geography common entrance revision notes for june 2011

7/25/2019 Geography Common Entrance Revision Notes for June 2011

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Geography Revision Notes

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Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonic Theory

The Earth is divided into: crust outer mantle inner mantle core

The crust is broken into plates (e.g. Eurasian or South American plates). These plates move due

to the hot liquid mantle moving underneath them (convection currents). Some plates movetowards each other (Destructive boundaries), some plates move away from each other(Constructive boundaries) and some move past each other (Conservative boundaries). All plateboundaries cause tectonic activityvolcanoes and/or earthquakes.

Plate Boundaries

Constructive

Conservative - where plates move sideways, frictionoccurs. This causes pressureand the platestearapart, creating an earthquake (e.g.San Andreas Fault San Francisco 1989).

Major Volcanoes: Pinatubo Etna Kilimanjaro Montserrat Hawaii Iceland(Can you place them on a world map?)

Effects from Volcanic Eruptions: Responses to Volcanic Eruptions:

Buildings & farmland destroyed Population Evacuation

Landslides/mudflows (lahars) Divert lava flow

Services cut (no electricity, no water) Monitor volcanic activity

Death, injury, homelessness Learn from past events Ash clouds affect flights (e.g. UK 2010)

Magma forces plates tomove apart and risesthrough the gap, wherenew crust is formed as itcools e.g. Mid-AtlanticRidge (a volcanic mountainrange under the ocean).

DestructiveWhere plates meet, the oceanic platesinks beneath the continental plate(subduction zone) where it melts. Thiscauses intense friction and pressureand lava eruptsto the surface. Therewill also be earthquakes.

Why do people live near volcanoes, despite the risk of an eruption?

a) The land is fertile eg. Philippines b) Income from tourism e.g. Etna

c) Geothermal energy supply e.g. Iceland d) Plate Boundaries rich in raw materials e.g. copper, diamonds

EuropeNorth America

Volcanic Islands form along the MidAtlantic Ridge, such as Iceland.

Oceanic plate vs Continental plate

Etna or Pinatubo


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Plate Tectonics

Effects of an Earthquake Responses to an Earthquake

Death, injury, homelessness Earthquake-proof buildings

Destruction of buildings/roads/bridges Earthquake drills for evacuation

Fires (from burst gas pipes)

Rescue services/technology Services cut (no electricity, no water) Earthquake prediction/prevention

Why may the death toll vary greatly betweenearthquakes of a similar magnitude(power)?

The readiness of a country to deal with the quake(MEDC or LEDC?)

The population density of the affected area The quality of buildings (MEDC or LEDC?)

Quakes to knowSan Francisco 1989Indonesia 2004 (cause of the Tsunami)Pakistan 2005(Can you place them on a world map?)

LLL EEEAAARRRNNNYYYOOOUUURRRCCCAAASSSEEESSSTTTUUUDDDIIIEEESSS!!!!!!TIP!

Make sure you know how volcanoes are formed and why earthquakes occur.

A question might ask you, Why are volcanoes and earthquakes associated with plateboundaries? Basically, this is asking you to explain how the plate movements at differentboundaries result in volcanoes and earthquakes.

Sample C.E. Questions

1. What are plates? (1)2. Using examples that you have studied, describe the problems caused by a volcanic eruption

and an earthquake (4 marks each example)3. Describe a destructive plate boundary in order to explain how volcanoes occur (4)

4. Briefly explain on which plate boundaries earthquakes occur (3)5. Why do people live in areas that are prone to earthquakes and volcanic activity? (4)

Youll be asked to draw and fully label (annotate) the plate boundaries. Can you???

(5 marks each)


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Weather and Climate

Weatherday-to-day changes in air conditions (temperature, wind, rainfall, clouds & humidity)Climatethe average weather over many years (rainfall and temperature)

Factors affecting climate

a) Latitudeat higher latitudes (further from the Equator), the suns rays are spread over alarger area and are therefore not as hot (e.g. the Arcticor the Antarctic).

b)Altitudefor every 100m in height the temperature drops by 1C (e.g. the Himalayas).c) Distance from the sealand warms & cools very quickly, whereas the sea remains nearly the

same temperature. Coastal climates are therefore mild in summer & winter (e.g. the UK) butcontinental climates are very hot in summer & very cold in winter (e.g. Germany).

d) Prevailingwindswhere does the most common wind come from and what weather does itbring? (E.g. 80% of the UKs weather comes from theAtlantic Oceanto the west).Remember that for rainfall in the UK, the west is wet and the east has least.

