

x

13 Gendering Genocide 325

Gendercide vs root-and-branch genocide 326Women and genocide 329Gendercidal institutions 330Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331Are men more genocidal than women 332A note on gendered propaganda 334Suggestions for further study 336Notes 337

PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343

14 Memory Forgetting and Denial 345

The struggle over historical memory 345Germany and ldquothe search for a usable pastrdquo 349

The politics of forgetting 350Genocide denial Motives and strategies 351Denial and free speech 354Suggestions for further study 358Notes 358

15 Justice Truth and Redress 362

Leipzig Constantinople Nuremberg Tokyo 363The international criminal tribunals Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366

Jurisdictional issues 367The concept of a victim group 367Gender and genocide 367

National trials 368The ldquomixed tribunalsrdquo Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370

Another kind of justice Rwandarsquos gacaca experiment 370The Pinochet case 371The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373International citizensrsquo tribunals 375Truth and reconciliation 377The challenge of redress 379Suggestions for further study 381Notes 382

16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388

Warning signs 389Humanitarian intervention 392

C O N T E N T S

xi

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

So let us not talk falsely now the hour is getting lateBob Dylan ldquoAll Along the Watchtowerrdquo

CONTENTS

List of illustrations xiiiAbout the author xvIntroduction xviii

PART 1 OVERVIEW 1

1 The Origins of Genocide 3

Genocide in prehistory antiquity and early modernity 3The Vendeacutee uprising 6Zulu genocide 7

Naming genocide Raphael Lemkin 8Defining genocide The UN Convention 12Bounding genocide Comparative genocide studies 14

Discussion 19Personal observations 22

Contested cases 23Atlantic slavery 23Area bombing and nuclear warfare 24UN sanctions against Iraq 25911 26Structural and institutional violence 27

Is genocide ever justified 28Suggestions for further study 31Notes 32

2 Imperialism War and Social Revolution 39

Imperialism and colonialism 39Colonial and imperial genocides 40

Imperial famines 41The Congo ldquorubber terrorrdquo 42The Japanese in East and Southeast Asia 44The US in Indochina 46

vii

The Soviets in Afghanistan 47A note on genocide and imperial dissolution 48

Genocide and war 48The First World War and the dawn of industrial death 51The Second World War and the ldquobarbarization of warfarerdquo 53Genocide and social revolution 55The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo 56

Suggestions for further study 59Notes 60

PART 2 CASES 65

3 Genocides of Indigenous Peoples 67

Introduction 67Colonialism and the discourse of extinction 68The conquest of the Americas 70

Spanish America 70The United States and Canada 72Other genocidal strategies 75A contemporary case The Maya of Guatemala 77

Australiarsquos Aborigines and the Namibian Herero 78Genocide in Australia 78The Herero genocide 80

Denying genocide celebrating genocide 81Complexities and caveats 83Indigenous revival 85Suggestions for further study 87Notes 89

4 The Armenian Genocide 101

Introduction 101Origins of the genocide 102War massacre and deportation 105

The course of the Armenian genocide 106The aftermath 112The denial 113Suggestions for further study 115Notes 116

5 Stalinrsquos Terror 124

The Bolsheviks seize power 125Collectivization and famine 127The Gulag 128

C O N T E N T S

viii

The Great Purge of 1937ndash38 129The war years 131The destruction of national minorities 134Stalin and genocide 135Suggestions for further study 137Notes 138

6 The Jewish Holocaust 147

Introduction 147Origins 148

ldquoOrdinary Germansrdquo and the Nazis 150The turn to mass murder 151Debating the Holocaust 157

Intentionalists vs functionalists 157Jewish resistance 158The Allies and the churches Could the Jews have been saved 159Willing executioners 160Israel and the Jewish Holocaust 161Is the Jewish Holocaust ldquouniquely uniquerdquo 162

Suggestions for further study 163Notes 165

7 Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge 185

Origins of the Khmer Rouge 185War and revolution 1970ndash75 188A genocidal ideology 190A policy of ldquourbiciderdquo 1975 192ldquoBase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo 194Cambodiarsquos holocaust 1975ndash79 195Genocide against Buddhists and ethnic minorities 199Aftermath Politics and the quest for justice 200Suggestions for further study 202Notes 202

8 Bosnia and Kosovo 212

Origins and onset 212Gendercide and genocide in Bosnia 216The international dimension 219Kosovo 1998ndash99 220Aftermaths 222Suggestions for further study 224Notes 224

C O N T E N T S

ix

9 Holocaust in Rwanda 232

Introduction Horror and shame 232Background to genocide 233Genocidal frenzy 238Aftermath 245Suggestions for further study 246Notes 247

PART 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 259

10 Psychological Perspectives 261

Narcissism greed and fear 262Narcissism 262Greed 264Fear 265

Genocide and humiliation 268The psychology of perpetrators 270

The Zimbardo experiments 274The psychology of rescuers 275Suggestions for further study 281Notes 282

11 The Sociology and Anthropology of Genocide 288

Introduction 288Sociological perspectives 289

The sociology of modernity 289Ethnicity and ethnic conflict 291

Ethnic conflict and violence ldquospecialistsrdquo 293ldquoMiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294Anthropological perspectives 296Suggestions for further study 301Notes 302

12 Political Science and International Relations 307

Empirical investigations 307The changing face of war 311Democracy war and genocidedemocide 314Norms and prohibition regimes 316Suggestions for further study 320Notes 321

C O N T E N T S

x

13 Gendering Genocide 325

Gendercide vs root-and-branch genocide 326Women and genocide 329Gendercidal institutions 330Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331Are men more genocidal than women 332A note on gendered propaganda 334Suggestions for further study 336Notes 337

PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343

14 Memory Forgetting and Denial 345

The struggle over historical memory 345Germany and ldquothe search for a usable pastrdquo 349

The politics of forgetting 350Genocide denial Motives and strategies 351Denial and free speech 354Suggestions for further study 358Notes 358

15 Justice Truth and Redress 362

Leipzig Constantinople Nuremberg Tokyo 363The international criminal tribunals Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366

Jurisdictional issues 367The concept of a victim group 367Gender and genocide 367

National trials 368The ldquomixed tribunalsrdquo Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370

Another kind of justice Rwandarsquos gacaca experiment 370The Pinochet case 371The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373International citizensrsquo tribunals 375Truth and reconciliation 377The challenge of redress 379Suggestions for further study 381Notes 382

16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388

Warning signs 389Humanitarian intervention 392

C O N T E N T S

xi

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

CONTENTS

List of illustrations xiiiAbout the author xvIntroduction xviii

PART 1 OVERVIEW 1

1 The Origins of Genocide 3

Genocide in prehistory antiquity and early modernity 3The Vendeacutee uprising 6Zulu genocide 7

Naming genocide Raphael Lemkin 8Defining genocide The UN Convention 12Bounding genocide Comparative genocide studies 14

Discussion 19Personal observations 22

Contested cases 23Atlantic slavery 23Area bombing and nuclear warfare 24UN sanctions against Iraq 25911 26Structural and institutional violence 27

Is genocide ever justified 28Suggestions for further study 31Notes 32

2 Imperialism War and Social Revolution 39

Imperialism and colonialism 39Colonial and imperial genocides 40

Imperial famines 41The Congo ldquorubber terrorrdquo 42The Japanese in East and Southeast Asia 44The US in Indochina 46

vii

The Soviets in Afghanistan 47A note on genocide and imperial dissolution 48

Genocide and war 48The First World War and the dawn of industrial death 51The Second World War and the ldquobarbarization of warfarerdquo 53Genocide and social revolution 55The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo 56

Suggestions for further study 59Notes 60

PART 2 CASES 65

3 Genocides of Indigenous Peoples 67

Introduction 67Colonialism and the discourse of extinction 68The conquest of the Americas 70

Spanish America 70The United States and Canada 72Other genocidal strategies 75A contemporary case The Maya of Guatemala 77

Australiarsquos Aborigines and the Namibian Herero 78Genocide in Australia 78The Herero genocide 80

Denying genocide celebrating genocide 81Complexities and caveats 83Indigenous revival 85Suggestions for further study 87Notes 89

4 The Armenian Genocide 101

Introduction 101Origins of the genocide 102War massacre and deportation 105

The course of the Armenian genocide 106The aftermath 112The denial 113Suggestions for further study 115Notes 116

5 Stalinrsquos Terror 124

The Bolsheviks seize power 125Collectivization and famine 127The Gulag 128

C O N T E N T S

viii

The Great Purge of 1937ndash38 129The war years 131The destruction of national minorities 134Stalin and genocide 135Suggestions for further study 137Notes 138

6 The Jewish Holocaust 147

Introduction 147Origins 148

ldquoOrdinary Germansrdquo and the Nazis 150The turn to mass murder 151Debating the Holocaust 157

Intentionalists vs functionalists 157Jewish resistance 158The Allies and the churches Could the Jews have been saved 159Willing executioners 160Israel and the Jewish Holocaust 161Is the Jewish Holocaust ldquouniquely uniquerdquo 162

Suggestions for further study 163Notes 165

7 Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge 185

Origins of the Khmer Rouge 185War and revolution 1970ndash75 188A genocidal ideology 190A policy of ldquourbiciderdquo 1975 192ldquoBase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo 194Cambodiarsquos holocaust 1975ndash79 195Genocide against Buddhists and ethnic minorities 199Aftermath Politics and the quest for justice 200Suggestions for further study 202Notes 202

8 Bosnia and Kosovo 212

Origins and onset 212Gendercide and genocide in Bosnia 216The international dimension 219Kosovo 1998ndash99 220Aftermaths 222Suggestions for further study 224Notes 224

C O N T E N T S

ix

9 Holocaust in Rwanda 232

Introduction Horror and shame 232Background to genocide 233Genocidal frenzy 238Aftermath 245Suggestions for further study 246Notes 247

PART 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 259

10 Psychological Perspectives 261

Narcissism greed and fear 262Narcissism 262Greed 264Fear 265

Genocide and humiliation 268The psychology of perpetrators 270

The Zimbardo experiments 274The psychology of rescuers 275Suggestions for further study 281Notes 282

11 The Sociology and Anthropology of Genocide 288

Introduction 288Sociological perspectives 289

The sociology of modernity 289Ethnicity and ethnic conflict 291

Ethnic conflict and violence ldquospecialistsrdquo 293ldquoMiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294Anthropological perspectives 296Suggestions for further study 301Notes 302

12 Political Science and International Relations 307

Empirical investigations 307The changing face of war 311Democracy war and genocidedemocide 314Norms and prohibition regimes 316Suggestions for further study 320Notes 321

C O N T E N T S

x

13 Gendering Genocide 325

Gendercide vs root-and-branch genocide 326Women and genocide 329Gendercidal institutions 330Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331Are men more genocidal than women 332A note on gendered propaganda 334Suggestions for further study 336Notes 337

PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343

14 Memory Forgetting and Denial 345

The struggle over historical memory 345Germany and ldquothe search for a usable pastrdquo 349

The politics of forgetting 350Genocide denial Motives and strategies 351Denial and free speech 354Suggestions for further study 358Notes 358

15 Justice Truth and Redress 362

Leipzig Constantinople Nuremberg Tokyo 363The international criminal tribunals Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366

Jurisdictional issues 367The concept of a victim group 367Gender and genocide 367

National trials 368The ldquomixed tribunalsrdquo Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370

Another kind of justice Rwandarsquos gacaca experiment 370The Pinochet case 371The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373International citizensrsquo tribunals 375Truth and reconciliation 377The challenge of redress 379Suggestions for further study 381Notes 382

16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388

Warning signs 389Humanitarian intervention 392

C O N T E N T S

xi

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

The Soviets in Afghanistan 47A note on genocide and imperial dissolution 48

Genocide and war 48The First World War and the dawn of industrial death 51The Second World War and the ldquobarbarization of warfarerdquo 53Genocide and social revolution 55The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo 56

Suggestions for further study 59Notes 60

PART 2 CASES 65

3 Genocides of Indigenous Peoples 67

Introduction 67Colonialism and the discourse of extinction 68The conquest of the Americas 70

Spanish America 70The United States and Canada 72Other genocidal strategies 75A contemporary case The Maya of Guatemala 77

Australiarsquos Aborigines and the Namibian Herero 78Genocide in Australia 78The Herero genocide 80

Denying genocide celebrating genocide 81Complexities and caveats 83Indigenous revival 85Suggestions for further study 87Notes 89

4 The Armenian Genocide 101

Introduction 101Origins of the genocide 102War massacre and deportation 105

The course of the Armenian genocide 106The aftermath 112The denial 113Suggestions for further study 115Notes 116

5 Stalinrsquos Terror 124

The Bolsheviks seize power 125Collectivization and famine 127The Gulag 128

C O N T E N T S

viii

The Great Purge of 1937ndash38 129The war years 131The destruction of national minorities 134Stalin and genocide 135Suggestions for further study 137Notes 138

6 The Jewish Holocaust 147

Introduction 147Origins 148

ldquoOrdinary Germansrdquo and the Nazis 150The turn to mass murder 151Debating the Holocaust 157

Intentionalists vs functionalists 157Jewish resistance 158The Allies and the churches Could the Jews have been saved 159Willing executioners 160Israel and the Jewish Holocaust 161Is the Jewish Holocaust ldquouniquely uniquerdquo 162

