Intro 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Dr. Michael Mercier • Ph.D Geography

Teaching and Research interests

• Teaching human geography • Regional Geography (Us, Brazil, Ireland, Europe) • Urban Geography (social issues, urban planning) • Historical Geography • Geography of Health • Research Methods

What is Geography?

• General questions to consider o What is geography? o What is human geography?

• Geography is the study of patterns and processes on the earth’s surface. Derived from greek geo-the earth graphe-to write about

• Two branches of geography • Physical geography

o Study of patterns and processes of the physical world o Physical environment (landforms, climate, hydrology,

geology, ecology, etc)

• Human Geography o Study of patterns and processes of the human world o Social environment (economy, culture, politics behavior, etc)

• Geography: what is where, why there, and why care?

o What is where? Involves description

o Why there? Involves explanation

o Why care? What is the meaning or significance Involves interpretation

o Description of the spatial organization (patterns) of people, places and human phenomena

o Explanation of the processes that produce these patterns o Interpretation of what these patterns mean

1st law of geography:

• Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things

Lecture 02 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

https://avenue.cllmcmaster.ca/d2l/le/content/111814/viewContent/911632/View Geographic Literacy

• Key concepts to be able to effectively communicate geographical concepts and ideas

• Space o Areal Extent, spatial extent, amount of earth’s surface that

something covers o 2 ways to think about space

Absolute space: objective, measurable extent with

definable boundaries physically real with define boundaries, campus is defined in terms of absolute space. Critical to map-making

Relative Space: subjective/perceptual and variable

over time, different people can have opposing views regarding the space in question.

Absolute space can be defined (albeit with some difficulty) by mathematical projections to convert 3-d earth into a 2 dimensional map

Relative space is commonly defined in topological maps-“sketch maps” scale, distance and positioning are estimates (or non relevant) Subway maps are a good example

• Location o Location refers to a distinct position in space

Absolute(mathematical) location: Obtained through GPS, or similar system and is relatively unchanging-precise and consistent

Relative (perceived) location

Subject to change and interpretation Nominal (or toponym) location: a place name, a

location of significance Situation

Location defined as being relative to other locations

o Place

Attachments, meaning, significance at an individual or collective level. Location +cultural/human meaning = place

We can gain a sense of place through traveling Sacred Place: a place with a strong sense of place,

typically associated with religion Placelessness: Locations lacking a strong identity,

standardized and homogenized

o Distance The amount of space between two or more locations

absolute/physical distance Travel distance: time of travel (think time-space

convergence) Economic/communication distance: Think in dollar

terms or difficulty of communication Psychological distance: the distance changing based

on psychological distance

o Distribution Distance and organization Three forms of distribution

Density Concentration/Dispersion

• Clustered (agglomerated) • Dispersed (scattered)

Pattern: The spatial arrangement of objects: linear, rectilinear, random, uniformed, etc

• This week and next chapter 1 of textbook

Lecture 03 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

More Key Concepts

• Spatial Interaction o Amount of movement or communication between two

locations “1st law of geography”

o “Are you going to a nearby restaurant, or you going to a nearly identical one across town?”

o “Are you more likely to meet with distant (former) neighbors or distant relatives? What about immediate family?”

• Distance Decay o How the level of interaction declines as distance increases o The decline of an activity or function with increasing distance

• Friction of distance o Distance has a retarding effect on interactions

• Accessibility and Connectivity o Critical for the nature and level of spatial interaction

Accessibility The ease with which distance can be crossed

Connectivity The tangible and intangible ways that places are

connected • Friction of distance

o How easy or difficult it is to overcome the distances that separate places But think about it: Air Canada doesn’t go to Africa!

• Gravity models o Measuring the quantity of movement or interaction between

two places Relative sizes Distance Distance decay function

Related to accessibility and connectivity

•

• Diffusion

o The process by which a characteristic spreads across space, from one location to another, over time Depends on distance, friction of distance, and densities

of population • Relocation diffusion

o The spread of an idea or characteristic through the physical movement of people form one location to another Immigrants Currency

• Contagious diffusion o The rapid, and widespread, movement of a characteristic

through a population Disease Gossip

• Heirarchial Diffusion o The spread of ideas or characteristics from person or locations

of authority or power to other people or places Fashion, music, technology

Lecture 04 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Making World Maps • The Challenge of Projections

The Geographic Grid • Latitude & Longitude • Time Zones

Types of Maps Pages 6-13 in text Maps are 2-d graphical representations of the world, and depict spatial relationships that help to explain and describe these spatial relationships. Maps communicate information, maps communicate spatial information. They analyze spatial relationships Maps are socially constructed, and they are constructed for a purpose. The map must be questioned regarding the mapmaker’s intent. How do you convert a sphere, the world as we know it, into a map of 2 dimensions?