Types of Rainfall

As warm moist air rises, it cools. Water vapour condenses into water droplets and clouds form.As clouds become saturated, rain falls. There are 3ways in which air can rise:

This is a warm front

Convection in hot weather, the sun heats the ground,which warms the air above it. This warm air rises rapidly,cooling and forming large thunderclouds. (e.g. on the

Equator or on a hot summers day in the UK).

Reliefair is forced to rise over hills. As it does, it cools andcondenses and rain occurs on the windward side. As itpasses over the hill, the air descends and there is little rain,causing a rain shadow. (e.g. In the Lake District in the UK).

3. Frontalwhere a cold air mass meets a warm air mass,the warm air rises over the cold, resulting in light rainonthe warm front. As cold air comes in, it undercuts thewarm air and heavy rainoccurs and temperatures fall onthe cold front. (e.g. Depressions over the UK)


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Weather and Climate

Depressions

The map on the right shows weatherfrontsover Europe. You can see thatwhere there are fronts, there is rain.

Weather Patterns in the UK

The prevailing windsare from the SW,bringing mild, wet weather from the

Atlantic Ocean. As it reaches the westcoast, relief rainfalloccurs over the hills.The East is drier due to the rain shadow.

The opposite of low-pressure systems(otherwise known as depressionsor cyclones) are high-pressure systems(known as anticyclones). These are areas of hot and dry weather in summerand cold and dry weather in winter.

Microclimates

Rainfall and temperature may be affected on a local scale by site conditions. A microclimate istherefore the climate of a small area, such as in a car park or in a wood.

Aspect- South-facing areas face the sun and are warmer than north-facing areas. SurfaceBuildings and some surface materials store heat (Urban Heat Island Effect).

Buildings can also create wind tunnels, where wind speeds through gaps. ShadeBuildings and trees create shade. Shaded areas are cooler. Shelter- Buildings and trees act as wind breaks (reducing the wind chill factor).

Think about where the best place for a weather station would be within the Papplewick school

grounds. What would you need to measure without any interfering factors?

YOU MAY BE ASKED TO DRAW DIAGRAMS OF TYPES OF RAINFALL.

TIP!IN A RECENT SURVEY, RELIEF RAINFALL WAS QUESTIONED IN 3 OUT OF 3 PAPERS

The UK does not have a cold climate, thanks to the North Atlantic Drift(the warm ocean currentthat crosses the Atlantic Ocean), which brings mild, wetweather throughout the year.


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Weather and Climate

Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)

Key processes are:

Evaporationthe process of water turning from a liquid to water vapour Transpirationwater returning to the atmosphere through plant leaves Condensationwater vapour turning into water droplets as it cools, forming clouds Precipitationrain, hail, sleet or snow (all count as rainfall) Overland Flow (Run-off)water flowing over the surface, such as in rivers Through Flow (Infiltration)water flowing through soil or permeable rocks on its way to

rivers or underground flow

Youll need to be able to draw and label this diagram perfectly!

CE Questions

1. What is the difference between weather and climate? (2)2. Name 4 factors that influence world climates. (4)3. Explain how buildings may influence either temperatures or wind speed. (3)4. Describe how relief influences the climate of the UK. (4)5. What is the North Atlantic Drift and how does it affect the UK climate? (3)6. Why is the southwest the warmest part of Britain in January? (2)

7. Where is the best place to locate a weather station? (3)


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Settlements (for use in the O.S. map section)

Reasons for the LOCATION of settlements (Sitewhere it isand Situationwhats close by)

a) On trade routes (roads, bridges, rivers, sea ports)b) near water supply for drinking

c) near a wood for building materials/huntingd) on flat land for farminge) on high ground for defencef) near other resources (rocks, coal, sea)

Settlement Patterns (Layout)

Nucleatedcentred around something e.g. crossroads,Village church

or a bridge.

Linearspread along a roador valley bottom.

Disperseda few housesrandomly spread oute.g. countryside

Settlement Function

a) market towne.g. Reading grew where the Thames and Kennet rivers joinedb) tourist towne.g. Brighton has an famous beach and pierc) industrial centree.g. Sheffield specialised in steel productiond) porte.g. London was once the worlds largest port

The functions of a settlement will change over time (e.g. London was a port, yetnow it is a financial centre as well as many other functions).


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Geomorphology - Weathering

Weathering is the gradual breakdown of rock by rainwater and changes in temperature(weather). Weatheringand Erosionare not the same! Erosion by water, wind and ice transport

the broken material away. Weathered material is nottransported away by the weather.

So, the difference between weathering and erosion is that there is not transportation involved inweathering.