Suggestions for further study 163Notes 165

7 Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge 185

Origins of the Khmer Rouge 185War and revolution 1970ndash75 188A genocidal ideology 190A policy of ldquourbiciderdquo 1975 192ldquoBase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo 194Cambodiarsquos holocaust 1975ndash79 195Genocide against Buddhists and ethnic minorities 199Aftermath Politics and the quest for justice 200Suggestions for further study 202Notes 202

8 Bosnia and Kosovo 212

Origins and onset 212Gendercide and genocide in Bosnia 216The international dimension 219Kosovo 1998ndash99 220Aftermaths 222Suggestions for further study 224Notes 224

C O N T E N T S

ix

9 Holocaust in Rwanda 232

Introduction Horror and shame 232Background to genocide 233Genocidal frenzy 238Aftermath 245Suggestions for further study 246Notes 247

PART 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 259

10 Psychological Perspectives 261

Narcissism greed and fear 262Narcissism 262Greed 264Fear 265

Genocide and humiliation 268The psychology of perpetrators 270

The Zimbardo experiments 274The psychology of rescuers 275Suggestions for further study 281Notes 282

11 The Sociology and Anthropology of Genocide 288

Introduction 288Sociological perspectives 289

The sociology of modernity 289Ethnicity and ethnic conflict 291

Ethnic conflict and violence ldquospecialistsrdquo 293ldquoMiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294Anthropological perspectives 296Suggestions for further study 301Notes 302

12 Political Science and International Relations 307

Empirical investigations 307The changing face of war 311Democracy war and genocidedemocide 314Norms and prohibition regimes 316Suggestions for further study 320Notes 321

C O N T E N T S

x

13 Gendering Genocide 325

Gendercide vs root-and-branch genocide 326Women and genocide 329Gendercidal institutions 330Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331Are men more genocidal than women 332A note on gendered propaganda 334Suggestions for further study 336Notes 337

PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343

14 Memory Forgetting and Denial 345

The struggle over historical memory 345Germany and ldquothe search for a usable pastrdquo 349

The politics of forgetting 350Genocide denial Motives and strategies 351Denial and free speech 354Suggestions for further study 358Notes 358

15 Justice Truth and Redress 362

Leipzig Constantinople Nuremberg Tokyo 363The international criminal tribunals Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366

Jurisdictional issues 367The concept of a victim group 367Gender and genocide 367

National trials 368The ldquomixed tribunalsrdquo Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370

Another kind of justice Rwandarsquos gacaca experiment 370The Pinochet case 371The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373International citizensrsquo tribunals 375Truth and reconciliation 377The challenge of redress 379Suggestions for further study 381Notes 382

16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388

Warning signs 389Humanitarian intervention 392

C O N T E N T S

xi

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

The Great Purge of 1937ndash38 129The war years 131The destruction of national minorities 134Stalin and genocide 135Suggestions for further study 137Notes 138

6 The Jewish Holocaust 147

Introduction 147Origins 148

ldquoOrdinary Germansrdquo and the Nazis 150The turn to mass murder 151Debating the Holocaust 157

Intentionalists vs functionalists 157Jewish resistance 158The Allies and the churches Could the Jews have been saved 159Willing executioners 160Israel and the Jewish Holocaust 161Is the Jewish Holocaust ldquouniquely uniquerdquo 162

Suggestions for further study 163Notes 165

7 Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge 185

Origins of the Khmer Rouge 185War and revolution 1970ndash75 188A genocidal ideology 190A policy of ldquourbiciderdquo 1975 192ldquoBase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo 194Cambodiarsquos holocaust 1975ndash79 195Genocide against Buddhists and ethnic minorities 199Aftermath Politics and the quest for justice 200Suggestions for further study 202Notes 202

8 Bosnia and Kosovo 212

Origins and onset 212Gendercide and genocide in Bosnia 216The international dimension 219Kosovo 1998ndash99 220Aftermaths 222Suggestions for further study 224Notes 224

C O N T E N T S

ix

9 Holocaust in Rwanda 232

Introduction Horror and shame 232Background to genocide 233Genocidal frenzy 238Aftermath 245Suggestions for further study 246Notes 247

PART 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 259

10 Psychological Perspectives 261

Narcissism greed and fear 262Narcissism 262Greed 264Fear 265

Genocide and humiliation 268The psychology of perpetrators 270

The Zimbardo experiments 274The psychology of rescuers 275Suggestions for further study 281Notes 282

11 The Sociology and Anthropology of Genocide 288

Introduction 288Sociological perspectives 289

The sociology of modernity 289Ethnicity and ethnic conflict 291

Ethnic conflict and violence ldquospecialistsrdquo 293ldquoMiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294Anthropological perspectives 296Suggestions for further study 301Notes 302

12 Political Science and International Relations 307

Empirical investigations 307The changing face of war 311Democracy war and genocidedemocide 314Norms and prohibition regimes 316Suggestions for further study 320Notes 321

C O N T E N T S

x

13 Gendering Genocide 325

Gendercide vs root-and-branch genocide 326Women and genocide 329Gendercidal institutions 330Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331Are men more genocidal than women 332A note on gendered propaganda 334Suggestions for further study 336Notes 337

PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343

14 Memory Forgetting and Denial 345

The struggle over historical memory 345Germany and ldquothe search for a usable pastrdquo 349

The politics of forgetting 350Genocide denial Motives and strategies 351Denial and free speech 354Suggestions for further study 358Notes 358

15 Justice Truth and Redress 362

Leipzig Constantinople Nuremberg Tokyo 363The international criminal tribunals Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366

Jurisdictional issues 367The concept of a victim group 367Gender and genocide 367

National trials 368The ldquomixed tribunalsrdquo Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370

Another kind of justice Rwandarsquos gacaca experiment 370The Pinochet case 371The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373International citizensrsquo tribunals 375Truth and reconciliation 377The challenge of redress 379Suggestions for further study 381Notes 382

16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388

Warning signs 389Humanitarian intervention 392

C O N T E N T S

xi

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

9 Holocaust in Rwanda 232

Introduction Horror and shame 232Background to genocide 233Genocidal frenzy 238Aftermath 245Suggestions for further study 246Notes 247

PART 3 SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVES 259

10 Psychological Perspectives 261

Narcissism greed and fear 262Narcissism 262Greed 264Fear 265

Genocide and humiliation 268The psychology of perpetrators 270

The Zimbardo experiments 274The psychology of rescuers 275Suggestions for further study 281Notes 282

11 The Sociology and Anthropology of Genocide 288

Introduction 288Sociological perspectives 289

The sociology of modernity 289Ethnicity and ethnic conflict 291

Ethnic conflict and violence ldquospecialistsrdquo 293ldquoMiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294Anthropological perspectives 296Suggestions for further study 301Notes 302

12 Political Science and International Relations 307

Empirical investigations 307The changing face of war 311Democracy war and genocidedemocide 314Norms and prohibition regimes 316Suggestions for further study 320Notes 321

C O N T E N T S

x

13 Gendering Genocide 325

Gendercide vs root-and-branch genocide 326Women and genocide 329Gendercidal institutions 330Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331Are men more genocidal than women 332A note on gendered propaganda 334Suggestions for further study 336Notes 337

PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343

14 Memory Forgetting and Denial 345

The struggle over historical memory 345Germany and ldquothe search for a usable pastrdquo 349

The politics of forgetting 350Genocide denial Motives and strategies 351Denial and free speech 354Suggestions for further study 358Notes 358

15 Justice Truth and Redress 362

Leipzig Constantinople Nuremberg Tokyo 363The international criminal tribunals Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366

Jurisdictional issues 367The concept of a victim group 367Gender and genocide 367

National trials 368The ldquomixed tribunalsrdquo Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370

Another kind of justice Rwandarsquos gacaca experiment 370The Pinochet case 371The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373International citizensrsquo tribunals 375Truth and reconciliation 377The challenge of redress 379Suggestions for further study 381Notes 382

16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388

Warning signs 389Humanitarian intervention 392

C O N T E N T S

xi

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

13 Gendering Genocide 325

Gendercide vs root-and-branch genocide 326Women and genocide 329Gendercidal institutions 330Genocide and violence against homosexuals 331Are men more genocidal than women 332A note on gendered propaganda 334Suggestions for further study 336Notes 337

PART 4 THE FUTURE OF GENOCIDE 343

14 Memory Forgetting and Denial 345

The struggle over historical memory 345Germany and ldquothe search for a usable pastrdquo 349

The politics of forgetting 350Genocide denial Motives and strategies 351Denial and free speech 354Suggestions for further study 358Notes 358

15 Justice Truth and Redress 362

Leipzig Constantinople Nuremberg Tokyo 363The international criminal tribunals Yugoslavia and Rwanda 366

Jurisdictional issues 367The concept of a victim group 367Gender and genocide 367

National trials 368The ldquomixed tribunalsrdquo Cambodia and Sierra Leone 370

Another kind of justice Rwandarsquos gacaca experiment 370The Pinochet case 371The International Criminal Court (ICC) 373International citizensrsquo tribunals 375Truth and reconciliation 377The challenge of redress 379Suggestions for further study 381Notes 382

16 Strategies of Intervention and Prevention 388

Warning signs 389Humanitarian intervention 392

C O N T E N T S

xi

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

Sanctions 393The United Nations 394

When is military intervention justified 395A standing ldquopeace armyrdquo 396

Ideologies and individuals 398The role of the honest witness 398Ideologies religious and secular 400

Conclusion 404Suggestions for further study 404Notes 405

Index 410

C O N T E N T S

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

ILLUSTRATIONS

11 Raphael Lemkin 1021 Imperial genocide Belgian King Leopold and the Congo 4322 British soldiers go ldquoover the toprdquo at the Battle of the Somme 1916 5223 Atomic bomb explosion at Nagasaki 1945 5731 The Cerro Rico silver-mines in Potosiacute Bolivia 7232 Loading Indian corpses from the Wounded Knee massacre 1890 7433 Mural of indigenous revival in Yucataacuten Mexico 8741 Armenian men being deported from Harput for mass killing May 1915 10742 Armenian refugees 1915 10851 A supporter of Stalin and Lenin carries their portraits in Red Square 13661 Ruins of a gas chamber and crematorium complex at Auschwitz-Birkenau 15362 Mass burial of corpses at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp 1945 1546a1 A Soviet prisoner-of-war is dispatched ldquoto the rearrdquo 17671 Photos of Cambodians incarcerated and killed at Tuol Sleng prison Phnom Penh 20081 Mass grave at Pilice near Srebrenica 21791 Tutsi women murdered in the Rwandan genocide of 1994 240101 Core structure of the Milgram experiments 272102 Per Anger with a portrait of Raoul Wallenberg 277103 Pass issued to Lili Katz by the Swedish legation in Budapest 1944 277111 Forensic anthropologist Clyde Snow 300121 Political scientist RJ Rummel 308122 Demobilized child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo 2002 312131 Nazi propaganda poster vilifying Jewish men 335132 Tutsi women depicted seducing UN force commander General Romeacuteo Dallaire 335141 The Naval Mechanics School in the Buenos Aires suburb of Palermo 347151 Judgment at Nuremberg 1946 365152 Luis Moreno Ocampo the first prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 374

MAPS

World map xvindashxvii5a1 Chechnya 14271 Cambodia 187

xiii

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

7a1 East Timor 20781 Bosnia 2148a1 Bangladesh 22891 Rwanda 2359a1 Congo 2519a2 Darfur 253

BOXES

11 Genocide scholarly definitions 153a Tibet under Chinese rule 9441 One womanrsquos story Vergeen 1094a The Anfal Campaign against Iraqi Kurds 1988 11951 One manrsquos story Janusz Bardach 1315a Chechnya 14161 One womanrsquos story Nechama Epstein 1556a The Nazisrsquo other victims 16871 One girlrsquos story Loung Ung 1967a East Timor 20681 One manrsquos story Nezad Avdic 2188a Genocide in Bangladesh 1971 22791 One womanrsquos story Gloriose Mukakanimba 2409a Congo and Darfur 250

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

xiv

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Adam Jones was born in Singapore in 1963 and grew up in England and Canada He is currentlyAssociate Research Fellow in the Genocide Studies Program at Yale University He holds an MA fromMcGill University and a PhD from the University of British Columbia both in political science Hehas edited two volumes on genocide Gendercide and Genocide (Vanderbilt University Press 2004) andGenocide War Crimes and the West History and Complicity (Zed Books 2004) He has also publishedtwo books on the media and political transition His scholarly articles have appeared in Review ofInternational Studies Ethnic and Racial Studies Journal of Genocide Research Journal of Human Rightsand other publications He is co-founder and executive director of Gendercide Watch (wwwgendercideorg) a Web-based educational initiative that confronts gender-selective atrocities worldwide Jones haslived and traveled in over sixty countries on every populated continent His freelance journalism andtravel photography along with a selection of scholarly writings are available at httpadamjonesfreeserverscom Email adamgenocidetextnet

xv

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

Canada(Ch 3)

United States(Chs 1 2 3 12)

Guatemala(Ch 3)

Haiti(Ch 1) Dominican

Republic(Ch 3)

Peru(Ch 3)

Bolivia(Ch 3)