• Projection o Mathematical technique for representing a 3-dimensional

sphere on a 2-dimensional map Imagine a light bulb at the center of the earth, earth is

transparent The continents leave shadows

• 3 kinds of projections o Specific variatiations, chosen based off what needs to be

precise o Varying levels of accuracy o Distortion in distance, direction and area

• Cylindrical Projection

o The earth’s surface is projected onto a cylinder that just touches along the equator The map is most precise along the equator, declines

toward the poles, northern and southern areas seem larger than they truly are

The Mercator Projection • Conical projections

o The earth’s surface is projected onto a cone that just touches the outside edges of the globe in the mid-latitudes Accuracy is best in the north/south hemisphere,

elsewhere the projection is extremely skewed The Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

• Azimuthal o The earth’s surface is projected onto a flat surface that

touches the globe at one point only. Ususally the north or south poles

• • There are hundreds of different projections, all with varying degrees

of these 3 projections

Latitude and Longitude

• A system of imaginary arcs which are used to identify locations on the earth’s surface

• Latitude (or paralells) o A series of lines that run parallel to the equator

Equator 0° Nort Pole 90° N South Pole 90° S

o Each degree can be sub-divided into 60 minutes, and each minute has 60 seconds (not time, unit of mesurement)

• Longitude (or meridians) o A series of arcs which meet/converge at the north and south

poles Greenwich, England 0° (the prime meridian)

The international Date Line 180° o Lines of longitude are labeled as west or east of the prime

meridian Placement=political decision

• Using longitude and latitude, we can pinpoint the location of any place on earth

o Philly: 40N and 75 W

• Longitude is central to the idea of time zones o The earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours and is divided

into 360° (ever 15°=1hr) o Time zones do not ALWAY follow the meridian due to political

considerations • Different information requires different maps

o ‘Accurate’ representation of spatial data topographic map Maps are only as accurate as their data

o Dot maps Reveal patterns of spatial concentration (clustering) or

dispersion (Dr.Snow’s cholera epidemic in 1854 o Chloropleths

Indicate graduated variations in data o Isopleth

Connect locations of equal data value o Cartograms

Space is distorted to emphasize particular attributes o GIS

Computer based tecchnoolgy that allows maps to be created

Lecture 05 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

What is development? What is Globalization? Transformations of the global economic system

• Communication & Transportation • Elimination of trade barriers • TNCS

Global Culture and the Global Village -Chp. 9 Development

• A process of improvement in the material conditions of life The Geography of Economic Development:

• Spatial Variation in terms of well-being o The haves and have nots

• Level of prosperity, income, consumption and well-being, etc The world can be viewed as a system of haves and have nots

• World systems theory o Simple explanatory framework

Core Periphery

Globalization

• Increasing interconnectedness of people and societies around the world OR

• Actions or processes that involve the entire world and result in making something worldwide in scope

• Globalization leads into the idea of a global village o A village is where everyone is connected, get along, speak the

same language, etc • Goods and services: a global shopping mall and a global assembly

line Where has this interconnectedness come from?

• Three main factors o Reducing the friction of distance o Breaking down barriers o Extending the scope of business

• Advances in accessibility and connectivity via innovations in communication and transportation technologies

o Internet Access is unequal 922 million in asia, but only 23% penetration

o Shipping containers (10,000 lost per year. Case Study: MSC Napoli)

o Both of these allow goods and services to be provided from afar

• Supernational Organization o Collection of like-minded, international states

Usually come together for economic reasons through attempting to eliminate trade barriers and to facilitate flow of goods between countries in the organizations NAFTA, ASEAN, EU

Do countries even matter anymore? • TNCS

o Headquarters in one part of the world and subsidiaries, factories, etc in others -> eg Nike Nike has most of the manufacturing in emerging

markets o Size and power

Number of employees, revenue, or political influence Walmart is the second highest in terms of revenue on the list of TNCs/Countries vs revenue

o Become powerful by Exploiting differences in wages around the world Differences in environmental regulations Low cost of transportation via container shipping, and

subsidized infrastructure improvements Reduction of trade barriers Outsourcing

Globalization occurs in popular culture

• Coca-colonization/McWorld • Optimists: Global Village & Increasing material well-being • Pessimists: Corporate Tyranny

Four types of change associated with globalization

• Stretching of social, political and economic activities across political frontiers, regions and continents

• More connected • More speed • Local events have greater global impact

Lecture 06 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

What is developed? • Differentiating: Less Developed World (LDW) vs MDW, Third world • Relationships between these differentiations • Read chap 9

How do we think about development? What does it mean? How do we measure it? How do we understand development, and the consequences of uneve development?

• What is where, why there, why care? •

What Is Development?

• Striking spatial variations in terms of well-being o Have vs. have not

• These differences exist at varying spatial scales o Most easily defined at a global level, but can also be regional

and national, or even local • Variations: Levels of development

o Extreme points, but in between are at continuum Extreme points are difficult to define, individual areas of

any spatial scale can be identified along the scale o Development: a process of improvement in the material

conditions of life • Development is typically measured in economic terms

o Usage of metrics such as GDP o However, usages of these economic based metrics disregard

the importance of social development o Economic metrics can evaluate social metrics, but can not

measure them Healthcare, education, freedom of speech/vote, etc Do the homeless care if they are living in a “more

developed” country? Development: a process of improvement in the material

conditions of life

Implied: modernization, advancement, economic growth, production and consumption

o We think about development as continuum between two

points Third world vs third Capitalist vs socialist underdeveloped vs developed Developing vs developed LDW vs MDW