Physical weathering

Chemical weathering

This occurs where water and air produce chemical reactions in rock. Caves form in limestone dueto chemical weathering. Chalk cliffs are easily damaged.

water + carbon dioxide = carbonic acid

Biological weathering

Rock may be broken up by tree roots or by animals burrowing

This is very common in Rainforest areas where the soils are extremely deep.

Remembernot all rocks weather at the same rate. Just as in erosion, some rock types aremore resistant than others.

CE Questions

1. Briefly describe what weathering processes are typical in high mountainous areas. (2)2. For one rock type, explain how it is more influenced by weathering than others. (4)

3. Explain the term biological weathering and where it is likely to happen. (2)

a) Frost shatteringor freeze-thawcracks in rockfill with water. If the temperature falls belowfreezing, the water turns to ice and expands. This

puts pressure on the crack, which widens, andfragments break off. These form screeat the foot ofthe slope or cliff.Freeze-thaw occurs in cold, wet environments suchas mountainous areas or coastal cliffs.

b) Onion-skin weatheringor exfoliationduring the day, the outer layers of rock heatand expand. At night, they cool and contract. These constant changes loosen the outerrock layer and fragments break off. Onion-skin weathering occurs in environments withtemperature extremes such as deserts.


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Geomorphology River Processes

1. ErosionRivers erode their banks(lateral) and their beds(vertically) by the following processes:

Attritionstones collide and erode each other

Hydraulic Actionwater sweeps into cracks in the bank or the bed and the pressure erodesthe rock or soil

Solutionsome rocks (e.g. chalk) are dissolved in water Corrasionstones erode the bed or bank as they move along

2. Transportation Traction (tumbling)large stones roll along the river bed Suspensionof small particles in flow Solutionof dissolved particles (e.g. chalk)

Floatationof very small particles on surface of waterThe movement of stones and soil from the Upper stagesto the Lower stagesof a river system is called its load.

3. DepositionCaused by a change in the rivers ability to transport load (i.e. the speed of flow is not fastenough to carry stones and soil any more). This occurs:

on the inside of a meander (river beaches formed) on the flat land of a floodplain (leveesand siltdeposits form on floodplain) or as a river grows in size and reaches the sea (deltasform)

Features in the Upper Stages of a River (Erosion Landforms)

a) V-shaped valleys

b) Waterfalls, where water flows over a cap of hard rock with a layer of soft rock underneath

leaving behind gorges(e.g. Niagara Falls, Canada).

Channel sides are weathered(rain, ice and wind) and stones and soil fallinto channel (gravity) to be transportedaway downstream by the water.

Fast flowingwater (onsteep mountain slopes)

erodesdownwardsforming a channel.

Erosion, weatheringand transportation continue until a v-shaped valley forms.


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Features of Lowland Rivers (Erosion & Deposition landforms)-Can you identify each of these on an O.S. map?

Meanders

Ox-bow lakes

LLL EEEAAARRRNNNYYYOOOUUURRRCCCAAASSSEEESSSTTTUUUDDDYYY!!!!!!Mississippi Floods 1993

CE Questions

1. With the aid of a diagram, show how erosion results in the formation of a waterfall (5)2. Explain, with the aid of a diagram, how a floodplain or ox-bow lake is formed (5)3. Name 2 processes of river erosion (2)

4. With reference to examples, describe the ways in which humans can control the effects ofriver flooding in low-lying areas (4)

5. How does human activity help to cause greater river flooding? (4)

Erosionon outside where flow isfastest and deepest (cliffs & pools)

Depositionon inside where flow isslowest and shallow beaches

Floodp la ins

When a river floods, it depositsits load. Thelarger particles end up close by creating alevee. The smaller particles are left on thefloodplain and create rich farmland.

Slow flowing water in oldmeander causes depositionto occur. Ox-bow lakeisnow cut off permanently.

These include:1. Storm warning systems of when the river might flood2. Dams3. Levees (embankments) to contain the water4. Planting trees to absorb water5. Enlarging or straightening the river6. Planning to restrict where new houses can be built

Flood ManagementAs people choose to live and farmon floodplains, it is increasinglynecessary to manage rivers intimes of flood, to prevent the sortof damage caused by the floodse.g. Mississippi Floods 1993.