Argentina(Ch 14)

Chile(Ch 15)

Brazil(Ch 1)

Sierra Leone(Ch 15)

France(Ch 1)

Germany(Chs 1 2 3 6 10 11 13

14 15 16 Box text 6a)

Mexico (Ch 3)

World Map Cases of genocide and mass conflict referenced in this book

Source Chartwell Illustrators

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

Rwanda(Chs 9 10 11 13 15)

Burundi(Ch 9)

Darfur(Box text 9a)

Congo(Ch 2 Box text 9a)

Namibia(Ch 3)

Poland(Ch 6 Box text 6a)

Russiaformer Soviet Union(Chs 2 5 16 Box texts 5a 6a)

Chechnya(Box text 5a)

Ukraine(Ch 5 Box text 6a)

Bosnia and Herzegovina(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Croatia(Chs 1 8)

YugoslaviaSerbia(Chs 8 13 14 15)

Kosovo(Chs 8 16)

Turkey(Chs 4 1011 14 15) Iraq

(Ch 1 Boxtext 4a)

Kurdish regionof Iraq

(Box text 5a)

Kazakhstan(Ch 5)

China(Chs 2 3 Box text 3a)

Tibet(Box text 3a)

Japan(Chs 1 2 13 15)

India(Chs 2 13)

Bangladesh(Box text 8a)

Pakistan(Box text 8a)

Afghanistan(Ch 2)

Cambodia(Chs 7 15)

Vietnam(Ch 2)

East Timor(Box text 7a)

Australia(Chs 3 15)

New Zealand(Ch 15)

1

2

3

4

12

3

4

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

Introduction

WHY STUDY GENOCIDE

ldquoWhy would you want to study thatrdquoIf you spend any time seriously investigating genocide or even if you only leave

this book lying in plain view it is likely you will have to deal with this questionUnderlying it is a tone of distaste and skepticism perhaps tinged with suspicionThere may be a hint that you are guided by a morbid fixation on the worst of humanhorrors How will you respond Why indeed study genocide

First and foremost if you are concerned about issues such as peace human rights and social justice there is a sense that with genocide you are confronting theldquoBig Onerdquo what Joseph Conrad called the ldquoheart of darknessrdquo That can be deeplyintimidating and disturbing It can even make you feel trivial and powerless Butgenocide is the opposite of trivial Whatever energy and commitment you invest inunderstanding genocide will be directed towards comprehending and confrontingone of humanityrsquos greatest scourges

Second intellectually to study genocide is to study our historical inheritance It is unfortunately the case that all stages of recorded human existence and nearlyall parts of the world have known genocide at one time or another often repeatedlyFurthermore genocide may be as prevalent in the contemporary era as at any timein history Inevitably there is something depressing about this Will humanity everchange But there is also interest and personal enlightenment to be gained by delvinginto the historical record for which genocide serves as a point of entry I wellremember the period half a decade ago that I devoted to voracious reading of thegenocide studies literature and exploring the diverse themes this opened up to me

xviii

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

For the first time events as varied as the European witch-hunts the War of the TripleAlliance in South America (1864ndash70) the independence struggle in EastPakistanBangladesh the global plagues of maternal mortality and forced labor ndash allwere revealed to my bleary eyes (I was researching case-studies for the GendercideWatch website (wwwgendercideorg) which explains the eclectic choice of subjectmatter) The accounts were grim ndash sometimes relentlessly so But they were alsospellbinding and they gave me a better grounding not only in world history butalso in sociology psychology anthropology and a handful of other disciplines

This raises a third reason to study genocide it brings you into contact with someof the most interesting and exciting debates in the social sciences and humanitiesTo what extent should genocide be understood as reflecting epic social transfor-mations such as modernity the rise of the state and globalization How has warfarebeen transformed in recent times and how are the ldquodegeneraterdquo and decentralizedwars of the present age linked to genocidal outbreaks How does gender shapegenocidal experiences and genocidal strategies How is history ldquoproducedrdquo and whatrole do memories or denial of genocide play in that production These are only afew of the themes to be examined in this book I hope they will lead readers as theyhave led me towards an engagement with cutting-edge debates that have a widerthough not necessarily deeper significance

In writing this book I am standing on the shoulders of giants the genocidescholars without whose trail-blazing efforts my own work would be inconceivableYou may find their approach and humanity inspiring as I do One of my principalconcerns is to provide an overview of the core literature in genocide studies thuseach chapter and box-text is accompanied by recommendations for further study

Modern academic writing particularly in the social sciences and humanities isoften riddled with impenetrable jargon and not a little pomposity It would bepleasant to be able to report that genocide studies is free of such baggage It isnrsquot butit is less burdened by it than most other fields of study It seems this has to do withthe experience of looking into the abyss and finding that the abyss looks back Oneis forced to ponder onersquos own human frailty and vulnerability one is even pressedto confront onersquos own capacity for hating others for marginalizing them forsupporting their oppression and annihilation These realizations arenrsquot pretty but theyare arguably necessary And they can lead to a certain humility ndash a rare quality indeedin academia I once described to a friend why the Danish philosopher SoslashrenKierkegaard (1813ndash55) moved me so deeply ldquoItrsquos like hersquos grabbing you by the armand saying lsquoLook We donrsquot have much time There are important things we needto talk aboutrsquordquo You sense the same reading much of the genocide-studies literaturethat the issues are too vital and time too limited to beat around the bush GeorgeOrwell famously described political speech ndash he could have been referring to someacademic writing ndash as ldquoa mass of words [that] falls upon the facts like soft snowblurring the outlines and covering up all the detailsrdquo1 By contrast the majority ofgenocide scholars inhabit the literary equivalent of the Tropics I hope to take upresidence there too

Finally some good news for the reader interested in understanding and con-fronting genocide your studies and actions may make a difference To study genocideis to study processes by which hundreds of millions of people met brutal ends But

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xix

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

there are many many people throughout history who have bravely resisted the blind rush to hatred They are the courageous and decent souls who gave refuge tohunted Jews or desperate Tutsis They are the religious believers of many faiths whostruggled against the tide of evil and spread instead a message of love tolerance andcommonality They are the non-governmental organizations that warned againstincipient genocides and carefully documented those they were unable to preventThey are the leaders and common soldiers ndash American British Soviet VietnameseIndian Tanzanian Rwandan and others ndash who vanquished genocidal regimes inmodern times2 And yes they are the scholars and intellectuals who have honed ourunderstanding of genocide while at the same time working outside the ivory towerto alleviate it You will meet some of these individuals in this book I hope their storiesand actions will inspire you to believe that a future free of genocide and other crimesagainst humanity is possible

But Studying genocide and trying to prevent it is not to be entered into lightly

A theme that has not been systematically addressed in the genocide studies literatureis the psychological and emotional impact such studies can have on the investigatorHow many genocide students scholars and activists suffer as do their counterpartsin the human rights and social work fields3 How many experience depressioninsomnia nightmares as a result of immersing themselves in the most atrocioushuman conduct

The trauma is especially intense for those who have actually witnessed genocideor its direct consequences up close During the Turkish genocide against Armenians(Chapter 4) the US Ambassador to Constantinople Henry Morgenthau receiveda stream of American missionaries who had managed to make their way out of thekilling zone ldquoFor hours they would sit in my office with tears streaming down theirfacesrdquo Morgenthau recalled many had been ldquobroken in healthrdquo by the atrocities theyhad witnessed4 My friend Christian Scherrer who works at the Hiroshima PeaceInstitute arrived in Rwanda in November 1994 as part of a United Nationsinvestigation team only a few months after the slaughter of a million people had beenterminated by forces of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) (see Chapter 9) Rottingbodies were still strewn across the landscape ldquoFor weeksrdquo Scherrer writes

following directions given by witnesses I carefully made my way step by step overfarmland and grassland Under my feet often only half covered with earth laythe remains of hundreds indeed thousands of unfortunate individuals betrayedby their neighbors and slaughtered by specially enlisted bands of assassins astate-sponsored mass murder carried out with a level of mass participation bythe majority population the like of which had never been seen before Manyof those who came from outside shared the experience of hundreds of thousandsof Rwandans of continuing for months on end or even longer to grieve to weepinternally and night after night to be unable to sleep longer than an hour ortwo When they returned to Europe many of my colleagues felt paralyzed

He describes the experience as ldquoone of the most painful processes I have ever beenthroughrdquo and the writing of his fine book Genocide and Crisis as ldquopart of a personal

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xx

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

process of grievingrdquo ldquoInvestigation into genociderdquo he adds ldquois something thatremains with one for liferdquo5 Even as a latecomer to the Rwandan genocide ndash and assomeone who has never visited the country ndash I remember being so shaken by readinga massive agonizingly detailed human rights report on the genocide6 that I dreamedabout Rwanda for many nights feverish visions of encountering Hutu roadblocksof smuggling desperate Tutsis to Burundi

Now that interest in genocide is growing exponentially and the field ofcomparative genocide studies along with it this may be a good time to undertake asurvey (say of members of the International Association of Genocide Scholars) toascertain how common such symptoms are among those who devote their lives tothe theme Meanwhile I encourage you ndash especially if you are just beginning yourexploration ndash to be attentive to signs of personal stress Talk about it with your fellowstudents your colleagues or family and friends Dwell on the positive examples ofbravery and love for others that the study of genocide regularly provides If that doesnrsquotwork seek counseling through the resources available on your campus or in yourcommunity

WHAT THIS BOOK TRIES TO DO AND WHY

I see genocide as inseparable from the broad thrust of history both ancient and modern ndash indeed it is among historyrsquos defining features overlapping a range ofcentral historical processes war imperialism state-building class struggle I perceiveit as intimately linked to key institutions in which state or broadly politicalauthorities are often but not always principal actors forced labor military conscrip-tion incarceration female infanticide

I adopt a comparative approach that does not elevate particular genocides overothers except to the extent that scale and intensity warrant special attention Virtuallyall definable human groups ndash the ethnic national racial and religious ones thatanchor the legal definition of genocide and others besides ndash have been victims ofgenocide in the past7 and are vulnerable in specific contexts today Equally mosthuman collectivities ndash even vulnerable and oppressed ones ndash have proved capable ofinflicting genocide This can be a painful acknowledgment for genocide scholars tomake and for that reason it is routinely avoided But it will be confronted head-onthroughout this volume there are no sacred cows here Respect for taboos and tendersensibilities takes a back seat to the imperative to get to grips with genocide ndash toconfront it in as clear-eyed a way as possible to reduce the chances that mystificationand wishful thinking will cloud recognition and thereby blunt effective opposition

The subject of genocide has never been more prominent in the public andacademic debate than it is today As one indication consider the awarding of both thePulitzer Prize and the National Book Award to Samantha Power for her 2002 workldquoA Problem From Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide which criticized Westernpassivity in the face of genocide8 Powerrsquos book rapidly became a nucleus aroundwhich a mainstream interest in genocide could coalesce

ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo was as much culmination as catalyst however The field ofcomparative genocide studies has been developing for almost six decades But it

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxi

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

languished between the 1940s when Raphael Lemkin coined the term ldquogenociderdquoand the UN Convention was propounded and the early 1980s when Leo Kuperpublished his field-defining contribution Genocide Its Political Use in the TwentiethCentury (1981)9 In the late 1980s and the 1990s the field blossomed with theformation of the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS) in 1994 andthe publication of dozens of monographs and comparative studies ndash thousands ifwe include the literature focused on the Jewish catastrophe under Nazism

Despite this proliferation comparative genocide studies arguably has yet to findits introductory textbook Some important edited volumes have come closest toestablishing themselves as core texts (notably Frank Chalk and Kurt JonassohnrsquosHistory and Sociology of Genocide and Samuel Totten et alrsquos Century of GenocideEyewitness Accounts and Critical Views)10 As a single-authored work the classic inthe field probably remains Kuperrsquos Genocide but it is now well over two decades oldand its author sadly deceased Meanwhile two fine encyclopedias and a couple ofspecialized bibliographies have been published but these are costly and unwieldy forthe student or general reader

Excellent and accessible books on genocide have been published in recent yearsthough the large majority adopt a specific disciplinary perspective A partial exceptionis probably the best of these texts Alex Alvarezrsquos Governments Citizens and Genocidewhich approaches the subject from the angle of both political science and sociology11

Various scholars have explored psychological perspectives including Roy BaumeisterErvin Staub and James Waller12 Martin Shaw has added an important volume onWar and Genocide from an international relations and conflict studies framework13

Meanwhile highly stimulating work has begun to emanate from the discipline ofanthropology Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Beatriz Manz among others have doneimportant work on genocide and crimes against humanity Their work has beenbolstered by two anthologies of anthropological studies edited by Alexander LabanHinton14

Last but not least a rich body of case studies and comparative-theoretical materialhas accumulated ndash one this book leans on heavily with appropriate citation Thus itnow seems an opportune moment to offer a comprehensive introductory text onethat samples the wealth of thinking and writing on genocide in an interdisciplinaryway with a broad range of case studies and with a unified authorial voice

The first part of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction seeks to ground readersin the basic historical and conceptual contexts of genocide It explores the processby which the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin first named and defined thephenomenon then mobilized a nascent United Nations to outlaw it His storyconstitutes a vivid and inspiring portrait of an individual who had a significant largelyunsung impact on modern history Examination of legal and scholarly definitions anddebates may help readers to clarify their own thinking and situate themselves in thediscussion