• The less developed world is categorized by o High mortality rates o High fertility rates o Low literacy rates o Lower levels of industrialization

• Questions to consider o Is there judgment associated with terms like “less

developed”? Is our development better? o Is there a mechanism through which they can change o Is the world really divided in such a binary way

• Relationship with the more developed world o Consider the history of Colonial Europe and the effect on the

country/region in question • Third world dependence on colonial power in terms of economics,

political and social systems • World systems theory

o Framework for understanding this dependency relationship o Core o Periphery

• Expolitation TNC’s o Peripherals depend on the core

Lecture 07 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Development, and how can we measure it? Measuring Development

• Economic Tools • Global Income Inequality: GNI & PPP

Measuring Development • Social Tools • Global Social Inequality: HDI & IHDI

The world is marked by striking spatial variations in terms of well-being

• Haves and have nots These variations exists at various spatial scales

• We refer to these variations in terms of levels of development areas are considered in between two extremes

Measuring Development

• Development: wealth or prosperity, ie. Average income • Per capita income?

o We can’t get this info, so we might use GDP per capita, or GNI per capita Measures of total value of all materials, foodstuffs,

goods, services produced by a country for a year o We call these proxy measures

• It is one singular measured, not THE method for measuring development

Example: World Bank – GNI per capita per country, ranked into 5 groups

Problem:

• These metrics do not account for the cost of living and not always consider the different currencies, in terms of Purchasing Power Parity(PPP)

• “Market Basket of Goods” o A theoretical basket of goods and services that allows the

purchasing power to be compared and contrasted • Ecuador vs. Canada

o Income:10 times higher o Essentials 2 times higher o Cost of living: 4 times higher

• Average income differences are not as great • PPP lowers the relative GNI in wealthy countries and raises them in

poor countries o Compresses the range in incomes

• Even with this compression, the income disparity still exists and markedly so

• “Big Mac Index” cost of big mac vs income • Economic measures assume that they are reliable surrogate

measures of social development • We also have social development, and economic measures assume

that they are reliable surrogate measures of social development • Social development=social investment

o There are relationships and patterns between economic and social development, but this is not always the case

• Disparities between the more and less developed o Is the disparity on the decline?

• We also have literacy as a metric capable of measuring social development

• What about accounting for less material evidence of material?

o Free speech, gender empowerment, religious freedoms, etc o We can, but it’s difficult to measure

• • HDI-0(none) to 1.0 • Norway 0.942 to Sierra Leone 0.275 • A general association exists between HDI and GNIpc, but only in a

general way • HDI is an excellent metric, but not perfect

• Gender and Equality

o Most measures of development ignore the differential social and economic roles played by men and women

• Clear spatial variations exist in these inequalities • This unequal distribution has clear consequences,

undernourishment, malnutrition, death, civil unrest, war, environmental catastrophe

Lecture 08 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Can we feed the world’s population? • Nutritional quality of life • World Hunger • Our food Future • Read chapter 9 and 10

What is the significance of the inequality of development?

• Consider some of the children being born into the have-nots Global Food Crisis

• The world food production has increase drastically and steadily since the early 1800’s with the industrial revolution

o New crops that are more productive o Mechanization o Increased use of fertilizers and pesticides o Conversion of new land to cultivation o Intensification of agricultural resources

• This food poorly distributed, but at the global level, there is no food shortage

o 800 million people go hungry, concentrated in Sub_saharan Africa and South Asia

o With global population continuing to grow, the food problem looks to be more serious

o Basic calorie requirements Minimum of 1800 calories a day

o These vary based upon Occupation Age Physical size Gender Climate

o Under nourishment: When calorie intake does not meet basic physiological needs

o Quantity and Quality when it comes to food (protein, fat, vitamins)

o Too much of certain things results in malnourishment

Underweight and obesity Other health-related issues

o 800 million are undernourished About the same number for the past 4 decades The relative amount has been decreasing

• Average consumption is 2780 o Higher than minimum

• Spatial variations o MDW:3500

Us: 3800 Canada:3650 • LDW 2630

o Sub-Sahara Africa: 2290 • Spatial patterns of nutrient consumption

o Cultural prefenrces for certain types of food o Levels of development o Physical geographic conditions

• Different and changing diets + projected population growth + environmental challenges

• All point to a potential “perfect storm” for food supply in this century

o Can we produce enough food? o Is food supply the problem, or is it poorly distributed? o Can modern agriculture solve the crisis? Or is local production

key? o Think about feeding 9 billion

Lecture 09 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Population Geography • Demography

o The Study of population Some universities have them, Mac does not

o Population Geography The study of spatial expressions of the population

o Where do the live, work? What is the spatial distribution of population?

o How do they live? Density? What are the consequences of our lifestyle?

o What resources do they use? Are they accessible to all?

o What are the conditions of health and well being? How is the social development?

What is the current approx population?

• 7.11 Billion What was the global population in 1995?

• 5.69 Billion • Since I was born, ever day the population increased by 220,000

people What is the world’s largest (by population) country?