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Geomorphology Coastal Processes

1. ErosionWaves erode the coastline by the following processes:

Attritionstones and sand in the waves or on the beaches collide and erode each other

Hydraulic Actionwater sweeps into cracks in a cliff and the pressure erodes the rock Solutionsome rocks (e.g. chalk) are dissolved in salt water quite easily Corrasionstones and sand in the waves erode cliffs and headlands

2. Transportation The carrying of material (load) swashpebbles and sand washing up onto a beach by waves backwashpebbles and sand being pulled back down a beach by waves Longshore Driftthe direction of the transportation(depending on the wind and waves)

The movement of pebbles and sand along a coastline.3. Deposition

The dropping of material (load). Caused by a change in the waves ability to transport load(i.e. not enough energy to carry pebbles and sand any more). This occurs:

in bayswhere the water is shallow (beaches formed) in river estuaries where river flow and waves meet (spitsformed)

Factors that affect the speed of erosion

1. Rock typesoft rocks like clay or chalk erode more easily than hard ones like granite2. Structurerocks with many joints and cracks are eroded more easily3. Shelterfrom windsheltered coasts erode more slowly as there are fewer waves

4. Depth of waterdeep water has more power to erode as the waves are bigger

Coastal Features(Erosion Landforms)

As the waves erodethe base ofa cliff, undercutting occurs.Soon the weight of rock aboveis too great and the cliffcollapses. A platform of rocksprotects the cliff from furthererosion. This is called a Wave-

cut Platform.

Caves, Arches, Stacks& Stumps the waveserode a headland fromthe side, forming caves,arches, stacks andstumps. E.g. Durdle Door& Old Harry, Dorset

Headlands and Baysthe sea erodessoft rock more easily (bays) leaving theharder rock behind (headlands)

Wind andwavedirection


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Deposition Landforms

Eroded material is transportedalong the coast bymeans of Longshore Drift(swash & backwash). Thismaterial is depositedto forms beaches and spits.

Coastal Management

TIP! CAN YOU DRAW A FEATURE OF COASTAL EROSION (e.g. ARCHES & STACKS) & A FEATURE OFDEPOSITION (e.g. A SPIT)?

C.E. Questions

1. Name two types of erosion (2)2. Name a feature formed through deposition by the sea (1)3. Name one man-made structure along a coastline and describe how it reduces erosion (2)4. Name a spit (1)

5. Explain, with the help of a diagram, how a spit/stack/headland is formed (5)6. With the aid of a diagram, show how erosion results in the formation of stacks (4)7. Why do pebbles move along a beach? (5)

There are several ways of slowing erosion:

Boulders and walls at the base of the cliff to stop undercutting

Groynes to stop Longshore Drift and to trap sand on beach

Using drainage to s top cliffs becoming saturated and unstable

Spurn Head Spit on the Humber River

Spitsare formed where the coastline changesdirection eg. at the mouth of a river. ERODEDmaterial is TRANSPORTED along the coastand DEPOSITED, forming a bar of beachmaterial pebbles and sand (e.g. Spurn Heador Harlech Spit in Wales)

In some areas, we need to protect the coast from erosion. At

Holderness, for example, 2 metres of the clay coastline arebeing lost to the sea each year. This is called cliff collapse.The photo shows Holbeck Hall Hotel falling into the sea.


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Economic Activity

In LEDCs (e.g. Kenya), most people are employed in primaryactivities. Farming is very labourintensive, education is limited and there is little investment in manufacturing.

In Newly Industrialising Countries (e.g. India & China), most people are employed in secondaryactivities. This is the stage of development that we in the UK called the Industrial Revolution.

In MEDCs, most people are employed in tertiary or quaternaryactivities as we all have moremoney to spend.

Primary Economic Activity

The Solomon Islands are Less Economically Developedand are a poorcountry but they have avaluable resourceof woodand if they sell this they can develop

BUT: Unsustainable forestryhas damaged the land.Companies (e.g. from Malaysia) have exploitedthe forests (taken as much as they can).Wood is sold to people like us in Asian & European countries!

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - There will be a future!

Location of Industry

Originally, factors such as being near to raw materialswere very important for industries.Nowadays, access and the cost of landare more important. Many industries now choose tolocate on edge-of-citylocations, where:

There is lots of spaceto build on and land is cheaper

There is good accessto motorways and airports The site is purpose built for large warehouses and lorries The industry is still close to the city to find skilled workers

There are four main types of economic activity:

(a)PrimaryTHE TAKING OF NATURAL RESOURCES e.g. farming, mining, FORESTRY, fishing(SOLOMONS)

(b)SecondaryTHE MAKING OF GOODS e.g.CARSin factories (Manufacturing industries) (HONDA)

(c)TertiaryPROVIDING SERVICESsuch as retail, businesses (SONY), TOURISM, teachers & doctors.

(d)QuaternaryIT programming and software such as SONY, MICROSOFT orAPPLE

CCCAAA SSSEEESSSTTTUUUDDDYYY:::SSSUUUSSSTTTAAA IIINNNAAA BBBLLL EEEFFFOOORRREEESSSTTTRRRYYY///SSSUUUSSSTTTAAA IIINNNAAA BBBLLL EEEDDDEEEVVVEEELLL OOOPPPMMMEEENNNTTTIIINNN

TTTHHHEEESSSOOOLLL OOOMMMOOONNNIIISSSLLL AAA NNNDDDSSS

There is hope Local people haveset up a Sustainable method offorestry. Instead of gaining only 2%of the money for the wood they sell(the rest going to the foreign loggingcompanies), they now see 50% ofthe money for it. They take only thetrees they need, leaving a healthy

forest behind where trees willcontinue to grow for the future.


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Secondary Economic Activity

Tertiary and Quaternary Economic Activity

Computer companies have also located their businesses along the M4 corridor (e.g. SonyinReading) for the same reasons as Honda above.

Your other Case Study of Tertiary Economic Activities should be Tourismin National Parks in the UK or Nepal.

Trans-National Corporations (TNCs) or Global Industries

TNCS are large companies that operate in more than one country, such as Coca-Cola, Nike,Sony, or Honda. These companies may have factories all over the world, making different partsof their products. E.g. Labouris cheaper in LEDCs (India)whereas the marketsfor their products will be in MEDCs(USA or Europe). This is known as GLOBALISATION.

CE Questions

1. Choose a type of primary activity, and explain why it occurs in that location (3)2. Explain what is meant by the term sustainable development (3)3. Describe what is meant by tertiary activities (2)4. State four factors that influenced the location of an industry of your choice (4)5. Why do global industries operate in many different countries? (3)

Case Study: Car Manufacturing &

The M4 Corridor HONDA, Swindon

This developed as companies needed more space to expand. Many moved from run-down inner city

areas in London. The M4 links London to South Wales. Towns along it like Bracknell, Reading and

Swindon provide edge-of-city locations especially suitable for manufacturing companies. Manyforeign companies ( eg. Honda) choose to locate here because of: Good access to the rest of the UK & to Europe (motorways, railways, ports and airports) to

bring resources in and take products away to sell

Government grants that make it cheap to locate there

Good telecommunications (email/phone networks)

Skilled workforce nearby (high population to choose from)

This has provided much investment and employment to the Thames Valley and South Wales. This

was great for Wales as it suffered when coalmines and steelworks closed and jobs were lost.


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Environmental Issues

UK National Parks

The role of a National Parks is to:

(a)preservethe environment(b)provideservices to tourists(c)protecteconomic activities

(Learn these off-by-heart!)

LLL EEEAAARRRNNNYYYOOOUUURRRCCCAAASSSEEESSSTTTUUUDDDIIIEEESSS!!!!!! National Parks in the UK

Tourism in Nepal Forestry in the Solomon Islands

Are your examp les sustainable? What solut ions are being put in place?

CE Questions

1. Suggest one way in which farming may conflict with the demands of tourists in a NationalPark (2)

2. Suggest two problems caused by the presence of large numbers of tourists in this area (2)3. Explain how National Parks try to cope with so many visitors (3)4. Describe what is meant by sustainable development(2)5. For an environmental area under threat, explain how conservation is being managed (6)

Case Study:Land-Use Conflictsin the

Lake District National Park

Farmers v Tourists: tourists damage fences, frighten

animals, drop litter, cause footpath erosion and congestion,

but they want access to visit beautiful scenery

Solutions include footpath management and restricting

tourist access to certain areas

Locals v Tourists: tourists provide income to local shops,but they cause over-crowding and road congestion

Solutions include better road systems and car parking and

restricting tourist access to certain areas

Industry v National Parks: industry provides jobs and

income, but it can damage the landscape and cause pollution

e.g. quarrying & reservoirs

Solutions include being strict on how the industries

operate and forcing them to repair any damage caused

Honey-Pots areas of most interest to visitors (e.g.

Beatrix Potters World next to Lake Windermere). Leads

to CONGESTION, OVERCROWDING, but great for local

businesses and jobs.

What is?Conservation: protecting something sothat it is not damaged

e.g. rare wildlife or vegetation in areas of

outstanding natural beauty.

Stewardship: Taking responsibility andcaring for the Earth or any part of it.

Includes responsibility in using resources

and creating as little waste and pollution as

possible.

Sustainable Development: usingresources in a responsible way (not

exploiting or over-using) so that there will

be enough for future generations (reduce,recycle, re-use).

geography common entrance revision notes for june 2011

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