The case study section of the book (Part 2) is divided between longer case studiesof genocide and capsule studies that complement the detailed treatments I hope thisstructure will be conducive to discussion and comparative analysis

The first three chapters of Part 3 explore social-scientific contributions to the study of genocide ndash from psychology sociology anthropology and political science

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxii

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

international relations Let me indicate the ambit and limitations of this analysis I am a political scientist by training As well as devoting a chapter to perspectives fromthis discipline I incorporate its insights elsewhere in the text (notably in Chapter 2on ldquoImperialism War and Social Revolutionrdquo and Chapter 16 on ldquoStrategies ofIntervention and Preventionrdquo) Likewise Chapter 14 on ldquoMemory Forgetting andDenialrdquo touches on a significant discussion among professional historians while theanalysis of ldquoJustice Truth and Redressrdquo (Chapter 15) as well as parts of Chapter 1on ldquoThe Origins of Genociderdquo explore relevant developments and debates in inter-national law

Even if a synoptic examination of these disciplinesrsquo insights were possible givenspace limitations I would be unable to provide it The massive proliferation ofacademic production of schools and subschools has effectively obliterated theldquorenaissancerdquo man or woman who once moved with facility among varied fields ofknowledge Accordingly throughout these chapters my ambition is modest I seekonly to introduce readers to some useful scholarly framings together with insightsthat I have found especially relevant and simulating

This book at least engages with a field ndash genocide studies ndash that has beenprofoundly interdisciplinary from the start The development of strict disciplinaryboundaries is a modern invention reflecting the growing scale and bureaucra-tization of the university In many ways the barriers it establishes among disciplinesare artificial Political scientists draw on insights from history sociology andpsychology and their own work finds readers in those disciplines Sociology andanthropology are closely related the former developed as a study of the societies ofthe industrial West while in the latter Westerners studied ldquoprimitiverdquo or preindustrialsocieties Other linkages and points of interpenetration could be cited The point is that consideration of a given theme under the rubric of a particular discipline may be arbitrary To take just one example ldquoethnicityrdquo can be approached fromsociological anthropological psychological and political science perspectives Idiscuss it principally in its sociological context but would not wish to see it fixedthere

Part 4 ldquoThe Future of Genociderdquo adopts a more forward-looking approachseeking to familiarize readers with contemporary debates over historical memory andgenocide denial as well as mechanisms of justice and redress The final chapterldquoStrategies of Intervention and Preventionrdquo allows readers to evaluate options forsuppressing the scourge

ldquoHow does one handle this subjectrdquo wrote Terrence Des Pres in the preface toThe Survivor his study of life in the Nazi concentration camps His answer ldquoOnedoesnrsquot not well not finally No degree of scope or care can equal the enormity ofsuch events or suffice for the sorrow they encompass Not to betray it is as much asI can hope forrdquo15 His words resonate In my heart I know this book is an audaciousenterprise but I have tried to expand the limits of my empathy and through widereading my interdisciplinary understanding I have also benefited from the insightsand corrections of other scholars and general readers whose names appear in theacknowledgments

While I must depict particular genocides (and the contributions of entire aca-demic disciplines) in very broad strokes I have tried throughout to find room for

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiii

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

individuals whether as victims perpetrators or rescuers I hope this serves to countersome of the abstraction and depersonalization that is inevitable in a general surveyA list of relevant internet sources and a filmography-in-progress may be found onthe Web page for this book at httpwwwgenocidetextnet16

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was born over a lively dinner in DurbanSouth Africa at which I chanced to sit at the elbow of Taylor amp Francis commis-sioning editor Craig Fowlie I understand that one of Craigrsquos tasks is to travel theworld marshalling promising-sounding book proposals Not bad work if you can getit I am truly grateful for Craigrsquos early and enduring support Thanks also to NadiaSeemungul and Steve Thompson and to Ann King for her sterling copy-editing

Colleagues and administrators at the CIDE research institute in Mexico City either encouraged my study of genocide or sought to divert me from it I gained fromthe positive and negative inspiration alike For the former thanks to Jorge ChabatFarid Kahhat Jean Meyer Susan Minushkin and Jesuacutes Velasco The bulk of this bookwas written while on contract as a project researcher at CIDE in 2004 My researchassistant Pamela Huerta compiled comprehensive briefs for the Cambodia case studyand the Tibet and CongoDarfur box texts Pamela your skill and enthusiasm weregreatly appreciated

Much of Genocide A Comprehensive Introduction was written during travels in late 2004 through Coacuterdoba province in central Argentina and in vibrant BuenosAires My thanks to the Argentine friends who welcomed me especially Julieta Ayalato the hoteliers and apartment agents who put me up along the way notably JorgeRodriacuteguez and the restaurant staff who kept me fueled with that awesome steak andvino tinto

The manuscript was completed in the Mexico City home of Jessica and EsperanzaRodriacuteguez my warm thanks to both In Puebla Fabiola Martiacutenez asked probingquestions engaged in stimulating discussions and supplied me with tender carebesides Gracias mi Fabi-losa What one could call ldquopost-productionrdquo took place atYale University where I was fortunate to obtain a two-year postdoctoral fellowshipin the Genocide Studies Program for 2005ndash07 I will use this time to research a bookon genocide and communication I am honored by the opportunity to conductresearch at one of the worldrsquos leading universities I am especially grateful to BenKiernan eminent Cambodia scholar and director of the Genocide Studies Programfor his interest in my work and support of it over the past few years Thanks also tothe Yale Center for International and Area Studies (YCIAS) its director Ian Shapiroand associate director Richard Kane

Kenneth J Campbell Jo and David Jones Reneacute Lemarchand Benjamin Madleyand Nicholas Robins generously read the entire manuscript I benefited hugely fromtheir feedback Jo and Davidrsquos meticulous proofreading of the typescript might havelanded them in the dedication to this volume even if they werenrsquot my parents As forBen Madley our weekly or biweekly lunches at Yale when we went through hisinsightful comments on individual chapters were simply the most stimulating and

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxiv

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

thought-provoking discussions I have ever had about genocide As with Jo and Davidthere are few pages of this book that do not bear Benrsquos stamp

Other scholars professionals and general readers who read and commented upon various chapters include Jennifer Archer Peter Balakian Donald BloxhamPeter Burns Thea Halo Alex Hinton Kal Holsti Craig Jones Ben Kiernan MarkLevene Evelin Lindner Linda Melvern Kathleen Morrow A Dirk Moses MargaretPower Victoria Sanford and Christian Scherrer I also acknowledge the insights andrecommendations of two anonymous reviewers of the book proposal for RoutledgeAlthough I have not always heeded these individualsrsquo suggestions their perspectiveshave been absolutely crucial and have rescued me from numerous mistakes andmisinterpretations I accept full responsibility for the errors and oversights thatremain

Friends and family have always buttressed me and stoked my passion for studyinghistory and humanity This book could not have been written without the nurtureand guidance provided by my parents and my brother Craig Warmest thanks alsoto Atenea Acevedo Carla Bergman David Buchanan Charli Carpenter MikeCharko Ferrel Christensen Terry and Meghan Evenson Jay Forster Andrea andSteve Gunner Henry Huttenbach Luz Mariacutea Johnson David Liebe JohnMargesson Eric Markusen Peter Prontzos Hamish Telford and Miriam Tratt

Dr Griselda Ramiacuterez Reyes shares the dedication of this work Griselda is apediatric neurosurgeon in Mexico City I have stood literally at her elbow as sheopened the head of a three-week-old girl and extracted a cancerous tumour seeminglyhalf the size of the infantrsquos brain I hope to open a few minds myself with this workbut I would not pretend the task compares

Adam JonesNew Haven USA March 2006

adamgenocidetextnet

NOTES

1 George Orwell ldquoPolitics and the English Languagerdquo (1946) in Inside the Whale and OtherEssays (Harmondsworth Penguin 1974) Available on the Web at httpwwwresortcom~prime8Orwellpateehtml

2 The Second World War Allies against the Nazis and Japanese Tanzanians against IdiAminrsquos Uganda Vietnamese in Cambodia in 1979 Indians in Bangladesh in 1971soldiers of the Rwandan Patriotic Front in 1994 See also Chapter 16

3 Writing the first in-depth study of the Soviet ldquoterror-faminerdquo in Ukraine in 1932ndash33 (seeChapter 5) Robert Conquest confronted only indirectly the ldquoinhuman unimaginablemiseryrdquo of the famine but he still found the task ldquoso distressing that [I] sometimes hardlyfelt able to proceedrdquo Conquest The Harvest of Sorrow Soviet Collectivization and theTerror-Famine (New York Oxford University Press 1986) p 10 Donald Miller andLorna Touryan Miller who interviewed a hundred survivors of the Armenian genocidewrote ldquoDuring this project our emotions have ranged from melancholy to anger fromfeeling guilty about our own privileged status to being overwhelmed by the continuingsuffering in our worldrdquo They described experiencing ldquoa permanent loss of innocenceabout the human capacity for evilrdquo as well as ldquoa recognition of the need to combat suchevilrdquo Miller and Miller Survivors An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide (Berkeley

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxv

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

CA University of California Press 1999) p 4 After an immersion in the archive of S-21 (Tuol Sleng) the Khmer Rouge killing center in Cambodia David Chandler foundthat ldquothe terror lurking inside it has pushed me around blunted my skills and erodedmy self-assurance The experience at times has been akin to drowningrdquo Chandler Voicesfrom S-21 Terror and History in Pol Potrsquos Secret Prison (Berkeley CA University ofCalifornia Press 1999) p 145 Brandon Hamber notes that ldquomany of the staffrdquo workingwith the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa have experiencedldquonightmares paranoia emotional bluntness physical problems (eg headaches ulcersexhaustion etc) high levels of anxiety irritability and aggression relationship difficultiesand substance abuse related problemsrdquo Hamber ldquoThe Burdens of Truthrdquo in David ELorey and William H Beezley eds Genocide Collective Violence and Popular MemoryThe Politics of Remembrance in the Twentieth Century (Wilmington DL ScholarlyResources Inc 2002) p 96

4 Peter Balakian The Burning Tigris The Armenian Genocide and Americarsquos Response (NewYork HarperCollins 2003) p 278

5 Christian P Scherrer Genocide and Crisis in Central Africa Conflict Roots Mass Violenceand Regional War (Westport CT Praeger 2002) pp 1 7

6 African Rights Rwanda Death Despair and Defiance rev edn (London African Rights1995) The reader who manages to make it through the 300-page chapter titled ldquoA Policyof Massacresrdquo is then confronted with another 300-page chapter titled ldquoGenocidalFrenzyrdquo

7 ldquoGenocide has been practiced throughout most of history in all parts of the worldalthough it did not attract much attention because genocide was usually accepted as thedeserved fate of the vanquishedrdquo Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjoumlrnson Genocideand Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective (New Brunswick NJTransaction Publishers 1998) p 50

8 Samantha Power ldquoA Problem from Hellrdquo America and the Age of Genocide (New YorkBasic Books 2002)

9 Leo Kuper Genocide Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (HarmondsworthPenguin 1981)

10 Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide Analyses and CaseStudies (New Haven CT Yale University Press 1990) Samuel Totten William SParsons and Israel Charny eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Routledge 2004) (2nd edn)

11 Alex Alvarez Governments Citizens and Genocide A Comparative and InterdisciplinaryApproach (Bloomington IN Indiana University Press 2001)

12 Roy F Baumeister Evil Inside Human Violence and Cruelty (New York WH Freeman1999) James Waller Becoming Evil How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and MassKilling (Oxford Oxford University Press 2002) Ervin Staub Roots of Evil The Originsof Genocide and Other Group Violence (New York Cambridge University Press 1989)

13 Martin Shaw War and Genocide Organized Killing in Modern Society (Cambridge PolityPress 2003)

14 Alexander Laban Hinton ed Genocide An Anthropological Reader (Oxford BlackwellPublishers 2002) Alexander Laban Hinton ed Annihilating Difference TheAnthropology of Genocide (Berkeley CA University of California Press 2002)

15 Terrence Des Pres The Survivor An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps (Oxford OxfordUniversity Press 1976) pp vndashvi

16 Readers who are interested in the background to my engagement with genocide studiescan consult the short essay ldquoGenocide A Personal Journeyrdquo at httpwwwgenocidetextnetpersonal_journeyhtm

I N T R O D U C T I O N

xxvi

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

PART ONE OVERVIEW

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

1 Revolutions created the conditions for genocidal movements to come to power2 Revolutions made possible the imposition of radical ideologies and new orders

that legitimated genocide3 The social mobilization of low status or despised groups [eg in struggles for

national liberation] helped to make them targets of genocide4 Revolutions leading to wars facilitated the implementation of genocide as a policy

of the state66

But while revolution especially social revolution may take a genocidal form so too may counter-revolution This book contains numerous instances of revolutionsthat spawned genocides (Turkeyrsquos against the Armenians Leninrsquos and Stalinrsquos terrorsthe Nazis the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia ldquoHutu Powerrdquo in Rwanda) But it includeseven more cases in which colonial and contemporary state authorities sought to stampout ldquorevolutionaryrdquo threats through genocide The Germans in Southwest Africa theChinese in Tibet West Pakistan in East PakistanBangladesh Iraq versus the KurdsSerbia in Kosovo Russia in Chechnya and Sudan in Darfur ndash all fit the pattern asdoes the Guatemalan armyrsquos rampage against Mayan Indians in the 1970s and 1980s(see Chapter 3) In all cases once war is unleashed the radicalization and extremismof organized mass violence described previously come to dominate the equation