• China is #1 • But India will surpass them by 2020

Global Population Growth

• 1=300 mil • 1800=1 bil • 1927=2 • 1960=3 • 1975=4 • 1987=5 • 1999=6 • 2012=7

• 2013 =7.11 • 2050=9

Population growth rate:~1.2% per year

• Doubling time:54 years\ The key issues of of population growth

• Unequal growth o 10% of births in the more developed world

• What are the consequences of growth? o Provision of healthcare and social services o Provision of food o Resource scarcity o Potential for conflict

Distribution Geographic phenomena can often be explained in terms of their distance between them and their spatial distribution Three forms of distribution

• Uneven distribution o Clustered vs dispersed o Factors: physical geographic & human geographic

• Population clusters

Remember the haves and have notes

• This correlates with levels of population • Most populous countries tend not to be members of the core, and

have lower levels of development • This results in a lare number who live in poverty with little to no

access to scarce or non-existing infrastructure (healthcare, food, water)

Recall: Population Density

• Arithmetic density o Number of people per unit area of land

• Physiological o # of people per unit area of arable land

Are there limits to population growth? Are there limits to what the earth can hold? To what it can support?

• Overpopulation o State in which the number of people in an area exceeds the

capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living

o A recognition that the environment can only sustain a certain population size

o What is a decent standard of living? o Have we reached our carrying capacity? o Catastrophists

believe that we are over populated and are pushing beyond the earth’s carrying capacity

o Cornucopians

Believe that technology will allows us to benefit from undiscovered resources, and we can use the planet indefinitely

Lecture 10 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Population Dynamics • Fertility • Mortality

Theories of Population Growth

• Malthus • Demographic Transition

Population Structure Globally, population is understood with two things: Fertility (births) and mortality (deaths) P1=P0+(B-D) Regionally though, population is also influenced by population movement: Migration (immigration and emigration) P1=P0+(B-D)+(I-E) Crude Birth rate (cbr)

• CBR=(B/P)*1000 o Total number of live births per every thousand people

True Fertility

• The number of women in the population, and the number of women of child bearing age (15-49)

General Fertility Rate (or fecundity) (GFR)

• GFR=(B/PF:15-49)*1000

• Total Fertility Rate o The average number of children that a woman will have in

her fecund years • Global TFR=2.8 • Replacement rates= c 2.1-2.5

o The number of children a couple must have to keep the population at the same

o Must have more than one because kids get hit by cars, some women can’t have children, etc etc

o Loevel of development affects the replacement rates Crude Death Rate (CDR)

• CDR=(D/P)*1000 • Total number of deaths per year for every 1000 people

Infant Mortality Rate (an age adjust rate)(IMR)

• IMR=(D0-1/B0*1000 • Range: Less than 10 to more than 150 • Linked to development

Life Expectancy

• The Average Number of years of life • Range: from the low 40s to more than 80

Natural Increase

• High fertility with decreasing mortality • Low fertility and low mortality means some areas are in decline

Recall

• Rapid population growth ~6 billion in 200 years Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834)

• Stated that population grows geometrically, but resources grow arithmetically

• Three stages o Food>population o Food=Population o Food<Population

• Malthus assumed the world was at stage 2.

• Preventative Checks

o Natural • Positive Checks

o People will go to war • He did not consider

o Agricultural productivity o Contraception and reduced fertility rates

Demographic Transition

• Demographic changes are associated with stage of economic development

Population Gowth Theory DTT

• To what extent doe this DT model fit with experiences in the developed and developing world?

o More developed world • Less predictive

o Stage three? Making Connections

• We can draw connections between these theories and our understating of population dynamics be examining a population’s structure

• Population pyramid o Age structure is determined by the relative birth and death

rates of a population

Lecture 09 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Population Migration • The spatial movement of population from one place to another • Recall: P1=P0+(B-D)+(I-E)

o Immigration(I) People coming into the country

o Emigration(E) People leaving the country

• Different spatial contexts o International migration o Inter-regional migration o Inter-urban

• Key issues of interest to Geographers: Migration o Cultural, political and economic characteristics of migrants

Who are they? o Number of migrants(flow)

How many of hem are there? o Distance moved

How far have they traveled? o Political boundaries crossed

Provincial vs. national o Causes of migration

What factors influence one’s decision to migrate? o Time spent in new location

Permanent, transient, etc

• Migration o A form of population redistribution

Over-populated to under-populated North Africa>Europe East Asia>North America Latin America>North America

o Many core countries depend on immigration to sustain population and economic growth 250,000 each year 1850-1900 30-60K 1900-1950:20-150k/year (peak in 1910)

o 1950-2000: 50-240K/year

• Net Migrartion: o Immigration-Emigration o Destination countries

Low natural population growth, high economic and social development

o Source countries High natural population growth, low economic and

social development

• Push/Pull Theory o Based upon push and pull factors o Push

Factors that make a current living location undesirable Local economic crises, cultural or political oppression,

environmental or political crises o Pull

Conditions that make another place appear to be better Economic opportunities, family reunification, freedoms,

environment and amenities o Push and pull factors take three main forms

Economic A consequence in difference in wages

Political

Threat to survival due to political or religious beliefs

Environmental Severe weather, desertification, pollution, etc

o Ravenstein’s Laws Series of generalizations drawn from observations of

migration behavior as illustrated in historical census data Most migrations are of short distance Migration usually involves several intermediate

steps Most migrants were adult single men (Although this is no longer the case) Inter-regiuonal is characterized by rural to urban

migration Migrants are drawn to large centers of economic

activity o Types of migration

Free(Voluntary) European examples (A search for a better life) Relieves population pressures Barriers today

• Kinds of migrants countries would like, migration targets

More intra-regional than international Forced

Slavery Impelled

Where choice to stay is limited • Civil wars

Are these choices made freely, or are they impelled(forced in some ways)? A difficult distinction

Illegal US and Mexico Chinese in North MAerica

Africans in Europe South Asians in Australia Difficult to estimate numbers

Lecture 12 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

The Emergence of Urban Living How many of us live in cities? What is a city?

• How do we know if we live in one or not? • What are they key factors?

o High amounts of amenities o Political boundaries o Types of work o “Feel”

Greater and greater proportions of the global population are living in urban areas each year

• 10% to 50% in about 200 years, o 10% was in the time of Malthus o Large change over spatial scale : <30% to 80%> o

• Urban areas can be thought of as: o Centers of large and densely concentrated populations o Centers of technological change and innovation o Centers of concentrations of power and economic activity o Centers of cultural change o Places which reflect social, economic and political diversity

A Brief History of Cities

• Early development in the middle east, around 3500-3000 BCE • Reasons for formation

o Surplus Theory Agricultural Surplus Social Stratification Labour specialization

Leads to higher concentrations of people, clustering of economic activities

Rural to urban migration o Previosuly, people were nomadic hunter/gatehres

• Social/cultural and economic transformation

• Profoundly different forms of settlements • New forms of economic activity • New social institutions • People began to rely on others for survival

Cities between Mesopotamia and the Industrial Revolution 1700s and 1800s

• Small, compact

• The industrial revolution gave way to critical changes of way of life o Agricultural revolution

Massively increased productivity Surplus labour

o Mass production o Trade on a global scale o Demographic change o Rural to urban population

Urbanization increases rapidly • Profound social/cultural and economic transformation

o Proportion of people living in cities o Higher proportion of population woking in agriculture and

industry • 1900-2000 Emergence of more developed cities

o Urban “Conurbations” • 1950-2000 Emergence of less developed cities

o Mega cities and problems • Urban living defines most of our lives-most of us live in cities(of

varying size) o Relatively recent phenomena o A fundamental and economic transformation

• We are all vaguely aware of what a city is, but defininitions are a challenge

Lecture 13 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Greater and greater populations f the global population are living in urban areas every year

• Variations <30% to >80%

• This process of urbanization is relatively recent o As recently as 200 years ago, very few lived in cities o 10 to 50% in 200 years o Urbanization is fundamentally connected to economic and

social/cultural change (including industrialization) Change in labor demographics, etc

• How many of us live in cities? o Approx 80%

• How do we know whether we live in one or not? • What are the key factors?

o Last class, we identified the following: Population, size and density Number/range off amenities and businesses Types of employment Presence of infrastructure Political boundaries

• We know population size is a relevant measure o What about other seemingly arbitrary differences? o Each of the following have about 30,000 people, now

Dundas Ancaster Stratford

o About 130,000 Oakville : wants to be smaller, referred to as town Burlington

o About 300,000 Markham(was a town, recently a city) Largest town

o Smallest city 780 people: want to seem larger, so named city

o Some languages do not differentiate well between towns and cities

Definition

• Urban area o A community that is defined as being ‘urban;, a city, a town,

a suburb, etc etc Population/spatial size is unique

o Demographic criteria Based upon laws, seemingly arbitrary numbers of

people that have to live in an area to be called a city May be additional requirement of density

o Economic criteria Certain percentages of the labor force needs to be in

certain types of jobs, certain percentage in “non urban” jobs

Again, defined by a country, varies around the world o Variations around the world

Canada-solely demographic Population>1000;density>400km2- relatively low

USA Population>1000 (density requirement has been

removed) Japan

Population>50,000;density>60% of housing in built-up areas: employment >60% in manufacturing, trade, etc

Botswana Population>5000; employment>75% in non-

agricultural work Norway

Population>200 • Do urban and city mean the ame thing?

o Canada is 80% urban, does that mean 80% of us live in cities Urban

• A general term that is used to refer to many different kinds of areas with local boundaries

City • A specific term-a place of a certain size, function and political status

Villages, towns and cities

• All urban areas, all nucleated settlements • Distinct residential and non-residential areas • Central Business District (CBD)

o “downtown” or “main street” o institutional, industrial, residential primarily economic

Suburb

• A specialized and peripheral area of a nucleated settlement o Neighboring urban areas o Residential, industrial, commercial specialization

Metropolitan area • An agglomeration (cluster) of discontinuously built-up areas acting

as an integrated economic unit o GTA/GTAH/New York-New Jersey

• Canada’s approach o Census Metropolitan Areas(CMAs) o One or more adjacent urban areas/municipalities o Total population>100,000 o Population of urban core>50,000

• Census Agglomerations, CAs o Same as CMA but the urban core population>10,000

• CMAs or CAs(‘urban areas’):81% • Largest CMAs(‘cities’):>50%

Urban Growth versus Urbanization-VERY IMPORTANT Urban Growth

• An increase in the absolute size of a city o Number of people o Area of land

Urbanization

• The transformation of population from rural to urban status o Decrease in rural population, increase in urban

• Fundamental re-organization of human society • Proportion of the population • De-urbanization

Time Period 1

Time Period 2

Lecture 14 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Variations in level of urbanization • Percent of the population living in urban areas

o C.1800 (prior to Industrial revolution): ~3%(world) vs. 10% in the MDW

o 1900 ~14% vs ~50% in much of the MDW

MDW undergoing industrial revolution o 2008

50% (world) vs ~50% in much of the MDW ~77% in the MDW ~41% in the LDW

• Urbanization: mirrors industrialization and economic development

• Exception in Brazil and some other sections of South America, where LEDCs have levels of urbanization more common with the MDW

o Result of colonization patterns within Latin America • MDW: Typically more industrialized, therefore more urbanized

• MDW and Latin America>70% urbanized

o Consistent over time • Africa and Asia are less than 40% urbanized

In terms of the rate of urban growth

• 1975-2000 • MDW 0.83% • LDW 3.5% • Explanations?

o Existing levels of urbanization o Levels of economic development o Differential demographic trends o Urbanized countries have slow population growth therefore

urban growth can only result from further urbanization, but they are already highly urbanized

• Level of urbanization are higher in the MDW, but the majority of very large cities are in the LDW

• How many large cities are there, and how large are they?

o 2 million+

o 5 million+

o 10 million +

o 20 million+

o 171 o 55 o 22 o 4

• 4 largest cities o New York, Tokyo, Seoul and Jakarta

• Various sources give different sizes o Many suggest Tokyo as largest, but not widely accepted

Others include New York, Seoul, Shanghai, Dehli, Mexico City, Sao Paulo and Chongqing

• Uncertainty arises from the matter of definition

• These can be base dupon o Political/legal definition o Urban agglomeration o Sphere of influence

• Eg Toronto o City of Toronto~2.6 m(640 km^2) o Toronto CMA~5.1 m(5,5000km^2) o GTA ~5.6 m(7,000 km^2)

• Megacities o 10 million+ o Economic attraction in to the city

Perceived and real opportunities o Expanding population

Rural-Urban migration Natural increase

MDW is urbanized LDW is urbanizing

Lecture 15 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Citiies are consumers of other goods and services Cities are the producers and producers of materials Cities are distributors of services

• Therefore, cities are functionally connected to other cities and to surrounding non-urban(rural) areas

Efficiency of location

• Central(strategic) • Remote • Site

o Absolute • Situation

o Relative location • Given the fact of the importance and the situational location of

cities, we can see that citoes are interconnected and do not function independently

• Central Place Theory

• Explains how cities in an urban system are spatially distributed • Cities compete with one another via the range of goods and

services that each of them provide • Located so that accessibility is maximized to the largest possible

range of consumers City:Hinterland

• Hinterland the area(or region) served by an urban center and where its goods and services are available

o Hamlet Gas Food General store

• Greater the range of goods and services (and more specialized) a city provides=greater the size of it’s hinterland

o Consider NY vs. Hamilton

Urban Hierarchy • Ranking of cities based on population size and range of functions • Pyramid

o Bottom Many small cities serving small areas Small number of goods and services available

o Top Few large cities serving large areas Wide range of services available

Hierarchy

• Interdependence • Southern Ontario

• Hierarchal structure: size and function • Urban systems follow one of two distributions

o Rank-Size Population of an urban settlement is inversely

proportional to its rank in the hierarchy • In general

o The nth largest city will be 1/n the size of the largest city • Primate City distribution

o Urban systems which are dominated by a city that is significantly larger than all other cities, and dominates the surrounding area in terms of social, economic, political and social lfe of the country More than twice the size of the next largest

o Typically found less developed countries, with a relaticvely short history of urbanization

Lecture 16 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Urban Morphology and Land Uses What are the hey elements of cities?

• Parks/green spaces • Infrastructure • Airports roads

These elements are divided into 6 land use categories

• Residential o Great diversity of different types of residential landscapes o Inner-city to suburban, rich to poor, middle-class etc.

• Commercial o Office

Head office(downtown),back offices(suburbs), regional offices(edge cities)

o Retail Storefront, suburban shopping malls, retail power

centers, flagship downtown stores • Industrial

o Heavy industrial production o ‘Light’ (‘innovative’) production

Bottling Coke • Institutional

o Universities, hospitals, schools, churches • Transportation/Infrastructure

o Roads, rail lines, ports, airports, parking lots, warehousing, electricity lines etc

• Public land uses o Parks, civic plazas, government buildings, arenas/stadiums

Organization of urban space into these land uses known as urban structure or urban morphology How are these land uses organized in space?

• Structure/morphology is shaped primarily by competition for territory and location

• Competition for the most desirable location • Desirability is most often determined by accessibility

o Greater accessibility translates into greater into greater desirability

o Desirability equals ability/willingness to pay for land Land use is the most dense and most expensive downtown, with the highest demand

• As such only certain developments can locate there • Bid rent curves!

How do these principles play out in the real world?

• Example 1: Residential development o Consider the spatial patterns of places of residence

Downtown Midtown Suburban Distant suburban

• Example 2: Commercial Development o Consider the spatial patterns of commercial developments o Offices

Downtown Making these accessible can be tricky-parking

Suburban o Retail

Downtown

Suburban Malls Cities or North America reflect commonalities n their urban structure/morphology Three influential models

• Collectively known as the “Chicago School” • Each model describes a slightly different dimension to the

process(see chapter 12) Sector Model: Homer Hoyt

• City sectors differentiated by price of land o Land prices are determined by distance from CBD AND

proximity to other sectors o Urban functions, once established are relatively permanent

Mutliple Nuclei Model • Activities: Attract and repel • Functional clusters or nuclei

o Every city has multiple nuclei • Agglomeration :manufacturing, transportation, and warehousing

o Attract: blue-collar

Lecture 17 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

GIS: Economic & Urban Applications Patrick DeLucas Code Red- a health mapping project Impact on health Care

• Mac elected to locate it’s new health campus downtown primarily because of the Code Red findings

Impact on Education

• Mohawk is using Code Red to ensure they are adequately servicing people in need, 1.5 million donated for scholarships for code red residents

• City offered money for a grocery store downtown • Poverty related curriculum for high school students • Nursing faculty received money to study maternal health

GIS Facts

• Estimated revenues of @274 billion globally • Growing at a rate at 30%/year

Geography of Primary Economic Activities9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

The Primary Sector Agriculture

• Early North American economic Success can be attributed to agriculture

o Agricultural land, timber, fish stocks, etc. o Essential products for food, clothing and shelter

• Spatial and temporal changes to these key primary economic

activities o Agriculture, forestry, mining, fishing, etc.

• Decline since industrialization in the 19th century

• Agriculture is a major food production economy

o Major exporter of wheat, corn, rice and hundreds of other agricultural goods

• Technological advances and increased productivity=fewer agricultural workers

• North America is the world’s bread basket and meat bin • North America is a net exporter

o Export more than they import

• Agriculture o Pressures to increase productivity via investment in

technology=> rise of agribusinesses (recall TNCs) o Agricultural specialization has created distinct ‘geographies of

agriculture’

• Mining, Forestry and Fisheries o Declining reserves/stocks

Overfishing Clear-cutting and lack of replanting Exhausted all easy-access mining

o Mining Northern Canada Western North America Western North America Eastern North America Southern Us Great Plains/Praries

o Fishing Over-fishing have reduced fishable stocks in most areas

Fishing is still a key industries for some areas

• Forestry o Key resource for extraction in certain parts of North America o Not a major part of national economy, but very important to

certain areas • Agriculture: most important human activity for the past 12,000

years o 45% of the worlds working population o 30% of the world’s landmass o In parts of Asia and Africa >80%

o In North America-only 2%

• Agriculture is a system of food production o A system is a set of interacting components that work

together as a unit o A food producing system includes

Land and climate A series of input(labor, fertilizers and machinery) Outputs (products and commodities) Consumers

• Subsistence (traditional) o Low technological inputs o Small scale o Food for local consumption

Very labor intensive o Shifting cultivation

• Commercial o High technological inputs o Large scale o Food for regional and or global trade o Typically found in MDW

Secondary Economic Activities 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Transition within the economies of the MDW • From agriculture to industry to services • Continuing to shift from secondary activities to tertiary and

quaternary activities, the so-called “service sector”

• Industry o Key to economic vitality within these MDW economies. o Newly industrializing countries, the industry is still key, and

secondary activities are required for these countries to grow

• Pre-industrial production o Localized and rudimentary production o Driven by skill set of people on a local level on a small scale

• The Industrial revolution-18th and 19th century o A revolution in the way goods were produced o The steam engine developed by James Watt-yay! o Machines replaced skilled laborers o Early industrial centers

Northern England Europe(Ruhr Valley) Pennsylvania and Ohio

All near coal supplies

• Components of the revolution o Large-scale factory production o Highly capitalized mechanization o Agglomeration of industries near sources of energy o Rural to urban migration

• The post industrial world

o Declining industrial activity o Transition from industrial to services o Transition is uneven and abrupt- recession

• Newly Industrialized World o South Korea, Mexico, Brazil, China etc

Containerization

Branch plants Domestic market

• Tradiotnal Manufacturing areas o North America, Europe and Japan o Mahoriy of global output

• Newly Emerging o South and South Eats asia

• Us Manufacturing

o Northeast to the south Lower wages

• Japan

o High quality consumer goods post WWII Export processing zones (epz)

• No duties

Theories of Industrial Location 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Industrial Location Theory Weber’s Least Cost Theory of Industrial Location

• Criticisms and Interpretation Site and situational factors influencing Plant(industrial) locations

• Markets • Raw Materials • Labor • Transportation

Where does industry/manufacturing locate? Location is bound by particular constraints

• Consider: Steel Plant • Located near key inputs

o Coal and iron ore are heavy/bulky to transport • Locate near key markets?

o Steel is heavy/bulky to transport • Today: Principles of location theory-Weber’s Least Cost industrial

location theory Spatial organization of production: The ‘tyranny of distance’

• Transportation costs money: location-decisions minimize transportation

General theory of plant/factory location: Alfred Weber Primary emphasis:

• Role of transport costs

Industrial location: Trade off based on distance • Minimize transportation costs • Location tends to be material oriented either material oriented or

market oriented o These are two extremes, but typically there is balance.

• Observe: Locate a plant so as to maximize profits by minimizing transport costs

o Find a location (p:processing plant) along a line between S: source of raw materials and M: market for finished products

• What happens if more than one raw material is used? Where does manufacturing occur?

Weber: Least cost tendencies were the norm Today model must be modified to account for other factors of production such as

• Footloose industries and TNC’s o No loyalties to locations

• Transport costs o Containerization

• Labor costs • What do we make of industrial location theory? • Industrial location decision-making today: Complex • Why do manufacturing plants locate in particular places?

o One vs. Multiple factors o Maximize advantages minimize disadvantages

• Forecasting Situation: Markets

• Market oriented • Transport rates-fast • Weight gain in production of materials

o Bottling • Perishable products

Raw Materials and intermediate goods

• Raw materials o Ore, coal

• Intermediate goods o Multiple stages of processing, are still the “raw materials” to a

finished product Transportation Costs

• Terminal costs are fixed • Line haul costs are variable • Terminal costs are distributes over the length of haul • Transport costs differ between modes-rail/truck/sea

Labor

• Higher skilled workforce>higher wages>fewer options to locate • Labor intensive-low cost areas

o Globalization: labor vs transportation Infrastructure

• Transportation facilities, communications, utilities and other services

Energy

• Not a big issue for MDW o Energy availability is ubiquitous

o Notable Exceptions: Industrializing countries

• Agglomeration

• Clustering of plants in one place o Production and trabsport costs can be reduced

Auto industry Site and situation: Other factors

• Political stability, tax incentives, environmental conditions, availability if land, access to capital, etc

• Consider: EPX

Geography of Tertiary Activities 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

Canada, like other more developed economices are going through economic transitions

• Secondary to tertiary /quaternary: ‘post-industrial’ o Uneven transitions o Re-shaped what people do every day

Comes with some significant challenges Presented some opportunities

• Deindustrialization o A recution in manufacturing employment and output o Spatially concentrated o Consequences are uneven

Some benefit more, some suffer more Deindustrialization occurs rapidly Flint, Micigan, Detroit

• Reindustrialization:

o Small, niche-market producers

• Secondary to Tertiary • Shift to a post-industrial Society: Economic restructuring

o Manufacturing to services o Production to consumption

Eg. Converting factory to casino o What does the shift look like?

People are employed to provide services to others • Modeling the transition in terms of food

o Primary/Pre-Industrial/Subsistence Food produced and consumed at home

o Secondary/Industrial Food made locally, purchased in a grocery

o Tertiary/Post-Industrial/Service Society “going out” to eat

• What are the different types of services? Are all these services alike?

o Consumer Services Retail, education, health and leisure/hospitality

o Business Services Professional,financial, clerical, information and

transportation o Public Services

Government, police, fire, etc

• These differences are nto absolute o Consumers use lawyers, banks, etc o Businesses use retail stores, hospitality, etc

• Transition

o One type of activity to another

• Canada: Industrial to Post-Industrial-as measured by employment and GDP

• Employment:

o Primary 5% o Secondary 20% o Tertiary 75%

• GDP

o Primary 8% o Secondary 23% o Tertiary 68%

• What about global patterns, has he same transition occurred

elsewhere? o Services-40% LDW to 70% MDW of GDP

• GDP all economies have expanded their service activities in the era of globalization

o The recent growth/expansion has been greatest among less developed countries

• Spatial variations in terms of employment (compare with agriculture & industry)

• Globally 31% of employment is in service activities o Gender differences

Canada 87% women 64% men Bangladesh 12% women 30% men

• Service are market oriented o Revisit central place theory

• Market research to locate new stores

• Global cities: very high concentration of business services o Professional financial and information

• Outsourcing o Business services can now be provided far away

Remember last year

Course Conclusion 9/9/2013 11:30:00 AM

What is where, why there and why care? Description of spatial patterns of people, places and phenomena Explanation of the processes that create these patterns Interpretation, or finding the significance of these patterns Local AND Global issues Population And Migration

• Consequences of 7 billion+ population • How will societies address global migration?

Cities And Urbanization

• Optimal population • Inequalities of social and economic development affecting people

globally • Crises of the 21st century • Issues have spatial dimension

1/3 from course 2/3 since midterms 50-75 multiple choice 5 definitions 10-20 Short answers, diagrams, calculations and maps

• Definitions o Define and give a good example

• Differentiate o Identify/Define and explain the difference

• Explain or explain the significance of • List • Short Answer questions

o Interpret a map, or identify things o Sketch/draw and label diagrams

Review key maps o Locate key locations

Definitions gifts

• 5 of these 10 will be in concepts, and all will likely will be in the rest of the exam

• Geography • GIS • Distance Decay • Industrial Revolution • Megacity • Development • Agri business • TNC • Primate City • Total Fertility Rate

• Global Awareness? Maps?

2013-09-09 11:30:00 AM