The nuclear revolution and ldquoomniciderdquo

Total war is no longer only between all members of one national community and all those of another it is also total because it will very likely set the whole world up inflames

Jean-Paul Sartre

As revolutions in the social and political sphere represent dramatic irruptions of new actors and social forces so technological revolutions transform the world and human history This was the case prior to the First World War when scientificknowledge wedded to an industrial base facilitated the unprecedented massslaughter of 1914ndash18 An even more portentous transformation was the nuclearrevolution ndash the discovery that the splitting (and later the fusion) of atoms couldunleash unprecedented energy and could be directed towards military destructionas well as peaceful ends Atomic bombs had the power to render conventionalweapons obsolete while ldquothe destructive power of the hydrogen bomb was asrevolutionary in comparison with the atomic bomb as was the latter to conventionalweaponryrdquo67

The invention of nuclear weapons first (and fortunately last) used in war atHiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 transformed civilization to its very rootsldquoIn a real way we all lead something of a lsquodouble lifersquordquo wrote Robert Jay Lifton andEric Markusen ldquoWe are aware at some level that in a moment we and everyone andeverything we have ever touched or loved could be annihilated and yet we go aboutour ordinary routines as though no such threat existsrdquo68 In his classic cry for peaceJonathan Schell described The Fate of the Earth as ldquopoised on a hair trigger waiting

I M P E R I A L I S M W A R S O C I A L R E V O L U T I O N

56

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

T H E J E W I S H H O L O C A U S T

183

ch 3 in Michael Burleigh Death and Deliverance lsquoEuthanasiarsquo in Germany c 1900ndash1945 (London Pan Books 1994) pp 97ndash127

32 Sofsky The Order of Terror p 24333 Friedlander ldquoThe Exclusion and Murder of the Disabledrdquo p 15734 Hitler quoted in Juumlrgen Zimmerer ldquoColonialism and the Holocaust Towards an

Archaeology of Genociderdquo in Dirk Moses ed Genocide and Settler Society FrontierViolence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History (New York BerghahnBooks 2004) p 55

35 Quoted in Omer Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army Soldiers Nazis and War in the Third Reich(New York Oxford University Press 1992) p 129

36 Heinrich Himmler tasked with engineering the destruction of the Polish peopleparroted Hitler in proclaiming that ldquoall Poles will disappear from the world Itis essential that the great German people should consider it as its major task todestroy all Polesrdquo Hitler and Himmler quoted in Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experienceduring the Holocaustrdquo p 89

37 Lukas ldquoThe Polish Experiencerdquo p 9038 Anthony Beevor Stalingrad (New York Viking Press 1998) p 42839 Quoted in Milovan Djilas Wartime (New York Harvest 1980) p 73 Omer

Bartov writes ldquoIt was in the Soviet Union that the Wehrmachtrsquos back was brokenlong before the Western Allies landed in France and even after June 1944 it was inthe East that the Germans continued to commit and lose far more men By theend of March 1945 the Ostheerrsquos [German eastern front] casualties mounted to6172373 men or double its original manpower on 22 June 1941 a figure whichconstituted fully four-fifths of the [Germansrsquo] total losses on all fronts since theinvasion of the Soviet Unionrdquo Bartov Hitlerrsquos Army pp 29 45 Alec Nove pointsout that more Russians died in the German siege of Leningrad (1941ndash43) ldquothan thetotal of British and Americans killed from all causes throughout the warrdquo NoveStalinism and After (London George Allen amp Unwin 1975) p 93

40 Alexander Werth Russia at War 1941ndash45 (New York Carroll amp Graf 1999) p634

41 Interestingly a photo of the Soviet prisoners features on the cover of a recent andprominent volume Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan eds The Specter of GenocideMass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge Cambridge University Press2003) There is however only a passing mention of the genocide in the text itself(p 260)

42 If the upper-end estimates for those killed in Bangladesh genocide of 1971 areaccurate (three million see Box 8a) this might also match the intensiveness ofRwanda and the genocide against Soviet POWs

43 Alexander Dallin German Rule in Russia 1941ndash45 A Study of Occupation Policies(2nd edn) (London Macmillan 1981) pp 414ndash15 Omer Bartov The EasternFront 1941ndash45 German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (BasingstokeMacmillan 1985) p 110

44 Quoted in Werth Russia At War pp 635ndash3645 Quoted in Dallin German Rule in Russia p 41546 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 11647 Burleigh Ethics and Extermination p 16748 Michael Zimmermann ldquoThe National Socialist lsquoSolution of the Gypsy Questionrsquordquo

ch 7 in Ulrich Herbert ed National Socialist Extermination Policies ContemporaryGerman Perspectives and Controversies (New York Berghahn Books 2000) p 194

49 Sybil H Milton ldquolsquoGypsiesrsquo as Social Outsiders in Nazi Germanyrdquo in Gellately andStoltzfus eds Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany p 222

50 Burleigh and Wippermann The Racial State p 125

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

42 ldquoEx-Kosovo PM Pleads Not Guilty to War Crimesrdquo Reuters dispatch March 14 200543 ldquoUN and Nato Slammed over Kosovordquo BBC Online July 26 2004 httpnewsbbcco

uk1hiworldeurope3928153stm

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

227

BOX 8A GENOCIDE IN BANGLADESH 1971

By some estimates the mass killings in Bangladesh ndash at the time East Pakistanndash are on a par with the twentieth centuryrsquos most destructive genocides At leastone million Bengalis perhaps as many as three million1 were massacred by the security forces of West Pakistan assisted by local allies Yet the genocideremains almost unknown in the West Only recently has its prominence slightlyincreased as a result of a handful of education and memorialization projects2

Although it preceded events in the Balkans by two decades the Bangladeshigenocide is usefully placed alongside the Bosnia and Kosovo case study Bothconflicts had at their core a militarized security threat a crisis surroundingsecession of federal units and ethnic conflict On a strategic and tactical levelboth genocides featured strong elements of ldquoeliticiderdquo (the destruction of thesocioeconomic and intellectual elites of a target group) as well as the gendercidaltargeting of adult and adolescent males (see Chapter 13)

The federation of East and West Pakistan was forged in the crucible of Indian independence in 1947ndash48 Most of India had been under British rule for two centuries As independence loomed after the Second World War twodistinct political projects arose One associated with the centuryrsquos leadingproponent of non-violence Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi sought to keepIndia whole and prevent division along religious and ethnic lines Howeverstrong Hindu and Muslim nationalist movements together with the depart-ing British pushed for the creation of two states ndash one Hindu-dominated(India) the other Muslim-dominated (Pakistan) This project emergedtriumphant but not without enormous bloodshed The partition of India in1947 witnessed one of the greatest movements of peoples in modern times asmillions of Muslims fled India for Pakistan and millions of Hindus moved inthe other direction Hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered on bothsides3

Not the least of Pakistanrsquos post-independence difficulties was its division intotwo wings separated by 1200 miles of Indian territory and an ethnolinguisticgulf West Pakistan home to some fifty-five million people in 1971 was pre-dominantly Urdu-speaking The Bengali speakers of East Pakistan occupied onlyone-third of total Pakistani territory but were the demographic majority ndash someseventy-five million people Most were Muslim but there was also a largeBengali Hindu minority (the Biharis) who suffered especially savage treatmentduring the genocide Even Bengali Muslims were viewed as second-class citizensby the inhabitants of wealthier West Pakistan Pakistani Lieutenant-GeneralAAK Niazi referred to the Ganges river plain ndash home to the majority of

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

228

Bengalis and the largest city Dhaka ndash as a ldquolow-lying land of low lying peoplerdquoAccording to RJ Rummel ldquoBengalis were often compared with monkeys andchickens The [minority] Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to theNazis scum and vermin that [had] best be exterminatedrdquo4

Reacting to West Pakistanrsquos persistent discrimination and economic exploita-tion5 a strong autonomy movement arose in the East centered on the AwamiLeague of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The spark for the conflagration came inDecember 1970 in national elections held to pave the way for a transition from military rule The Awami League won a crushing victory ndash 167 out ofEast Pakistanrsquos 169 parliamentary seats This gave the League a majority in thePakistani Parliament as a whole and the right to form the next government

N

60 mi

60 km

CoxrsquosBazar

Comilla

Narayanganj

Brahmanbaria

India

Myanmar(Burma)

Nepal

India

India

Bay of Bengal

Indian Ocean

Dhaka

Bangladesh

SylhatJamalpur

Mymensingh

Jessore

Khulna Barisal

Mungla

Rajshahi

Pabna

RangpurDinajpur

Jamuna

Meghna

Madhumati

GangesRiver

BrahamaputraRiver

Mouths of the Ganges

Chittagong

BANGLADESH

LOWHILLSMOUNTAINS

Map 8a1 Bangladesh

Source Map provided by WorldAtlascom

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

229

West Pakistani rulers led by General Yahya Khan saw this as a direct threat totheir power and interests After negotiations failed to resolve the impasse Khanmet with four senior generals on February 22 1971 and issued orders toannihilate the Awami League and its popular base From the outset theyplanned a campaign of genocide ldquoKill three million [Bengalis]rdquo said Khan ldquoandthe rest will eat out of our handsrdquo6

On March 25 the genocide was launched In an attempt to decapitate EastPakistanrsquos political and intellectual leadership Dhaka University ndash a center ofnationalist agitation ndash was attacked Hundreds of students were killed in whatwas dubbed ldquoOperation Searchlightrdquo Working from prepared lists death squadsroamed the streets Perhaps 7000 people died in a single night 30000 overthe course of a week The terror sparked an epic flight by Bengalis ldquoit wasestimated that in April some thirty million people [] were wandering helplesslyacross East Pakistan to escape the grasp of the militaryrdquo7 The ten to twelvemillion-strong Hindu community of East Pakistan was also targeted en blocHindus comprised most of the ten million souls who fled to India as refugeesThis spurred increasing calls for Indian military intervention which would havethe added advantage ndash from Indiarsquos perspective ndash of dismembering Pakistan(The countries had already fought two full-scale wars by 1971 they were andremain poised for another one) The surviving Awami League leadership movedquickly to declare a fully independent Bangladesh and to organize a guerrillaresistance

With the opening eliticide accomplished the West Pakistani leadershipmoved to eradicate the nationalist base As the election results suggested thiscomprised the vast majority of Bengalis Genocidal killing however followeda gendercidal pattern with all males beyond childhood viewed as actual orpotential guerrilla fighters To produce the desired number of corpses the WestPakistanis set up ldquoextermination campsrdquo8 and launched a massive round ofgendercidal killing

The place of execution was the river edge [here the Buriganga River outsideDhaka] or the shallows near the shore and the bodies were disposed of bythe simple means of permitting them to flow downstream The killing tookplace night after night Usually the prisoners were roped together and madeto wade out into the river They were in batches of six or eight and in thelight of a powerful electric arc lamp they were easy targets black against thesilvery water The executioners stood on the pier shooting down at thecompact bunches of prisoners wading in the water There were screams inthe hot night air and then silence The prisoners fell on their sides and theirbodies lapped against the shore Then a new bunch of prisoners was broughtout and the process was repeated In the morning the village boatmen hauledthe bodies into midstream and the ropes binding the bodies were cut so thateach body drifted separately downstream9

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

230

The West Pakistani campaign extended to mass rape aimed at ldquodishonoringrdquoBengali women and undermining Bengali society Between 200000 and400000 women were victimized ldquoGirls of eight and grandmothers of seventy-five had been sexually assaultedrdquo wrote feminist author Susan Brownmiller inher book Against Our Will Men Women and Rape10 An unknown number ofwomen were gang-raped to death or executed after repeated violations

The slaughter and other atrocities were ended by one of the rare instancesof successful outside intervention in genocide11 Indian troops invaded inDecember 1971 vanquishing West Pakistani forces in a couple of weeks Theindependence of Bangladesh was sealed though at a staggering human cost

In blood-letting following the expulsion of the West Pakistani army perhaps150000 people were murdered by independence forces and local vigilantesBiharis who had collaborated with West Pakistani authorities were dealt withespecially harshly12 Themes of the post-genocide era include the continuedsuffering and social marginalization of hundreds of thousands of Bengali rapevictims and the enduring impunity of the geacutenocidaires None of the leaders ofthe genocide has ever been brought to trial all remain comfortably ensconcedin Pakistan (the former West Pakistan) and other countries In recent yearsactivists have worked to try those leaders before an international tribunal sofar without success13

FURTHER STUDY

Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo in Samuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views New York GarlandPublishing 1997 A rare treatment in the genocide-studies literature

Anthony Mascarenhas The Rape of Bangla Desh Delhi Vikas Publications1971 A decent overview one takes what one can get in English on thislittle-studied subject

Robert Payne Massacre London Macmillan 1973 Journalistic account of thegenocide

Richard Sisson and Leo Rose War and Secession Pakistan India and theCreation of Bangladesh Berkeley CA University of California Press 1990Focuses on policy-making by leaders during the crisis

NOTES

1 RJ Rummel observes ldquoThe human death toll over only 267 days was incredibleJust to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics publishedin Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee the Pakistani army killed100000 Bengalis in Dacca 150000 in Khulna 75000 in Jessore 95000 inComilla and 100000 in Chittagong For eighteen districts the total is 1247000killed This was an incomplete toll and to this day no one really knows the final

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

B O S N I A A N D K O S O V O

231

toll rdquo which Rummel estimates may have reached three million Rummel DeathBy Government (New Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers 1994) p 331

2 See in particular the Liberation War Museum Online at httpwwwliberationmuseumorg

3 On partition see Paul R Brass ldquoThe Partition of India and Retributive Genocidein the Punjab 1946ndash47 Means Methods and Purposesrdquo Journal of GenocideResearch 5 1 (March 2003) pp 71ndash101 Urvashi Butalia The Other Side of SilenceVoices from the Partition of India (Durham NC Duke University Press 2000)

4 Rummel Death by Government p 3355 ldquoThe Bangladesh nationalist movement was also fueled by a sense of economic

exploitation Though jute the major export earning commodity was produced inBengal most of the economic investments took place in Pakistan A systematictransfer of resources took place from East to West Pakistan creating a growingeconomic disparity and a feeling among the Bengalis that they were being treatedas a colony by Pakistanrdquo Rounaq Jahan ldquoGenocide in Bangladeshrdquo ch 10 inSamuel Totten et al eds Century of Genocide Eyewitness Accounts and CriticalViews (New York Garland Publishing 1997) p 292

6 Quoted in Robert Payne Massacre (London Macmillan 1973) p 507 Payne Massacre p 488 Leo Kuper The Prevention of Genocide (New Haven CT Yale University Press

1985) p 479 Payne Massacre p 55 For more on the gendercidal character of the large majority

of killings during the genocide see Adam JonesGendercide Watch ldquoCase StudyGenocide in Bangladesh 1971rdquo httpwwwgendercideorgcase_bangladeshhtml from which Box 8a is adapted

10 Susan Brownmiller Against Our Will Men Women and Rape (New York Bantam1975) p 83

11 For a concise overview of the Indian intervention see Nicholas J Wheeler ldquoIndiaas Rescuer Order versus Justice in the Bangladesh War of 1971rdquo ch 2 in WheelerSaving Strangers Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (OxfordOxford University Press 2000) pp 55ndash77 For a discussion of the role of theUnited States and then-secretary of state Henry Kissinger see Suhail Islam and SyedHassan ldquoThe Wretched of the Nations The Westrsquos Role in Human RightsViolations in the Bangladesh War of Independencerdquo in Adam Jones ed GenocideWar Crimes and the West History and Complicity (London Zed Books 2004) pp 201ndash13

12 During the genocide Urdu-speaking Biharis in East Pakistan ldquojoined the WestPakistanis in killing the Bengalisrdquo This exposed them to retaliation from ldquoAwamiLeague supporters [who] also engaged in killing the West Pakistanis and Biharis inEast Pakistan A white paper issued by the Pakistani government shows that theAwami League had massacred at least 30000 Biharis and West Pakistanisrdquoatrocious behavior that nonetheless does not match the systematic slaughter ofBengalis by the West Pakistanis and their Bihari allies See Wardatul AkmanldquoAtrocities against Humanity during the Liberation War in Bangladesh A Case ofGenociderdquo Journal of Genocide Research 4 4 (2002) p 549 also ldquoThe Right toSelf Determination The Secession of Bangladeshrdquo ch 4 in Kuper The Preventionof Genocide pp 44ndash61

13 See eg the website of the evocatively named ldquoBangla Nurembergrdquo projecthttpwwwshobakorgbangla_nuremberg

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

attacked more frequently than females are in experiments and the skewing in bothseems positively related to the strength of the target8

As this suggests there is also a logic to the physical preservation of women They aredeemed to pose no military threat or a lesser one They may have value as slavesandor concubines In addition male-dominant society is overwhelmingly patrilinealwith descent traced through the father The woman may be viewed as a ldquoblank slaterdquoable to adopt or at least provide a conduit for the ethnicity of a male impregnatorwomen may even be held to contribute nothing to the genetic mix per se (This wasa prominent theme as recently as the Rwandan genocide of 1994)9

Reflecting such gendered assumptions and social structures many cultures ndash perhaps most pervasively those of the Western world between the medieval era and the twentieth century ndash evolved norms of war that dictated protection forldquociviliansrdquo This term also assumed gendered connotations such that even today the phrase ldquowomen and childrenrdquo seems synonymous with ldquocivilianrdquo10 Of courseonce women and children have been removed from the equation only adult menremain consigning this group to non-civilian status ndash though degrees of protectionmay be extended on the basis of (old) age or demonstrable non-combatant status (eg handicapped or injured men)

A key question with regard to gender and mass killing is therefore Will genocidalforces view the slaughter of ldquobattle-agerdquo males as a sufficient expression of thegenocidal impulse Or will they also target children women and the elderly Theresolution to the question usually unfolds sequentially once the younger adult malepopulation group has been targeted will remaining population groups then beslaughtered Obviously removing the group most closely associated with militaryactivity and hence military resistance makes targeting other group members easierlogistically speaking It may be much harder however to motivate genocidal killersto do their work given norms against targeting these ldquohelplessrdquo populations

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries have witnessed both core types ofgenocide as we have seen throughout this volume Typical of gendercidal strategieswas the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina with its crowning mass slaughter at Srebrenica(Chapter 8) To the Bosnian case we can add literally dozens of others in which genderselectivity channeled and significantly limited the strictly murderous dimension ofthe genocide (which is the critical one by my preferred definition) They includeBangladesh in 1971 Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 KashmirPunjab and SriLanka in the 1980s and 1990s the genocidal massacres of Sikhs in New Delhi in1984 Saddam Husseinrsquos Anfal campaign against Iraqi Kurds in 1988 Kosovo andEast Timor in 1999 and Chechnya continuing today11

In New Delhi for example where more than 5000 Sikhs died in days of genocidalmassacres the gendered targeting of males was carried to almost surreal extremes

The nature of the attacks confirms that there was a deliberate plan to kill as manySikh men as possible hence nothing was left to chance That also explains whyin almost all cases after hitting or stabbing the victims were doused with keroseneor petrol and burnt so as to leave no possibility of their surviving BetweenOctober 31 and November 4 more than 2500 men were murdered in different

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

327

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

parts of Delhi according to several careful unofficial estimates There have beenvery few cases of women being killed except when they got trapped in houseswhich were set on fire Almost all of the women interviewed described how menand young boys were special targets They were dragged out of the houses attackedwith stones and rods and set on fire When women tried to protect the menof their families they were given a few blows and forcibly separated from the men Even when they clung to the men trying to save them they were hardlyever attacked the way men were I have not yet heard of a case of a woman beingassaulted and then burnt to death by the mob12

Delhi and with it Bangladesh appear in Donald Horowitzrsquos compendium of ldquodeadlyethnic riotsrdquo which are closely linked to genocide (see also Chapters 11ndash12)Horowitz is emphatic about the gender dimension of such slaughters and hiscomments may be used without qualification to describe genocide as well

While the violence proceeds there is a strong although not exclusive concen-tration on male victims of a particular ethnic identity The elderly are often left aside and sometimes though less frequently so are children Rapes certainlyoccur in ethnic riots sometimes a great many rapes but the killing and mutilationof men is much more common than is the murder or rape of women Women are sometimes pushed aside or forced to watch the torture and death of theirhusbands and brothers Sometimes women are even treated courteously bytheir husbandsrsquo killers13

It is important to point out that targeting ldquoonlyrdquo adult men is sufficient underinternational law to constitute genocide This was confirmed in April 2004 whenappeal judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia(ICTY) overturned a 2001 verdict against Bosnian Serb General Radislav Krstic whohad been found guilty ldquonot of genocide but of aiding and abetting genociderdquo duringthe Srebrenica massacre The appeals chamber determined that ldquoby seeking toeliminate a part of the Bosnian Muslimsrdquo ndash those living in Srebrenica and ldquothe maleMuslimrdquo component of that group ndash genocide had indeed occurred under Krsticrsquossupervision14 In its way the verdict was as significant as that rendered earlier by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) against Jean-Paul Akayesu Thisestablished that the systematic rape of women could be considered genocidal whenpart of a broader campaign of group destruction (see the discussion of genocidal rapebelow)

A very common result of gendercides against men is a glaring demographicdisparity in the proportion of surviving women versus men This is exemplified bycases such as northern Iraq Cambodia highlands Guatemala and Rwanda ndashalthough one must be careful in evaluating the extent to which data truly reflectdisproportionate male mortality or alternatively an undercounting of males who maybe in exile (as refugees or fighters) or in hiding to escape persecution and evadeconscription15

In the ldquoroot-and-branchrdquo holocausts that the general public tends to view as theparadigm of genocide a sequential progression is apparent along the lines described

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

328

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

earlier It is striking that all three of the ldquoclassicrdquo genocides of the twentieth centuryndash by the Turks against the Armenians the Nazis against the Jews and Hutus againstTutsis ndash followed roughly this pattern The time separating the different stages wassometimes brief (in the Nazi case only a few weeks) and the Rwandan case cannotbe incorporated without serious qualification Readers are invited to peruse thechapter-length treatments of these genocides through a ldquogenderedrdquo lens to see howthe progression from gendercidal to root-and-branch strategies occurred

As noted in the Jewish Holocaust chapter the shift from targeting ldquobattle-agerdquonon-combatant males usually viewed as legitimate targets to targeting childrenwomen and the elderly may result in substantial emotional stress to killers ldquoWhileunarmed men seem fair gamerdquo wrote Leo Kuper ldquothe killing of women and childrenarouses general revulsionrdquo16 ndash though not in all situations and not necessarily for long Hence the escalation of Nazi killing of Jews moving from adult males to otherpopulation groups17 hence too the development of distancing technologies suchas gas vans and gas chambers to reduce the trauma for murderers of women andchildren One can also note the degeneration of more centralized control overgenocidal killing in Rwanda This appears to have been linked in part to concernsof ordinary Hutus that the murder spree was moving beyond acceptable targets18

WOMEN AND GENOCIDE

The focus so far on the mass-murder component of genocide may have theundesirable effect of implying that women are exempted from the worst genocidalviolence Nothing could be further from the truth First root-and-branch genocidesthroughout history have killed tens or hundreds of millions of females Manystructural cases of genocide ndash such as mass famine economic embargo and so on ndashimpact equally or more severely upon women and girls than upon men and boys

Second the micro-managed gender strategies employed for example atSrebrenica are fairly rare especially in the contemporary era of ldquodegenerate warrdquo (seechapters 2 12) It is more common as it was even in the Balkans genocides forwomen to be exposed to direct abuses and atrocities While these may be on averageless deadly they are no less ldquogenderedrdquo They range from verbal assault and humili-ation to physical attack and individual rape to multiple and gang rape (often underconditions of protracted sexual servitude) to rape-murder on a large scale

In December 1937 one of the most savage instances of genocidal rape inauguratedthe so-called Rape of Nanjing When Japanese forces seized the Chinese capital upto a quarter of a million Chinese men were corraled and massacred often after tortureTens of thousands of women were also killed ndash usually after extended and excruciatinggang rape Kenzo Okamoto a Japanese soldier recalled ldquoWe were hungry for womenOfficers issued a rough rule if you mess with a woman kill her afterwardsrdquo19 Anothersoldier stated ldquoPerhaps when we were raping [a female victim] we looked at her asa woman but when we killed her we just thought of her as something like a pigrdquo20

A Chinese eyewitness Li Ke-hen described ldquoso many bodies on the street victimsof group rape and murder They were all stripped naked their breasts cut off leavinga terrible dark brown hole some of them were bayoneted in the abdomen with their

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

329

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

intestines spilling out alongside them some had a roll of paper or a piece of woodstuffed in their vaginasrdquo Almost no female was safe Girls as young as 8 and elderlywomen were raped and killed Even those not murdered immediately were liable to be ldquoturned loose in such a manhandled condition that they died a day or twolaterrdquo21

The Japanese rape of women in the Asian-occupied territories featured in theindictment at the postwar Tokyo Tribunal ndash though the systematic conscription andsexual exploitation of Korean Indonesian and other women (the so-called ldquocomfortwomenrdquo)22 was not addressed This may be because the victorious powers had over-seen somewhat similar systems of female exploitation in their own spheres Likewisethe mass rapes accompanying the Soviet conquest of eastern Germany in 1944ndash45were not mentioned at the Nuremberg war crimes trials of 1945ndash46 the Sovietswould never have permitted it

Feminist author Susan Brownmillerrsquos book Against Our Will (1975) marked thefirst systematic exploration of rape It publicized the large-scale sexual violence againstBengali women during the Bangladesh genocide of 1971 (Box 8a) and the socialrejection that raped women confronted in the aftermath It was the Balkans wars ofthe 1990s though that exposed the issue of mass rape of women to internationalvisibility (see the account of 16-year-old ldquoErdquo cited in Chapter 8) The term ldquogeno-cidal raperdquo began to be widely employed to convey the centrality of sexual assault tothe wider campaign of group destruction Although rejected by some who argued thatrape and genocide were distinct crimes the concept gained further credibility withthe horrific events in Rwanda in 1994 As the UN Special Rapporteur on RwandaReneacute Degni-Seacutegui pointed out ldquorape was the rule and its absence the exceptionrdquoduring this genocide23 While estimates of women raped in the Balkans genocidesranged between 20000 and 50000 in Rwanda they were ten times higher ndash between250000 and 500000 Moreover as at Nanjing rape was standardly accompaniedby ldquoextreme brutalityrdquo above and beyond the specifically sexual assault ldquoRape accom-panied by mutilation [was] reported to include the pouring of boiling water ontothe genital parts and into the vagina the cutting off of breast(s) and the mutilationof other parts of the female bodyrdquo24 And rape was very often followed by death ndashsometimes (and still) years later owing to the high proportion of Hutu rapists infectedwith the HIV virus (see Chapter 9 pp 246 for one womanrsquos story)

In part as a result of the scale and savagery of the Rwandan rapes and reflectingyears of feminist-inspired mobilization around the issue in September 1998 theICTR convicted Jean-Paul Akayesu for acts of genocide including sexual violenceAs Human Rights Watch noted this marked ldquothe first conviction for genocide byan international court the first time an international court has punished sexualviolence in a civil war and the first time that rape was found to be an act of genocide[intended] to destroy a grouprdquo25

GENDERCIDAL INSTITUTIONS

An appreciation of female vulnerability to genocide is greatly increased if we expand our framing beyond politicondashmilitary genocides to the realm of ldquogendercidal

G E N D E R I N G G E N O C I D E

330

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

National trials can also arouse national sentiment to the detriment of theproceedings This derailed the tribunals at Leipzig and Constantinople after the FirstWorld War Even contemporary advanced legal systems may be unduly swayed bysuch sentiment Israel for example mishandled proceedings against John Demjanjuka US citizen extradited on charges of having served as a brutal guard (ldquoIvan theTerriblerdquo) at the Treblinka death camp According to Geoffrey Robertson someIsraelis ldquowanted so badly to convict Demjanjuk that three experienced judges ignoredexculpatory evidence and presided over an outrageously unfair show trialrdquo sentencingthe prisoner to death Only when incontrovertible proof of mistaken identity wassubmitted at the appeal stage was Demjanjuk ldquogrudginglyrdquo cleared30

In addition to Ethiopiarsquos proceedings against the Dergue and Israelrsquos againstDemjanjuk some major national trials for war crimes and crimes against humanityinclude

bull Proceedings against thousands of accused war criminals in Germany after WorldWar Two following on the Nuremberg tribunal but conducted by Germancourts Result minimal ldquodenazificationrdquo with most former Nazi functionaries leftunprosecuted

bull Israelrsquos abduction and trial of leading Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann(1960ndash61) Result Eichmannrsquos conviction and execution (1962)31

bull Argentinarsquos prosecution and incarceration in the mid-1980s of leaders of theformer military junta (see Chapter 14) Result five leaders convicted and jailedbut pardoned several years later

bull Trials of accused geacutenocidaires in Rwanda Result some trials and executionsgeneral chaos and the introduction of less formal gacaca proceedings (see below)

bull A renewed round of trials in Germany in the 1990s this time of formercommunist functionaries in the East German government Result a handful ofconvictions of low-level border guards general impunity for higher-upssometimes on health grounds

Domestic legislation on genocide is sometimes intriguing for its application of theUN Genocide Convention Incorporation of the Convention into national law canbe restrictive based on self-serving ldquoreservationsrdquo as with Canadarsquos strategy to avoidmention or prosecution of genocide against native Canadians (see Chapter 14) Butdomestic framings can also be expansive and inclusive perhaps charting a course for developments at the international level This is especially notable in the case of designated victim groups for genocide Bangladesh ndash with memories of the 1971genocide still fresh (Box 8a) ndash added political groups to the Convention definitionas did Costa Rica in 1992 and Panama in 1993 Peru includes social groups whileFinland adds ldquoa comparable group of peoplerdquo to the Conventionrsquos core list ofcollectivities32 Another distinctive example is Cambodia where in light of theKhmer Rougersquos strategies genocide was defined in a Decree Law of July 1979 asincluding ldquoplanned massacres of groups of innocent people expulsion of inhabitantsof cities and villages in order to concentrate them and force them to do hard labourin conditions leading to their physical and mental destruction wiping out religion

J U S T I C E T R U T H R E D R E S S

369

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

I N D E X

411

struggle over memory in 346ndash48national trials in 369truth commission in 378see also Nunca Maacutes report

Armeniaas independent state 112early history of 102see also Armenian genocide Armenians

Armenian genocide xx 30 101ndash19 264268ndash69 283 (n 19) 285 (n 49) 321 (n 7) 398ndash99

and Jewish Holocaust 101 174 323 (n 36)and term ldquoholocaustrdquo 102as influence on Raphael Lemkin 9atrocities against children and women in

108ndash09 109ndash12criminal trials following 112ndash13 364denial of 113ndash15 352ndash54gendercide against men in 104 106 109ndash10

217in context of First World War 53post-genocide trials for 9 364 369see also Armenia Armenians

Armeniansas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295 296compared with Jews 102ndash03deportations of 106ndash07 11ndash12destruction of culture of 107early massacres of 104 363historical origins of 102massacres by 112renaissance of 103ndash04see also Armenia Armenian genocide

Arthur Sir George 93 (n 74)Arusha Peace Accords 237Arusha tribunal see International Criminal

Tribunal for RwandaldquoAsocialsrdquo as targets of genocide 169ndash70 178

391Assassination as prohibition regime 324 (n 43)Assyrian empire 5 51Assyrians as victims of Turkish genocide 106Ataturk Kemal see Kemal MustafaAung San Suu Kyi 408 (n 59)Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (Poland) 153

154 156 177 239 276debate over bombing of 159

Australiadenial of genocide in 354genocide in 69 78ndash80intervention in East Timor 396 406ndash07

(n 27)

Labor Party in 80redress and restitution strategies in 381residential schools in 79ldquoSorry Dayrdquo in 79ndash80 381

Avdic Nezad 218ndash19Awami League (Bangladesh) 228ndash29Aztec empire 71 84

Barsquoath Party (Iraq) 120 122Babi Yar massacre (Ukraine) 239Baker James 220Balkans see Bosnia-Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo

Slovenia YugoslaviaBalkars 134ldquoBanality of evilrdquo (Arendt) 147Bandung Conference 187Bangladesh

aftermath of genocide in 230gendercide against men in 229 327 328genocide in xix 227ndash31genocide legislation in 369independence of 229ndash30rape of women in 230 330

Bardach Janusz 131ndash33Bartov Omer 54Barzani clan (Iraq) 120Battle of Hamakari (Namibia) 80Bauman Zygmunt 274 288 289ndash91Bauer Yehuda 16Baumeister Roy xxii 261Becker Ernest 283 (n 30)Belgium

colonialism in Congo 42ndash44colonialism in Rwanda 234ndash36communal cleavages in 390

Belo Bishop 208Belzec death camp (Poland) 153 173Bengalis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash31Bergen-Belsen concentration camp (Germany)

154Berg Nick 50Biafra as disputed genocide 357Bielakowski Alexander 82Biharis as victims of Pakistani genocide 227ndash28

231 (n 12)bin Laden Osama 270Bisesero mountain massacres and resistance at

(Rwanda) 242ldquoBlack Widowsrdquo (Chechnya) 144Blair Tony 371Boas Franz 297Bolivia 29 71ndash72 85 86 304 (n 32)

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

I N D E X

412

Bolshevik Party 125and Great Purge 129ndash31as object of Nazi genocide 169 174 267 269

Bolshevik Revolution 55 124ndash26 141and First World War 53 55see also Bolshevik Party Lenin Vladimir Soviet

UnionBombing aerial

as genocide 24ndash25 29 36 (n 62)debate over bombing of Auschwitz-Birkenau

159nuclear bombing 25 29 56ndash58of Cambodia 46 188ndash90of Germany 24ndash25 29 179of Laos 46of Japan 24ndash25 29of Vietnam 46

de Bonafini Hebe 346Bonhoeffer Dietrich 172Bonior David 26Bosnia-Herzegovina

aftermath of genocide in 222ndash24as disputed genocide 357declaration of independence of 215foreign role in 219ndash20gendercide against men in 215ndash17 327 328

368 384 (n 27)genocide in 29 212ndash27 368humanitarian intervention in 392Muslim population of 215rape of women in 215ndash16 329ndash30Serb population of 215see also Sarajevo Srebrenica massacre

Brandt Willi 380Brantlinger Patrick 68Brass Paul 293ndash94Bristol Mark 294Bringing Them Home (report) 79British empire 40ndash42 72ndash73Bronfman Edgar 379Browne J Ross 75Browning Christopher 160ndash61 270ndash71 275Brownmiller Susan 230 330Bryce Report (Canada) 76Buchenwald concentration camp (Germany) 178Buddhists as victims of Cambodian genocide

199Bukharin Nikolai 130Bureaucracy

and modernity 289ndash90 291in China 291

Burleigh Michael 82

Burundigenocide in 30 248 (n 24) 266

Bush George HW 220Bush George W 372

and International Criminal Court 375Butz Arthur 352

Cabo Joseacute Martiacutenez 67 68Cambodia

ldquobase peoplerdquo vs ldquonew peoplerdquo in 194ndash95Chinese policy towards 201forced labor in 197ndash98genocide in 185ndash206genocide legislation in 369mass executions in 198ldquomixed tribunalrdquo in 370political purges in 198ndash99relations with Vietnam 186 188 191 199

200ndash01urbicide in 192ndash93 195US policy towards 188ndash90 201war in 188ndash92

Canadaand recognition of Armenian genocide 114and standing UN army 397denial of genocide in 361 (n 37)genocide in 72ndash76genocide legislation in 369redress and restitution processes in 381residential schools in 75ndash76

Capitalism and genocide 37 (n 80) 376 401Carpenter R Charli 405 (n 11)Carrier Jean-Baptiste 6Carthage destruction of 5 50 193de las Casas Bartolomeacute 70 71

as honest witness 400Casement Sir Roger 44Caste War of Yucataacuten (Mexico) 29 85 87 304

(n 32)Castro Fidel 372Catalyzing ideas 317Celibici case (ICTY) 367Cerro Rico silver mine (Bolivia) 72Chad truth commission in 378Chalk Frank xxii 14 15 17Chams as victims of Cambodian genocide 199Charny Israel 15 18 261 396ndash97Chechnya

deportations from 134ndash35 351gendercide against men in 143 327genocide in 134ndash35 141ndash46 193 351

Cheka secret police (Soviet Union) 126

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

I N D E X

413

Chelmno death camp (Poland) 153 178Cherokee Indians (US) 75 315Cheacuteteacutes (brigands) 107 108 353

see also Armenian genocideChetniks (Yugoslavia) 213 218 219Chhit Do 189Chiapas (Mexico) uprising in see ZapatistasChickasaw Indians (US) 315Chile see Pinochet AugustoChina

agricultural collectivization in 95ndash96and collective pathological narcissism 263and genocide in Tibet 94ndash100as ldquolethal regimerdquo 309bureaucracy in 291ethnic sensibility in 291famine in 96female infanticide in 331Japanese genocide in 44ndash45policy toward Cambodia 201ldquoRape of Nanjingrdquo 44see also Mao Zedong

Chineseas ldquomiddleman minorityrdquo 295as victims of genocide by Japanese 44ndash45as victims of genocide in Cambodia 200denial of genocide against 360 (n 23)in Malaysia 391

Chivington John 73Choctaw Indians (US) 315Chomsky Noam 210 (n 1) 356 357 408ndash09

(n 60)Christian Democratic International 237Christians persecution of 5 9Chua Amy 295Churchill Ward 35 (n 48) 75ndash76Churchill Winston 8 317 364Citizensrsquo tribunals see International citizensrsquo

tribunalsClinton Bill 309

and Armenian genocide 115and Bosnian genocide 220and International Criminal Court 375and Rwandan genocide 244 247 (n 9) 381

387 (n 92)Cold War 58 311ndash12 313 319 365 392Collective pathological narcissism see NarcissismCollectivization of agriculture

in China 95ndash96in Soviet Union 127ndash28 189 401

Colombia vigilante violence in 332Colonialism 19

and ethnic nationalism 292and genocide 19 39ndash48 94 315 322

(n 18)and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash95 492defined 39internal colonialism 39ndash40neo-colonialism 39ndash40prohibition regime against 400settler colonialism 39ndash40 83ndash84see also Decolonization Imperialism

Columbus Christopher 6 77 86ldquoComfort womenrdquo 45 330 339 (n 22)

International citizensrsquo tribunal for 376Commission of Inquiry into the Origins of the

Reichstag Fire 376Committee of Public Safety (France) 7Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 104

105 106see also Armenian genocide Young Turks

Communismand genocide 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206 309

401and genocide in Cambodia 185ndash206and genocide in China 94ndash100as revolutionary force 55in France 186ndash87in Indochina 188in Soviet Union 124ndash41 190 345in United States 356

Communistsas victims of Stalinist purges 129ndash31 345as victims of Nazis 169

Comparative genocide studies 14ndash30and Jewish Holocaust 14 157 163

Complex humanitarian emergencies 313Conan Doyle Sir Arthur 44Congo

as ldquoAfricarsquos world warrdquo 252 396as country at risk of genocide 310as ldquonew warrdquo 252Belgian genocide in 42ndash44 102 250 363contemporary genocide in 44 244 250ndash52

254ndash57possible truth commission in 378

Congo Free State 42Congo Reform Association 44Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) (Congo)

252Conrad Joseph 39 42 44Constantinople tribunal (Turkey) 364 369Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (UN) 12ndash14 19

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

I N D E X

414

22 23 27 83 85 144 237 308 354357 362 374

and incorporation into domestic law 369ndash70and politicalsocial groups 13ndash14 137lobbying for by Raphael Lemkin 317ndash18preamble to 22

Corddry Rob 354Corveacutee labor ndash see Forced laborCosmopolitanism 400 408 (n 49)

see also World citizenCossacks as victims of Soviet genocide 140

(n 51)de Cotiacute Otilia Lux 86Creek Indians (US) 315Crimean Tatars as victims of Soviet genocide 134Crimes against humanity 112 363 374ndash75 383

(n 8)and genocide 374 385 (n 57)

Criminal tribunals 363ndash71 373ndash75Croatia

conquest of Krajina region 220declaration of independence of 214ndash15expulsion of Serbs from 29genocide during Second World War in 212

354Ustashe regime in 212 213 266

Crusades 5Cuban Missile Crisis 135Cultural genocide 10ndash11 22Cultural relativism 297ndash98Cultural Revolution see Great Proletarian

Cultural RevolutionCushman Thomas 388

Dachau concentration camp (Germany) 169171 177

Dadrian Vahakn 15Dalai Lama 95 96 98 408 (n 59)Dallaire Romeacuteo 232 233 238 239 335 397Dardanelles campaign (Turkey) 105 113Darfur

as disputed genocide 357as ldquonew warrdquo 311compared with Bosnia-Herzegovina and

Kosovo 254gendercide against me in 254genocide in 252ndash57rape of women in 254

Davis Leslie 101 107Davis Mike 41ndash42Day of Fallen Diplomats (Turkey) 354Dayton Accords 220 223 366

Death camps 152ndash54 242 318see also Auschwitz-Birkenau Belzec Chelmno

Kabgayi Majdanek Sobibor Treblinka Declaration of Human Rights (UN) 8Decolonization 85 206ndash07 236 292 297Delhi massacre (India) 327ndash28Demjanjuk John trial of 369Democide 307ndash09 314 316Democracy

and genocide 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312314ndash16

Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda(FDLR) (Congo) 236

Democratic Kampuchea see CambodiaDemocratic peace debate 314Denial see Genocide denialDenmark

and rescue of Jews from Nazis 275ndash76and standing UN army 397

Dergue regime see EthiopiaDewey Commission 376Dickmann August 172Dien Bien Phu battle of (Vietnam) 188Dili massacre (East Timor) 208Disease and genocide against indigenous peoples

73 83ldquoDoctorsrsquo Plotrdquo (Soviet Union) 135Doctors Without Borders 399Doumlnitz Karl 364Dowry killings 331Drost Peter 15Drug trade

and economic sanctions 393and ldquonew warsrdquo 313 322 (n 16)as prohibition regime 318 319

Dubrovnik bombardment of (Croatia) 215Dudayev Dzhokar 142Dunand Henri 363Duranty Walter 398Durban Conference see World Conference

against RacismDzhugashvili Joseph see Stalin Joseph

East Pakistan see BangladeshEast Timor

as disputed genocide 357compared to Cambodian genocide 206compared to Kosovo 210gendercide against men in 327genocide in 206ndash11humanitarian intervention in 392 396 406

(n 27)

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

I N D E X

415

independence of 209ndash10Indonesian invasion of 208justice process in 210 211 (n 13)solidarity movement for 206 208ndash09

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) 209Eastern Slavonia region (Croatia) 214Ecocide 404Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

86Economic Community of West African States

(ECOWAS) 396Economic sanctions see Sanctions economicEcuador 86Ehrenburg Ilya 54Ehrenreich Barbara 265ndash66Ehrhardt Sophie 297Eichmann Adolf 147 154 362 369 372 384

(n 31)Einsatzkommando see EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen (Mission Groups) 120 152 174

178 383 (n 6)Eisenhower Dwight 25 77El Mozote massacre (El Salvador) 301El Salvador

genocide in 301FMLN guerrillas in 403truth commission in 377

Eliticidein Armenian genocide 106in Bangladeshi genocide 227 229in Burundi 266in Poland 131 172

Elizabeth II (queen) 380 381Enabling Act (Germany) 149Enver Pasha 105 113Epstein Nechama 155ndash57Ethiopia

famine crimes in 41national trials in 362 368 369 372

ldquoEthnic cleansingrdquoin Bosnia-Herzegovina 216in Kosovo 222in Darfur 254

Ethnic conflictand end of Cold War 311ndash12and genocide 310and ldquomiddleman minoritiesrdquo 294ndash96and ldquonew warsrdquo 313deadly ethnic riots 293ndash94 304 (n 27)sociological perspectives on 291ndash93

Ethnicity xxiii 291ndash93Ethnocentrism 297 305 (n 44)

Ethnocide 22Eugenics

in Europe and United States 172ndash73in Nazi Germany 172ndash73

European Court of Justice (ECJ) 373European Union (EU) 115 222 373 397

405ndash06 (n 15)Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF) 397

European witch-hunts xixEuthanasia

in Nazi Germany 172ndash74 182 (n 27)in Poland and Soviet Union 173ndash74

Evian Conference (France) 159ldquoExclusivity of sufferingrdquo (Halo) 360 (n 29)

FalklandsMalvinas war 263 346Famine crimes and starvation 329 401

in British India 41ndash42in Cambodia 197ndash98in China 41 96 192in East Timor 208in Ethiopia 41in Germany after First World War 322 (n 18)

406 (n 18)in North Korea 41in Ukraine 124 127ndash28 136ndash37 398see also Collectivization of agriculture

Fanon Frantz 186 187Fascism

and Nazi genocide 147ndash84as revolutionary force 55see also Hitler Adolf Nazis

Faurisson Robert 352 355 356 357Fear

animal fear 265ndash66as factor in genocide 261 265ndash68existential dread 265 267ndash68mortal terror 265ndash67

in Balkans wars 266in Jewish Holocaust 267in Rwandan genocide 266ndash67

Fein Helen 14 17 18 47ndash48 288Feminism 325Filtration camps (Chechnya) 143ndash44First World War 51ndash53 56 363 393

aftermath of 112ndash13 149 364and Adolf Hitler 52ndash53 149 269and Armenian genocide 105ndash06 268and Bolshevik revolution 125and creation of Yugoslavia 212and Nazi rise to power 159criminal tribunals following 364 369

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

I N D E X

416

see also Dardanelles campaign Somme battleof Versailles Treaty

Fischer Eugen 81 297Flinders Island (Australia) 79 91ndash92 (n 52)Flossenburg concentration camp (German) 172Forced labor

and slavery 318as gendercidal institution 331in Belgian Congo 42ndash44in Cambodia 197ndash98in Japanese empire 45in Soviet Union 128ndash29in Spanish empire 70ndash72 83in Tibet 96

Forensic anthropology see AnthropologyFrance

and recognition of Armenian genocide 114imperialism of 46 186 322 (n 18)revolution in 6ndash7 55 291role in Rwandan genocide 236ndash37 244 249

(n 51) 357 393Vichy regime 165 (n 11) 187

Fretelin (East Timor) 207ndash08 403Freud Sigmund and ldquonarcissism of minor

differencesrdquo 262Friedman Thomas 268Friedrich Joumlrg 179Fromm Erich 261Functionalism see Jewish Holocaust

Gacaca proceedings (Rwanda) 245 370ndash71 377380

Gallipoli see Dardanelles campaignGaltung Johan 27 28Gandhi Mahatma 227 408 (n 59)Garreton Robert 252Garzoacuten Baltasar 371Gas chambers 152ndash53 318 329Gatwaro stadium massacre (Rwanda) 242Gellately Robert 150 169ndash70Gender

and genocide 5 325ndash41 367ndash68definitions of 325ndash26

Gendercide 5 27 325ndash41against Albanian men in Kosovo 221ndash22 327against Bosnian-Muslim men 215ndash17 327

328 368 384 (n 27)against Chinese men in Nanjing 329against homosexual men in Nazi Germany

170ndash71 331ndash32against Jewish men in Holocaust 152 267

329 334

against Melian men 326against men in Armenian genocide 104 106

109ndash10 217against men in Anfal Campaign 120ndash21

327against men in Bangladesh 229 327 328against men in Chechnya 143 327against men in Darfur 254against men in East Timor 327against men in KashmirPunjab 327against men in Rwanda 242 244against Soviet prisoners-of-war 175ndash77against women 329ndash31and early-warning mechanisms 392and root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29gendercidal institutions 27 330ndash31see also Delhi massacre Srebrenica massacre

Gendercide Watch (organization) xixGeneva Conventions 319 363Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in

War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or OtherGases and of Bacteriological Methods ofWarfare 364

ldquoGenocidal continuumrdquo (Scheper-Hughes) 299Genocidal massacres 27 37 (n 73)

against indigenous peoples 73Genocidal rape see RapeGenocide

against Poles see Polandagainst Ukrainians see Ukraineagents of 19and authority 403and bodily or mental harm 13 361 (n 37)and capitalism 37 (n 80) 376 401and colonialism 19 39ndash48 94 315and communism 94ndash100 124ndash46 185ndash206

309 401and crimes against humanity 374 385

(n 57)and democracy 263ndash64 296 309ndash10 312

314ndash16and denial 113ndash14 351ndash57and economic crisis 389and economic sanctions 26and education 402and fear see Fearand filthexcreta 284 (n 43) 299ndash300

305ndash06 (n 53)and forgetting 345ndash51and gender 5 325ndash41 367ndash68and globalization 42 292ndash93 313 393and gratuitous cruelty 269

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

I N D E X

417

and greed see Greedand group identity 4 12 14 262 266 289

291ndash93 367 389ndash90and gun control 391and hate propaganda 390ndash91and honest witness 398ndash99and humiliation see Humiliationand imperialismcolonialism 39ndash48and intent 20ndash22 353and justice 362ndash87andas mass killing 11 13and measures to prevent births 14and memory 345ndash51and modernity 289ndash91and narcissism see Narcissismand nuclear ldquoomniciderdquo 56ndash58and political groups 14 319and prevention of births within a group 13

368and redress 379ndash81and religion 4 159ndash60 185 191 273 278

279 280 400and restitution 379ndash81and secular ideologies 400ndash02

see also Capitalism Communism Modernityand social revolution 55ndash56and structural violence 27ndash28 393and truth and reconciliation processes 377ndash79and universal jurisdiction 362and war 48ndash54anthropological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash89

296ndash301 305ndash06apologies for 380ndash81as crime against humanity see Crimes against

humanityas jus cogens offense 362as prohibition regime 316ndash20attempted justifications of 28ndash30 68ndash69 105

113ndash14celebration of 81ndash82central direction of 353cinematic treatments of 15 156 205 (n 52)

276 278 407 (n 44)criminal tribunals for 363ndash71 373ndash75cultural dimension of 10ndash11degrees of 35 (n 48) 83dehumanization strategies in 267 299denial of see Genocide denialemotional impact of studying xx xxvndashxxvi

(n 3)goals of 20historical perspectives xxiii

in Australia see Australiain the Americas 70ndash77in Bangladesh see Bangladeshin Bosnia-Herzegovina see Bosnia-Herzegovinain Cambodia see Cambodiain Congo see Congoin Croatia see Croatiain Darfur see Darfurin East Timor see East Timorin El Salvador 301in Guatemala see Guatemalain Iraq see Iraqin Kosovo see Kosovoin Namibia see Namibiain prehistory antiquity and early modernity

3ndash6in revolutionary France see Francein Russia see Chechnya Soviet Unionin Rwanda see Rwandain self-defense 30 352in Soviet Union see Second World War Soviet

Unionin Sudan see Sudanin Tasmania 78ndash79in Turkey see Armenian genocidein wartime and peacetime 13in Zulu empire 7ndash8international citizensrsquo tribunals for 375ndash76intervention strategies for 388ndash409legal definitions of 12ndash14 366ndash70literary treatments of 407 (n 44)military intervention in 395ndash97 403origins

as historical phenomenon 3ndash8as legal-analytical concept 8ndash18

political science perspectives on 307ndash24preventive strategies for 15 388ndash409psychological perspectives on xxiii 261ndash87Raphael Lemkinrsquos definition of 10ndash11root-and-branch genocide 326ndash29scale of 20scholarly definitions of 10 14ndash22sociological perspectives on xxiii 288ndash96

302ndash05strategies of 20tribunals for see Genocide and war-crimes

tribunalsuse of violence to confront 403victims of 19 30 38 (n 86)warning signs of 389ndash92see also Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide