Geological Society, London, Special Publications

doi: 10.1144/SP355.18 2011; v. 355; p. 347-372Geological Society, London, Special Publications

 Moyra E. J. Wilson million yearsand climatic change in equatorial tropics over the last 50 SE Asian carbonates: tools for evaluating environmental  

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SE Asian carbonates: tools for evaluating environmental and climatic

change in equatorial tropics over the last 50 million years

MOYRA E. J. WILSON

Department of Applied Geology, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth,

Western Australia, 6845 (e-mail: m.wilson@curtin.edu.au)

Abstract: This study reviews how shallow water carbonates are revealing environmental andclimatic changes on all scales through the last 50 million years in SE Asia. Marine biodiversityreaches a global maximum in the region, yet the environmental conditions are at odds with thetraditional view of ‘blue-water’ reefal development. The region is characterized by complextectonics, major volcanism, high terrestrial runoff, nutrient influx, everwet and monsoonalclimates, low salinities, major currents and ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation) fluctuations.Terrestrial runoff, nutrient upwelling, tectonics, volcanism and recent human activities aremajor influences on the modern development of carbonate systems. Coral sclerochronology isrevealing how these factors vary locally over annual and decadal scales. The strong impact ofvertical tectonic movements and the interplay with eustasy is evaluated from Quaternary andPleistocene coral reef terraces. Isotopic data from terrace deposits indicates that interglacialsmay have been up to 3–6 8C warmer than glacials, consistent with the region’s record fromterrestrial and deep marine deposits. Study of outcrop and subsurface carbonate deposits revealsthe impact of tectonics, siliciclastic, nutrient influx, eustasy and oceanography on individualsystems over millennial timescales. Major changes in oceanography, plate tectonics, climatechange and perhaps fluctuating CO2 levels impacted Cenozoic regional carbonate development.Results of studies from terrestrial and deep marine realms are comparable with those from thecarbonates, but have yielded higher resolution records of changing currents, precipitation andthe monsoons. There is considerable scope for further research, however, SE Asian carbonatesare powerful tools in evaluating past environmental change in the equatorial tropics.

There is intense debate over the role of theequatorial tropics as a participant in natural orhuman-influenced environmental change, and/oras a major driver of global change (Kerr 2001;Pearson et al. 2001). SE Asia is renowned as theregion of highest modern global reefal biodiversity,with an extensive and continuous geological recordof reefal and non-reefal carbonates spanning the last50 million years. Carbonate rocks form through theaccumulation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) sedi-ments, most commonly in shallow waters from theskeletons of marine organisms, such as corals orforaminifera. The biota, textures and geochemicalsignatures within these deposits respond directly tovariations in environmental and climatic conditions(Montaggioni & MacIntyre 1991). The hypothesishere is that SE Asian carbonates can be used astools in evaluating the unique but poorly understoodconditions of the equatorial tropics and its pastenvironmental changes together with the responseof marine systems. This paper reviews howcarbonates have been, and may continue to be,used to evaluate environmental change, on annualto millennial scales, over the last 50 million yearsin SE Asia (Fig. 1).

The mention of coral reefs and other tropicalcarbonates generally conjures up images of a

myriad of brightly coloured creatures shimmeringand darting through crystal-clear, warm, shallowwaters. One can be mesmerized by just such ascene on days of ‘glass-flat’ calm in some parts ofSE Asia. However, due to the unique regional con-ditions it is not uncommon to find yourself shiveringin a wet suit, peering through turbid waters or‘plankton-soup’ trying to make out the inhabitantsof the reef. The equatorial tropics are characterizedby a range of conditions that are commonly under-appreciated and may at first appear incompatiblewith the high diversity of carbonate biota andsystems found in the region (Figs 2 & 3; Fulthorpe& Schlanger 1989; Tomascik et al. 1997; Wilson2002, 2008; Park et al. 2010).

SE Asia has been arguably the most tectonicallyactive area of the world throughout much of theCenozoic (Hall 1996, 2002). This complex tectonicsetting together with high rainfall and lush tropicalvegetation results in common influx of volcaniclas-tics, siliciclastics, fresh water and nutrients into thecoastal water of the region (Figs 2 & 3; Tomasciket al. 1997; Wilson & Lokier 2002). A locally mon-soonal climate causes strongly seasonal terrestrialrunoff together with shifts in wind and currentpatterns (Umbgrove 1947; Park et al. 2010). Theregion lies outside the cyclone belt and strong

From: Hall, R., Cottam, M. A. & Wilson, M. E. J. (eds) The SE Asian Gateway: History and Tectonicsof the Australia–Asia Collision. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 355, 347–372.DOI: 10.1144/SP355.18 0305-8719/11/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2011.

Timescales: Period: Studied: Type of study: Local environmental factors: Regional or global changes:

Study (stratigraphic formation and/or area) Key References Ann

ual t

o ce

nten

nial

(1–

102 y

ears

)T

hous

and

to h

undr

ed th

ousa

nd y

ears

(103 –1

05 yea

rs)

Mill

enni

al s

cale

s (1

06 yea

rs)

Cen

ozoi

c sc

ales

(10

7 –108 y

ears

)

Rec

ent (

Hol

ocen

e &

Qua

tern

ary)

Neo

gene

Pal

aeog

ene

Cen

ozoi

c

Bio

ta

Str

ata

Pla

tform

Bas

in

Bio

ta

Geo

chem

istr

y

Sed

imen

tolo

gy

Sub

surf

ace–

Sei

smic

(S

), W

irelin

e (W

)

Nut

rient

s

Vol

cani

c/hy

drot

herm

al a

ctiv

ity

Rel

ativ

e se

a-le

vel c

hang

e

Tec

toni

cs

Sal

inity

& P

reci

pita

tion

Sili

cicl

astic

or

volc

anic

last

ic in

flux

Tem

pera

ture

Cur

rent

s

Gla

cial

-inte

rgla

cial

or

gree

nhou

se-ic

ehou

seT

ecto

nics

& v

olca

nism

Eus

tasy

Mon

soon

s

Indo

nesi

an T

hrou

ghflo

w a

nd g

loba

loc

ean

curr

ents

EN

SO

-like

fluc

tuat

ions

Atm

osph

eric

CO

2

Bio

tic e

volu

tion

Dating

General SE Asia Modern

Kuenen (1933), Umbgrove (1947),Tomascik et al. (1997), Kleypas et al.1999, Latief (2000), Montaggioni(2005), Gordon, 2005, Stoddart, 2007,Peñaflor et al. (2009)

Thailand modern deposits

Brown & Holley (1982), Tudhope &Scoffin (1994), Brown (2005),Phongsuwan & Brown (2007);

Papua New Guinea modern deposits

Scoffin et al. (1989), Tudhope et al.(1995), Fallon et al. (2002), Aycliffeet al. (2004) Pichler et al. (2000)

Banda Sea modern deposits

Wallace (1869), McManus & Wenno(1981), Best et al. (1989), Heikoopet al. (1996), Tomascik et al. (1997)

Modern Makassar Straits

Burollet et al. (1986) Roberts et al.(1988), Tomascik et al. (1997), Roberts& Sydow (1996) Renema & Troelsta(2001), Wilson & Vecsei (2005)

Java & Sumatra modern deposits

Umbgrove (1939), Scoffin et al. (1989),Gagan et al. (1998), Park et al. (1992,2010), Risk et al. (2003), Abram et al.(2003), Baird et al. (2005) Campbell etal. (2007), Hagan et al. (2007);

Huon Peninsula & offshore N. Papua New Guinea

Chappell (1974), Chappell & Polach(1976), Chappell et al. (1996),Galewsky et al. (1996), McCullochet al. (1996, 1999) , Webster et al.(2004a, b), & others in text U/Th, C14

Eastern Indonesia coral reef terraces

Chappell & Veeh (1978), Sumosusastroet al. (1989), Pirazzoli et al. (1993),Hantoro et al. (1994), Bard et al. (1996) U/Th, ESR

Pulau Seribu, NW Java & Java Sea Carbonates,

Burbury (1977) , Park et al. (1992,2010), Carter & Hutabarat (1994) S

C14, (Seismic picks)

Batu Putih Limestone & Mahakam Delta associated carbonates, E. Borneo

Roberts & Sydow (1996), Wilson &Lokier (2002), Wilson (2005), Lokieret al. (2009), Saller et al. (2010)

Seismic picks, Bio: LBF, Pk, Nanno, U/Th

Fig. 1. Study areas and key references in which local environmental change and regional or global controls have been inferred from carbonate deposits in SE Asia. Alsoshown are the timescales of change, the period of study, what elements of the carbonate system have been studied and the main types of analyses. Key references and examples aregiven in the text, and all reference details are provided (see Wilson 2002, 2008 for further details). Abbreviations for the dating techniques are: bio, biostratigraphy; LBF, Largerbenthic foraminifera; pk, planktonic foraminifera; nanno, nannofossils; Sr, strontium isotope stratigraphy; C14, carbon 14; U/Th, uranium thorium; ESR, electron spin resonance.

M.

E.

J.W

ILS

ON

348

Bac

karc

Car

bona

tes

of S

umat

ra, P

eutu

, B

atu

Raj

u F

orm

atio

nsA

rdila

(19

83),

Ros

e (1

983)

, Col

lins

et a

l.(1

996)

, Par

k et

al.

(199

5)S

eism

ic p

icks

, Bio

: P

k

Ter

umbu

For

mat

ion,

Nat

una,

S. C

hina

Sea

May

& E

yles

(19

85),

Rud

olph

&Le

hman

n (1

989)

, Bac

htel

et a

l. (2

004)

,P

ater

son

et a

l. (2

006)

,S

Sei

smic

pic

ks

Luco

nia

Car

bona

tes,

S. C

hina

Sea

Ept

ing

(198

0), A

li &

Abo

lins

(200

0),

Vah

renk

amp

et a

l. (2

004)

, Zam

petti

et a

l. (2

003,

200

4)S

eism

ic p

icks

, Sr

Won

osar

i Lim

esto

ne, S

. Jav

a, In

done

sia

Loki

er (

2000

), W

ilson

& L

okie

r (2

002)

,Lo

kier

et a

l. (2

009)

Bio

: LB

F, P

k,

Nan

no

Tac

ipi F

orm

atio

n, S

outh

Sul

awes

i, In

done

sia

May

all &

Cox

(19

88),

Asc

aria

(19

97)

Bio

: LB

F, P

k,

Nan

no

Vie

tnam

Car

bona

tes

Mat

thew

s et

al.

(199

7), M

ayal

l et a

l.(1

997)

Sei

smic

pic

ks, B

io:

Pk,

Nan

nos

Ziu

jiang

Car

bona

tes,

Liu

hua

& n

orth

ern

S.

Chi

na S

ea C

arbo

nate

sE

rlich

et a

l. (1

990,

199

3), T

yrre

l &C

hris

tian

(199

2), S

attle

r et

al.

(200

4)S

eism

ic p

icks

Bal

i Flo

res

Sea

Tyr

rel e

t al.

(198

6)S

Sei

smic

pic

ks

NE

Jav

a &

E J

ava

Sea

Car

bona

tes,

N

gim

bang

, Pru

puh,

Ran

cak

& K

ujun

g C

arbo

nate

s

Ken

yon

(197

7), C

ucci

& C

lark

(19

93,

1995

), K

usum

astu

ti et

al.

(200

2),

Adh

yaks

awan

(20

03),

Joh

anse

n (2

003)

,C

arte

r et

al.

2005

, Sha

raf e

t al.

(200

5),

Hug

hes

et a

l. (2

008)

, Ruf

et a

l. (2

008)

Sei

smic

pic

ks, S

r,

Bio

: LB

F, P

kN

E K

alim

anta

n, T

abal

lar

& K

edan

go

Lim

esto

nes,

Indo

nesi

aW

ilso

n e

t al.

(19

99

), W

ilso

n &

Eva

ns

(20

02

)B

io: L

BF

, Nan

nos

Ber

ai L

imes

tone

, Pat

erno

ster

Pla

tform

, SE

B

orne

oS

alle

r et

al.

(199

3), B

urol

let e

t al.

(198

6), S

alle

r &

Vija

ya (

2002

)

Sei

smic

pic

ks, S

r,

Bio

: LB

F, P

k,

Nan

nos

Mel

inau

, & o

ther

, Lim

esto

ne(s

), O

nsho

re N

B

orne

oA

dam

s et

al.

(196

5), W

anni

er (

2009

)B

io: L

BF

, Pk,

N

anno

Nid

o Li

mst

one,

Offs

hore

Pal

awan

P

hilip

pine

sG

röts

ch &

Mer

cadi

er (

1999

), F

ourn

ier

et a

l. (2

004,

200

5)S

eism

ic p

icks

, Sr,

B

io: L

BF

, Nan

nos

Ton

asa

For

mat

ion,

Sou

th S

ulaw

esi,

Indo

nesi

aW

ilso

n &

Bo

sen

ce (

19

96

), W

ilso

n(1

99

9,

20

00

), W

ilso

n e

t al.

(20

00

)B

io: L

BF

, Pk,

N

anno

Vis

ayas

, Cen

tral

Phi

lippi

nes

Jurg

an &

Dom

ingo

(19

89),

Mul

ler

et a

l.(1

989)

, Por

th e

t al.

(198

9)B

io: L

BF

, Pk,

N

anno

New

Gui

nea

Lim

esto

ne &

equ

ival

ents

, Iria

n Ja

ya

Vin

cele

tte (

1973

), R

edm

ond

&K

oeso

emad

inat

a (1

976)

, Gib

son-

Rob

inso

n &

Soe

dird

ja (

1986

),B

rash

et a

l. (1

991)

Bio

: LB

F, P

k,

Nan

noN

ew G

uine

a Li

mes

tone

equ

ival

ents

in

nort

hern

Pap

ua a

nd is

land

s to

NE

of N

ew

Gui

nea

Fra

ncis

(19

88),

Ste

war

t & S

andy

(19

88),

Wils

on e

t al.

(199

3)B

io: L

BF

, Pk,

N

anno

New

Gui

nea/

Dar

ai L

imes

tone

& e

quiv

alen

ts,

Pap

ua &

Gul

f of P

apua

Are

a

Pie

ters

et a

l. (1

983)

, Lea

mon

&P

arso

ns (

1986

), P

igra

m e

t al.

(199

0),

Sar

g et

al.

(199

5), E

isen

berg

et a

l. (1

996)

, Alla

n et

al.

(200

0),

Tch

erep

anov

et a

l. (2

008a

, b)

SS

eism

ic p

icks

, Sr,

B

io: L

BF

Reg

iona

l SE

Asi

a

Ful

thor

pe &

Sch

lang

er (

1989

), W

ilson

&R

osen

(19

98),

Wils

on (

2002

, , 2

008)

,W

ilson

& V

ecse

i (20

05),

Wils

on &

Hal

l(2

010)

, Par

k et

al.

(201

0)B

io: L

BF

, Pk,

N

anno

Fig

.1.

Conti

nued

.

CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 349

cyclonic winds and waves are rare (Umbgrove1947; Tomascik et al. 1997). Tectonic faulting, sub-sidence and uplift combined with glacioeustasycontrol localized relative sea level changes thatinfluence carbonate deposition, coral reef growth,their subaerial exposure and flooding (Wilson2002, 2008; Park et al. 2010; Wilson & Hall2010). Within the region volcanism, seismic activityand associated tsunami’s cause major environ-mental change to both land-, and seascapes. Onthe short term these wreak devastation on commu-nities, but longer term may bring ecological oppor-tunities (Wilson & Lokier 2002; Stoddart 2007;Satyana 2005; Pandolfi et al. 2006). SE Asia is nowthe last remaining equatorial ‘oceanic gateway’allowing interchange of oceanic waters between thePacific and Indian Oceans via the major IndonesianThroughflow Current (Fig. 3; Gordon 2005). Theregion’s climate and current systems are influencedby, and/or interact, with global ocean and atmos-pheric phenomena including the El Nino SouthernOscillation (ENSO), Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD),

fluctuations in the monsoons and the Inter-TropicalConvergence Zone (ITCZ; Tudhope et al. 2001;Kuhnt et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2005; Abram et al.2009). These factors are influential on annual to mil-lennial scales in changing sea surface temperaturesto both locally warmer and cooler than ambient(Gagan et al. 1998; Penaflor et al. 2009). Nutrientinflux and areas of upwelling are also affected,and in turn cause changes in water clarity associatedwith plankton blooms (Fig. 3; Gagan et al. 1998;Wilson & Vecsei 2005). Longer term oceanographic(temperature, acidity and compositional changes)and atmospheric (CO2) changes over the scale ofthe Cenozoic (Zachos et al. 2001; Jia et al. 2003;Pagani et al. 2005) during the switch from green-house to icehouse climatic states are also majorinfluences on the marine biota and systems ofthe region (Wilson 2008). Both the long and short-scale changes as well as influencing marinesystems are now known to be major drivers inglobal climate change (Gordon et al. 2003; Visseret al. 2004).

Fig. 2. Map of SE Asia showing present-day plate tectonic context, locations of volcanoes and sediment dischargefrom six major SE Asian islands (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, Timor, New Guinea; from Milliman et al. 1999 withbase map after Wilson & Lokier 2002).

Fig. 3. Maps of SE Asia showing present day environmental conditions. (a) Satellite (AQUA-Modis) derived seasurface temperatures during the SE Monsoon (from Gordon 2005). Wind directions are shown with arrows and theposition of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone as a dashed line. (b) Sea surface chlorophyll-a (a nutrient proxy) fromsatellite-derived SeaWIFs data during the SE Monsoon (from Gordon 2005). Areas of wind induced upwelling areassociated with elevated levels of chlorophyll-a. (c) Indonesian throughflow pathways and estimates of total volumetransport (in Sverdrups Sv ¼ 106 m3 s21; from Gordon 2005). (d) Annual mean rainfall across the globe with dataderived from Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I). Satellite data collection began in 1987 NOAA data from Sidiet al. 2003). (e) Present-day sea surface aragonite saturation at 380 ppm atmospheric CO2 (from Hoegh-Guldberg et al.2007). The minimum aragonite saturation that coral reefs are associated with today is 3.25. Aragonite saturation in

M. E. J. WILSON350

Fig. 3. (Continued) seawater (Varg) is the ion product of the concentrations of calcium and carbonate ions, at thein situ temperature, salinity, and pressure, divided by the stoichiometric solubility product (K*sp) for those conditions:Varg ¼ Ca2þ

� �CO2�

3

� ��K�sparg.

CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 351

Fig. 4. Examples of annual to centennial scale environmental changes from modern deposits. (a) Comparison betweenPNG rainfall records (Port Moresby) with fluorescence banding pattern from offshore slabbed coral (from Scoffin et al.1989). Fluorescent banding correlates with periods of runoff. (b) Modern reefal deposit from turbid, sediment-influenced area in 1–2 m depth, east coast of Borneo near Balikpapan (photograph by M. Wilson). (c) Paired

M. E. J. WILSON352

The combination of major tectonism, frequentrelative sea level changes, low marine salinities,clastic and nutrient influx, changing oceanographicand temperature conditions all strongly influenceregional and local carbonate development. Theseconditions may be at odds with the perceived viewof ideal conditions for coral reefs and tropicalcarbonate production principally developed fromstudies in warm, more arid, subtropical regionssuch as the Bahamas, Red Sea or Persian Gulf(Wilson 2002). Although no individual factor ismutually exclusive to SE Asia, it is the uniquecombination of factors that results in the distinctive-ness of equatorial carbonates. This paper assessesto what extent the carbonate record from SE Asiahas been, and may continue to be, used to evaluateenvironmental conditions and changes in the equa-torial tropics.

Annual to centennial-scale changes

The majority of annual to centennial-scale changesin SE Asian shallow carbonates are inferred fromgeochemical proxies obtained from modern tosub-recent unaltered marine skeletons. The mostwidely used record is from corals, where unalteredsamples typically extend back tens, hundreds orperhaps thousands of years. Coral sclerochronologystudies in the region have mainly concentrated onPorites (particularly Porites lutea and lobata),which have dense skeletal structures and for whichfractionation effects in skeletal precipitation arestudied (i.e. if there are systematic variations inskeleton chemistry compared with ocean waterchemistry). Annual and decadal variations havebeen compared with results of recent monitoringof factors including temperatures, terrestrialrunoff, currents and nutrients (Fig. 4; Scoffin et al.1989; Gagan et al. 1998; Fallon et al. 2002). Inturn these have been variously linked to changesin upwelling, strength of the monsoons, ENSOfluctuations as well as volcanic and anthropogenic-induced events (Fig. 4; Tudhope et al. 1995;Heikoop et al. 1996; Tomascik et al. 1997;Gordon 2005; Penaflor et al. 2009).

In an early study, rainfall data and distance fromthe coastline were compared with density of skeletalgrowth and fluorescence bands from corals off

north Java (Pulau Seribu) and Papua New Guinea(Fig. 4a; Scoffin et al. 1989). Heavy wet seasondeluges (.150 mm/month) correlate with lessdense growth bands and distinctive bright fluor-escence banding in offshore corals. In nearshoreareas (,2–5 km for the coast) sufficient influx oforganic compounds appears to swamp any seasonaleffects (Scoffin et al. 1989). Fluorescence intensitydecreases offshore, presumably reflecting decreas-ing freshwater and nutrient influence (Scoffin et al.1989). Seaward spread of freshwater plumes, wasmore localized off Java than Papua New Guinea,and may be modified by marine currents or localrunoff from islands. Strong monsoonal driven cur-rents are widely known to result in east–westelongation of reefal buildups in the Java Sea at thepresent day (Park et al. 1992, 2010) and in the past(Carter & Hutabarat 1994). The shape of emergentcoral reef islands strongly affects monsoonallyinfluenced circulation on carbonate buildups andthe dynamics of reef island shorelines (with circularislands most heavily impacted; Kench et al. 2009).Increased growth (low density skeleton) duringfreshwater and/or nutrient influx and no or lowgrowth during exceptionally high runoff events(Scoffin et al. 1989) is seen in other corals fromthe region (Tomascik et al. 1997), but is at oddswith some studies from outside the equatorialtropics (Isdale 1984; Tomascik & Sanders 1985).

Although high sedimentation does limit coraland carbonate production within the region, thereare many examples where diverse modern com-munities are present in areas of sedimentation,turbidity, upwelling and nutrient influx (Fig. 4b;e.g. Banten Bay (Java), Seram, Borneo, Ambon;Tomascik et al. 1997; Rosen et al. 2002; Wilson& Lokier 2002; Wilson 2005). In these areas thedepth of abundant coral or larger benthic for-aminifera may be strongly depth and light limited(Titlyanov & Latypov 1991; Renema & Troelsta2001). In addition many organisms are sedimentor nutrient adapted, and filter feeders or depositfeeders are common and diverse (Tomascik et al.1997). The Makassar Straits has a wide range ofexamples of carbonate systems influenced byclastic sedimentation and nutrients. In the north,patch reefs with abundant soft corals, detritivoresand foliaceous hard corals develop to 5–8 m waterdepth in highly turbid waters just 8 km from the

Fig. 4. (Continued) X-radiograph (A) and slabbed coral (B) from offshore Banda Api. Dashed line and arrow show theposition of iron-rich precipitate related to volcanic and hydrothermal activity associated with the 1988 eruption of BandaApi Volcano (from Heikoop et al. 1996). (d) Comparison between coral Sr/Ca in Porites lutea and blended ship andsatellite-derived sea surface temperature data from SE Java (from Gagan et al. 1998). Strong upwelling along the southcoast of Java produces cooler SSTs recorded in the Sr/Ca ratios, but not recorded by the satellite data due to spatialsmoothing of data (Gagan et al. 1998). (e) Stable oxygen isotope record from coral core from PNG (Madang) comparedwith climatic indices. Years with strong El Nino events are shown stippled (from Tudhope et al. 1995).

CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 353

Berau Delta (Tomascik et al. 1997). At PulauSangalaki 60 km east of the Berau Delta strongtidal-currents keep siliciclastic sedimentation to aminimum but bring nutrient-rich coastal watersthat support a highly diverse reef community(Tomascik et al. 1997). Seaward of the MahakamDelta Plio-Pleistocene carbonate buildups andreefs are more common to the north where a lessactive delta lobe and strong south-directed currentsfrom the Indonesian Throughflow Current result inless turbid-water and sedimentation than to thesouth (Roberts & Sydow 1996). Halimeda buildupsform in nutrient-rich, current swept or delta-influenced areas of the southern Makassar Straits(Roberts et al. 1988; Roberts & Sydow 1996).Also in the south, large land attached platformsinfluenced by strong currents, nutrients & clasticsare dominated by larger benthic foraminiferabelow 5–20 m with shallow coral rimmed marginsor patch reefs (Burollet et al. 1986; Renema &Troelsta 2001; Wilson & Vecsei 2005). In generalthe marine systems of western SE Asia are stronglyrunoff influenced and those of the eastern archipe-lago have a major upwelling influence (Tomasciket al. 1997). Rather than falling into the traditionalview of ‘blue water’ oceanic reefs, most livingIndo-Pacific reefs (53% and much of the 20%from the Indian Ocean) are concentrated on theshallow continental shelves of SE Asia, Australiaand the Indian Ocean where they are affected to agreater or lesser extent by adjacent land masses(Potts 1983; Tomascik et al. 1997).

Despite the co-occurrence of high diversity coralreefs and carbonate production in areas of runoffand nutrient upwelling there are signs that somesystems may be operating close to their tolerancelimits (Tomascik et al. 1997). In some areas thismay be a natural state (Tomascik et al. 1997) withexamples of natural mass mortality and demise orsubsequent recovery of reefs from the region’sgeological record associated with volcanism orsedimentation and/or nutrients (Wilson & Lokier2002; Wilson 2005; Pandolfi et al. 2006; Lokieret al. 2009). It has been inferred that human activi-ties (including destructive fishing practices, pol-lution and coastal development) have significantlyincreased the frequency of disturbance to reefs andhave pushed reefs closer to their tolerance limit(Hughes et al. 2003; Pandolfi et al. 2003, 2006;Wilkinson 2008). Umbgrove (1939) described the‘unrivalled splendour and wealth of . . . reefanimals’ after a visit in 1928 to an island 6.6 kmaway from Jakarta. These coral reefs that dazzledUmbgrove are now considered ‘functionally dead’replaced by muddy deposits (Tomascik et al.1997). In a comparable example Wallace (1869)portrayed the ‘most astonishing and beautiful . . .continuous series of corals . . . and other marine

productions, of magnificent dimensions, variedforms and brilliant colours’ from Ambon Harbour.Today most coral communities in the vicinity ofAmbon City have been destroyed through acombination of pollution, siltation and destructivefishing practices (McManus & Wenno 1981; Bestet al. 1989; Tomascik et al. 1997).

A range of studies have shown corals can beexcellent proxy recorders of localized natural orhuman activity, including volcanism, hydrothermalventing, mining activity and forest fires. Withinthe growth bands of corals from the flanks of thevolcanic island of Banda Api are hydrothermal-associated iron-rich lamina, tuffaceous materialand death surfaces that correlate with the 1988 erup-tion of the volcano (Fig. 4c; Heikoop et al. 1996).Significantly negative d13C and d18O isotopicrecords in coral growth bands from areas of hydro-thermal venting off Papua New Guinea reflecthigher than background temperatures and fraction-ation effects (Pichler et al. 2000). Major firesacross Indonesia in the El Nino drought year of1997 are associated with negative shifts in d13Crecords from coral growth bands that may reflect ashift to more heterotrophic feeding mechanisms(Risk et al. 2003). Iron fertilization from the 1997Indonesian wildfires together with anomalousIndian Ocean Dipole upwelling and a giant redtide are inferred to have caused demise of a coralreef in the Mentawai Islands south of Sumatra(Abram et al. 2003). Growth bands from corals inthe area that survived this event record evidencefor cooling associated with upwelling (Sr/Ca) fol-lowed by a sharp increase in d13C associated withincreased Mn, La and Y, the later interpreted asevidence for a large phytoplankton bloom (Abramet al. 2003). The start of open-cast gold miningand associated sediment runoff from MisimaIsland (Papau New Guinea – PNG) correlate withdramatic increases in the elements Y, La and Ce incoral growth bands. Although fluxes of the aboveelements ceased after mining activities finished,zinc and lead continued to be transported to the off-shore reef via sulphate-rich waters (Fallon et al.2002). Adjacent to a tin smelting site in Thailandheavy metal concentrations were noted in bivalvesand alga, but not corals, perhaps because the metalsare mainly detrital (Brown & Holley 1982). Theexamples above infer individual causal mechanismsfor changes in coral development and their skeletons.However, in practice, the task of attributing changesto specific causal mechanisms is not always straight-forward (B. R. Rosen pers. comm. 2010).

The enormity of the human tragedy and coastaldevastation of the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunamibrought into sharp global focus the destructiveforce of tsunamis (Borrero 2005; Liu et al. 2005;Stoddart 2007; Spencer 2007). However, in the

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marine environment, from Sumatra and around theIndian Ocean margins, .50% of reefs in tsunamiaffected areas showed minimal impact and ,15%showed major impact (in which .50% of hardcorals were affected; Brown 2005; Hagan et al.2007; Phongsuwan & Brown 2007). Most impactedreefs were likely to recover within 5–10 years(Brown 2005; Hagan et al. 2007) and broad sandsheets spread by tsunami waves were partiallyeroded and bioturbated within 1–2 years (Kenchet al. 2007; Nichol & Kench 2008). It has beenstated that ‘the damage caused to coral reefs bythe December 26 earthquake and tsunami wasrarely of ecological significance and in northernAceh (Sumatra), tsunami damage was trivial whencompared with that from chronic human misuse(including bombing, cyanide fishing and anchordamage)’ (Baird et al. 2005; Campbell et al. 2007;Hagan et al. 2007). Close to the epicentre of theearthquake generating the tsunami the most lastingassociated effects were: (i) ‘uprooting’ of massivecoral colonies from unstable substrate at depths.2 m (Baird et al. 2005; Campbell et al. 2007),(ii) boulder fields (with less than 7% directedonshore; Paris et al. 2010), (iii) post-tsunamiburial of reefs by sediment (Baird et al. 2005), and(iv) localized uplift, emergence (by 1–2 m) or sub-sidence of reef flats (Zachariasen et al. 1999;Borrero 2005; Hagan et al. 2007). Although Indone-sia with its significant tectonic instability has at least105 historical records of tsunamis between 1699 and1990 (Latief 2000), it seems likely that evidence forthese or past tsunami activity may be difficult todiscern from the geological record.

Regional and long-term monitoring and sclero-chronology studies are beginning to pick uprepeated oceanographic or climatic events andtrends across the SE Asian seas. A thirty yearstudy (1985–2006) of satellite-derived sea surfacetemperatures (SST) reveals an average warmingrate of 0.2 8C/decade for the region (Penafloret al. 2009). Warming is regionally non-uniformand was greatest in the north and east, with short-term warming and coral bleaching events tied toLa Nina years. There was .1 8C of cooling duringthe 1991 Mt Pinatubo eruption (Penaflor et al.2009). The inner seas of Indonesia appear toafford some natural protection from warmingevents, perhaps related to complex geometries andstrong current flushing (Penaflor et al. 2009).Areas of upwelling experience cooler SST with sea-sonal temperature fluctuations recorded in Sr/Caratios in corals (such as offshore South Java;Fig. 4d; Gagan et al. 1998). Decreased freshwaterrunoff (inferred from coral d18O, d13C and UV fluo-rescence) and slightly decreased SST (0.5–1 8Cfrom Sr/Ca and or d18O) are associated with ElNino events in PNG (Fig. 4e; Tudhope et al. 1995;

Aycliffe et al. 2004). Sudden cooling of SST by1 8C offshore PNG (from coral Sr/Ca) correlatewith seasonal establishment of the NW monsoonand enhanced mixing of the water column (Aycliffeet al. 2004). There is a suggestion on the basis of iso-topic studies that the western equatorial Pacific mayhave been less important in modulating inter-annualclimatic variability between the 1920s and 1950sthan subsequently (Tudhope et al. 1995). Due toreduced marine salinities, SE Asian waters typicallyshow aragonite saturations of c. 0.5–1 less thanthose for the Caribbean or Red Sea, translating toc. 10% reduction in calcification rates (Fig. 3e;Kleypas et al. 1999; Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007).Simulations of ocean chemistry related to postulatedrising CO2 levels over the next century show that thearagonite saturation in Australasia will drop belowthose suitable for reef development (V-aragonite.3.3) this century and earlier than other areassuch as the Caribbean (Kleypas et al. 1999;Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007).

Thousand to hundred thousand year

scale changes

Uplifted coral reef terraces provide the mostcommon record of effects of environmentalchange on shallow marine carbonates on timescalesof thousand to hundreds of thousands of years inSE Asia (Fig. 5). Spectacular ‘flights’ of uplifted ter-races dated via U/Th, C14 or Electron spin reson-ance (ESR) techniques reveal significant recentlocal uplift (Fig. 5a–c & Table 1). On the HuonPeninsula, PNG, uplift rates of 1–3 m/ka over thelast 300 000 years are associated with arc–continentcollision (Bloom et al. 1974; Chappell 1974; Ota &Chappell 1996; Cutler et al. 2003). In EasternIndonesia collision related uplift varies from 0.4to 1.8 m/ka (Table 1; Chappell & Veeh 1978;de Smet et al. 1989; Sumosusastro et al. 1989;Pirazzoli et al. 1993; Hantoro et al. 1994; Bardet al. 1996). Arc uplift associated with oceanic sub-duction and sediment underplating is 1.6 + 0.4 m/ka on New Britain (Riker-Coleman et al. 2006). Inall areas prominent terrace levels mainly correlatewith major eustatic sea level highstands associatedwith interglacial stages and substages (Fig. 5c, d;e.g. isotopic stages 1, 5a, 5c, 5e and 9; Chappell1974; Sumosusastro et al. 1989; Pirazzoli et al.1993; Hantoro et al. 1994; Bard et al. 1996).Patchy sub-terrace development with regressiveconfigurations may be due to metre-scale discreteuplift events or possibly rapid falls in sea level(Yokoyama et al. 2001). Periodic iceberg dis-charges from partial breakup of northern Hemi-sphere icesheets (‘Heinrich’ events) or Antarcticicesheet surges that precede times of cold climates,

CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 355

Fig. 5. Examples of centennial to thousand year scale environmental changes from coral reef terrace deposits. (a)Geomorphic block diagram from the Luwuk area of East Sulawesi showing three groups of uplifted reefal terraces (fromSumosusastro et al. 1989). Vertical exaggeration is approximately�2. The low terrace offshore Luwuk town is attachedby a recurved spit to the mainland, the middle series above Luwuk town consists of a moderately seaward slantingsurface and an upper group is dated at c. 229 ka. (b) Photograph of uplifted coral reef terraces with a stepped appearancefrom the Tukang Besi Islands, SE Sulawesi (by M. Wilson). (c) Age-height plot of terraces from the Huon Peninsula,based on extrapolation of uplift rate estimated from 120 000 a old terrace, tentatively correlated with majortransgressions (from Chappell & Polach 1976). (d) Stratigraphic section of the raised coral reef terraces of the HuonPeninsula, with age constraints from U–Th dating (from McCulloch et al. 1999). (e) Sea level heights derived fromU-series dating of corals together with planktonic foraminifera d18O variations for the Sulu Sea ODP site 769, andtemperature data from the Huon Peninsula for the period prior to, and including, the Last Interglacial (from McCullochet al. 1999).

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Table 1. Studies of uplifted coral reefs terraces in SE Asia, uplift rates, dating techniques used and inferred reasons for uplift are shown togetherwith main references

Area Uplift rate (& timeframe) Dating technique Inferred reason for uplift References

Huon Peninsula, PNG 0.5–3.0 m/ka (300 ka) Th–U, C14 Arc (Finisterre Volcanic Arc)– continent (New GuineaHighlands) collision

Chappell (1974), Bloom et al.(1974), Chappell & Polach(1976), Cutler et al. (2003)& others in text

SE New Britain 1.6+0.4 m/ka (9 ka and less) 230Th Arc uplift associated withoceanic subduction &sediment underplating

Riker-Coleman et al. (2006)

Alor Island 1.0–1.2 m/ka (500 ka) 230Th/234U, C14, ESR Uplift associated withAustralian continental crustcollision

Hantoro et al. (1994)

Atauro Island &adjacent N Timor

0.47 m/ka–0.5 m/ka (Atauro &Timor, dated to 120 kaextrapolated to 700 ka) and0.03 m/ka near Dili, Timor

Th230–Ur234 Uplift associated withAustralian continental crustcollision

Chappell & Veeh (1978)

Sumba Island 0.2–0.5 m/ka (600 kaextrapolated to 990 ka)

Th/U, ESR Uplift associated withAustralian continental crustcollision

Pirazzoli et al. (1993), Bardet al. (1996)

Luwuk, East Arm & SEArm, Sulawesi

0.53–1.84 m/ka variable overtime & local area (67–350 ka)

U/Th, C14 Tectonic uplift of coast facingSula Platform, but alsoblock faulting and regions ofsubsidence

Sumosusastro et al. (1989),Fortuin et al. (1990)

Banda Arc Up to or . 0.5 m/ka Palaeontology Collision processes in BandaArc area

de Smet et al. (1989)

CA

RB

ON

AT

ES

AN

DE

NV

IRO

NM

EN

TA

LC

HA

NG

E357

correlate with rapid sea level rises and have beencorrelated with a number of the Huon Peninsula ter-races (Aharon et al. 1980; Yokoyama et al. 2001).From dating of corals in Aladdin’s Cave on theHuon Peninsula Esat et al. (1999) have suggestedthat ice sheet breakup may have paused duringmajor deglaciation and that meltwater pulses werenon uniform and episodic. Uplift rates along indi-vidual terraces may vary in both time and spaceand some are segmented by faulting, or dip, due totectonic tilting (Chappell 1974; Chappell & Veeh1978; Sumosusastro et al. 1989; Hantoro et al.1994). Cave sediments and speleothems from theMelinau Limestone of Borneo have been used toevaluate base-level change over the last 2 Ma(Farrant et al. 1995). Uplift rates of 0.19 m/kamay be related to isostatic uplift associated withregional denudation and flexure associated withoffshore sediment loading (Farrant et al. 1995).

A series of modern and fossil corals fromSumatra and PNG have been used to infer oscil-lations in the extent of the Indo-Pacific WarmPool since the mid Holocene through Sr/Caderived sea surface temperatures (Abram et al.2009). Mid Holocene cooling at the study siteswas related to a more northerly position of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and associatedstrengthening of the summer monsoon (Abramet al. 2009). Caliche horizons formed during dryclimates and subaerial exposure of carbonate plat-forms in the South China Sea have been related tomajor Pleistocene sea level lowstands (i.e. glacialperiods; Gong et al. 2005). The caliche may indicatereduced extent of the Western Pacific Warm Pool,a southerly shift of the ITCZ and reduced strengthof the East Asian Monsoon during glacial periods(Gong et al. 2005). Oxygen isotope data from spe-leothems in Borneo have been used to infer lowerrainfall and weakening western Pacific convectionrelated to a southward shift of the ITCZ duringdeglaciation 18–20 ka ago (Partin et al. 2007).

Areas of significant subsidence may occur inclose proximity to regions of contemporaneousrapid uplift (e.g. Luwuk and Huon Peninsula;Sumosusastro et al. 1989; Galewsky et al. 1996;Webster et al. 2004a, b). In the actively subsidingforeland basin of the Huon Gulf a series ofbackstepping platforms now at depths of 0.1–2.5 km have been systematically drownedapproaching the trench due to subsidence rates ofc. 5.7 m/ka over the last 450 ka (Galewsky et al.1996; Webster et al. 2004b). Submarine terracesare also tilted along strike, probably due to thrustloading (Webster et al. 2004a). Relative sea riseduring early major deglaciation events or intergla-cials when combined with regional subsidence was.10–15 m/ka and was critical in terrace and plat-form drowning (Webster et al. 2004b). Tectonic

subsidence and basement substrate morphologyinfluenced overall geometries and tilting over time-scales of .100–500 ka (Webster et al. 2004a). Achange in the drowned reefs from high energy tolow and moderate energy assemblages around300–350 ka may be related to tectonic constrictionin the Huon Gulf and/or perhaps changes in theIntertropical Convergence Zone (Webster et al.2004b).

In uplifted reef terraces older than 10 000 yearsfrom SE Asia, most corals are altered from theiroriginal aragonite mineralogy. Rare samples fromthe Huon Peninsula and Sumba have extended therecord of unaltered corals back to 130 and 600 ka,respectively (Pirazzoli et al. 1993). Oxygenisotope results from giant clams linked to upliftedreef terrace data from the Huon Peninsula havebeen used to suggest SST of tropical oceansduring interstadials of isotope stages 5 and 3 weresimilar to, or up to 3 8C cooler than, the presentday (Aharon & Chappell 1986). More recent workon Sr/Ca ratios from unaltered corals from thepenultimate deglaciation at 130 + 2 ka reveal thatSST were significantly cooler, by c. 68+ 2 8C,than either the last interglacial or present day tropi-cal temperatures (Fig. 5e; 298+ 1 8C; McCullochet al. 1996, 1999). Sr/Ca corals records alsoreveal seasonal temperature fluctuations from 8.9and 7.3 thousand years ago in the range of +1 8Cwith possible ENSO related fluctuations of +2 8C(McCulloch et al. 1996). ENSO fluctuations havenow been shown to operate over the last 130 kaand during glacial time periods from d18O originalcoral mineralogy from the Huon Peninsula(Tudhope et al. 2001). However, the magnitude ofENSO fluctuations today appears strong comparedwith previous cool (glacial) and warm (interglacial)periods, with changes related to glacial dampeningand orbital driven precession (Tudhope et al. 2001).

Millennial and Cenozoic-scale changes

A range of shallow marine SE Asian carbonatedeposits, known from outcrop and subsurface data,provide an extensive record spanning much ofthe Cenozoic (last 50 million years; Fulthorpe &Schlanger 1989; Wilson 2002, 2008). Individualsystems variably show the strong influence ofclastic and/or nutrient influx, tectonics, eustasy,biotic change and oceanographic factors actingover millennial scales (Fig. 6a, b). Over the Cenozoictimescale a significant change in biota from largerbenthic foraminifera to coral-dominated systemsoccurred around the Oligo-Miocene boundary andhad a major impact on carbonate platform develop-ment (Wilson & Rosen 1998; Wilson 2008). Long-term changes over the scale of the Cenozoic havebeen related to changing oceanography, plate

M. E. J. WILSON358

tectonic configurations, climatic changes andperhaps global fluctuations in CO2 levels (Fig. 6c;Wilson 2008).

Regional tectonics via plate tectonic movement,extensional basin formation and uplift was a majorcontrol on the location of carbonates during theCenozoic in SE Asia (Wilson 2008; Wilson &Hall 2010). These processes controlled movementof shallow marine areas into the tropics and theirdisappearance through emergence or subsidence.Locally, the creation of faulted highs, volcanic edi-fices, microcontinental blocks, and basins trappingsiliciclastics influenced the location of carbonateinitiation (Wilson 2008). Individual carbonateplatforms are influenced by tectonics through: (1)fault-margin collapse and reworking, (2) faultsegmentation, (3) tilting of strata, subsidence,uplift and differential generation of accommodationspace and (4) modification of internal sequencecharacter and facies distribution (Fig. 6a; Wilson& Bosence 1996; Wilson 1999, 2000; Wilsonet al. 2000; Bachtel et al. 2004; Wannier 2009;Wilson & Hall 2010). Eustasy, particularly duringthe Miocene, was also a major impact on changingaccommodation space influencing sequence devel-opment, facies distribution and platform geome-tries (Epting 1980; Rudolph & Lehmann 1989;Vahrenkamp et al. 2004; Paterson et al. 2006). Asubsurface study of Oligo-Miocene carbonatesfrom the Philippines is amongst the first in SEAsia to relate high-frequency, metre-scale platform-top cycles to 4th and 5th order eustatic fluctuations(10–1000 ka) dated using strontium isotopic analy-sis (Fournier et al. 2004). In the Gulf of Papua it hasbeen suggested that Oligo-Miocene patterns of car-bonate stratal aggradation, progradation and back-stepping imaged on seismic relate directly toglobal sea level fluctuations (Fig. 6b; Tcherepanovet al. 2008a, b). These have been correlated witha eustatic-driven global stratigraphic signature(Fig. 6b, c; Tcherepanov et al. 2008a, b). In areasof strong oceanographic or monsoonal driven cur-rents elongation of carbonate buildups, progradationof sediment and windward-leeward facies differen-tiation are all common (Tyrrel et al. 1986; Carter& Hutabarat 1994; Grotsch & Mercadier 1999;Wilson & Evans 2002; Carter et al. 2005).

Although many of the Cenozoic SE Asian car-bonate systems are located away from clasticinflux, c. 70% formed as land-attached features(Wilson & Hall 2010). Many of these were affectedby clastic or volcaniclastic influx, and that .80% ofthese developed around small-scale islands is prob-ably a reflection of more limited or periodic influxcompared with large-scale islands (Wilson &Hall 2010). In volcanic areas carbonate productionis often hindered in the local vicinity of active vol-canoes, but distal from these or during periods of

relative quiescence volcanic edifices often formsites for prolific carbonate development (Fulthorpe& Schlanger 1989; Wilson 2000; Wilson & Lokier2002; Satyana 2005). Studies of Miocene carbon-ates in fore-arc settings from Java and delta-frontareas in Borneo show that a range of carbonate pro-ducers occur in regions of near constant or punctu-ated influx (Wilson & Lokier 2002; Wilson 2005;Lokier et al. 2009). Habitats characterized by fre-quent or heavy clastic influx favour organisms thatcan move around or shed sediment (Wilson &Lokier 2002; Wilson 2005). If light dependentorganisms are present in these areas their presenceis typically restricted to the upper few metres ofthe water column as a result of reduced waterclarity (Wilson & Lokier 2002; Lokier et al.2009). Nutrient runoff was also a factor controllingbiotic change in these systems, with coralline algaeand heterotrophic feeders becoming more common(Wilson & Lokier 2002; Wilson 2005). Nutrientrunoff and upwelling causing plankton blooms andreduced water clarity is inferred to promote theregional development of low-light level perforateforaminifera assemblages on the deeper parts(.20 m) of many Cenozoic platforms in theregion (Wilson & Vecsei 2005).

The analysis of factors influencing temporaltrends of Cenozoic carbonates in SE Asia givenbelow is from Wilson (2008), and further expla-nation can be found therein (Fig. 6c). ‘The EarlyMiocene acme of coral-rich facies extent and abun-dance in SE Asia lags Oligocene coral developmentin the Caribbean and Mediterranean, despite localtectonics providing apparently suitable habitableareas (Wilson & Rosen 1998; Perrin 2002; Wilson2008). Regional and global controls, includingchanging, oceanography, nutrient input and precipi-tation patterns are inferred to be the main cause ofthis lag in equatorial reefs. It is inferred that moder-ate (although falling) levels of CO2, Ca2þ and Ca/Mg when combined with the reduced salinities inhumid equatorial waters all contributed to reducearagonite saturation (Stanley & Hardie 1998;Kleypas et al. 1999; Hallock 2005). This hinderedreefal development compared with warm morearid regions during the Oligocene. By the EarlyMiocene, atmospheric CO2 levels had fallen to pre-industrial levels (Fig. 6c; Zachos et al. 2001; Paganiet al. 2005). Although this was a relative arid phaseglobally, in SE Asia palynological evidence indi-cates the Early Miocene experienced everwet, butmore stable and less seasonal conditions thanperiods before or after (Morley 2000; Morley et al.2003). Tectonic convergence truncated deepthroughflow of cool nutrient-rich currents from thePacific to Indian Ocean around the beginning of theMiocene (Kuhnt et al. 2004), thereby directly, andperhaps indirectly (though less seasonal conditions)

CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 359

Fig. 6. Examples of millennial scale environmental changes inferred from carbonate deposits of Cenozoic age. (a)East–west cross section through the Eocene to Miocene Tonasa Formation from Sulawesi showing the influence oftectonic faulting, differential uplift and subsidence on the development of the carbonate platform and its facies (fromWilson et al. 2000). (b) Seismic section through the Gulf of Papua with interpretation of carbonate packages correlatedwith global eustatic sea level fluctuations, also shown in red on the eustasy column of Figure 6c. Interpretation is (1) lateOligocene–early Miocene aggradation, backstepping and partial drowning, (2) late Early Miocene–early MiddleMiocene vertical growth or aggradation, (3) Middle Miocene downward shift of deposition, (4) late Middle Mioceneprogradation (systematic lateral shift of sedimentation) and (5) late Miocene and Early Pliocene re-flooding and

M. E. J. WILSON360

reducing nutrients. It is inferred that aragonitic reefswere promoted during the Miocene where previouslythe waters had been more acidic, more mesotrophic,more turbid and less aragonite saturated. Extensivereefal development resulted in an order of magnitudeexpansion of shallow carbonate areas throughbuildup and pinnacle reef formation in the EarlyMiocene. Tectonics via basin formation, increasedhabitat partitioning and reducing distances to othercoral-rich regions may also have contributed toenhanced reefal development (Wilson & Rosen1998; Renema et al. 2008). Declining reefal impor-tance at the end of the Early Miocene resulted fromuplift of land areas, enhanced oceanic ventilation,through thermohaline circulation (Halfar & Mutti2005) and narrowing of oceanic gateways as wellas increased seasonal runoff, at least in SE Asiathrough initiation/intensification of the monsoons(Jia et al. 2003)’ (Wilson 2008).

Discussion

Data sources, limitations and

further research

Tomascik et al.’s (1997) study is a major con-tribution to our understanding of modern SE Asiancoral reefs and seas. This work expands on earlystudies by those such as Semper (1881), Umbgrove(1946, 1947) and Kuenen (1933) which wereamongst the first to evaluate the biology, morphologyand controls on development of the regions reefs.Recent decades have also seen the setting up of pro-jects to evaluate the unique oceanography, complexenvironmental settings, marine biodiversity andimpacts of climate change in SE Asia (Wilkinson2000; Spalding et al. 2001; Gordon 2005; Penafloret al. 2009). Whilst Tomascik et al. (1997) andothers studies do ‘introduce . . . the fascinatingmarine environment of the Indonesian Seas’ theyalso point out ‘serious gaps in our knowledge . . .and a lack of basic research’. There is considerablepotential to better evaluate the biota, communities,regional conditions and environments of themodern seas of SE Asia. To quote Tomascik et al.(1997), ‘a solid knowledge and understanding ofthe marine and coastal environments must formthe foundation . . . for the region’s most preciousasset, its people, to manage and conserve its second-most valuable asset, the seas’.

The handful of sclerochronology studies onmodern and Quaternary SE Asian corals highlightthe value of recently developed techniques in deter-mining environmental change. Factors such astemperatures, runoff, upwelling are now beingrelated to local, regional or global change, bothhuman-induced and natural (e.g. mining, ENSO,glacials and interglacials; McCulloch et al. 1999;Tudhope et al. 2001; Fallon et al. 2002). Currently,most of these studies are restricted to more easilyaccessible areas (Java) and relatively well-studiedareas such as the Huon region of PNG (Scoffinet al. 1989; Tudhope et al. 1995; Gagan et al.1998). Due to the region’s high rainfall and abun-dant vegetation (hence humic acids) conditions forpreservation of original aragonite coral mineralogyare not good and many corals show signs of recrys-tallization or complete alteration within a few thou-sand years of formation (Riker-Coleman et al.2006). Recent studies have highlighted the potentialfor preservation of original aragonite to hundred(s)of thousand(s) of years in strongly seasonal partsof the region or highly local areas, such as caves(Pirazzoli et al. 1993; McCulloch et al. 1999;Tudhope et al. 2001). As yet no studies of growthbanding on organisms other than corals or those pre-dating the Quaternary have been undertaken in SEAsia (cf. Purton & Brasier 1997, 1999). There isthe opportunity to continue to develop combinedgrowth banding and geochemical studies to evaluateshort-term environmental change in the region overQuaternary and deeper timescales.

The range of studies on the uplifted Quaternarycoral reef terraces of the Huon Peninsula revealthe potential for extracting environmental changedata on factors including tectonics, eustasy, temp-eratures, ENSO, glacials/interglacials and icesheet dynamics (Chappell 1974; McCulloch et al.1996, 1999; Esat et al. 1999; Tudhope et al.2001). The now submerged (up to 2.5 km waterdepth) time-equivalent platform and reef terracesoffshore in the Huon Gulf (Webster et al. 2004a,b) are the only such systems in SE Asia to haveundergone detailed subsea imaging, dating, faciesand biological mapping. Although spectacular, thesePapuan examples are by no means unique in theregion (Pirazzoli et al. 1993; Hantoro et al. 1994).There is the potential to undertake considerablefurther studies of uplifted and submerged coralreef terraces to better understand regional tectonics,

Fig. 6. (Continued) aggradation (from Tcherepanov et al. 2008b). (c) Carbonate biofacies, numbers of platforms/buildups in SE Asia plotted against regional and global events during the Cenozoic (from Wilson 2008; with equatorialclimate after Morley 2000; Morley et al. 2003, global framework reefs after Perrin 2002, oceanic Ca & Mg fromStanley & Hardie 1998, global climatic events, d18O & Atmospheric pCO2 from Zachos et al. 2001; eustasy from Haqet al. 1987, and additional atmospheric pCO2 data from Pagani et al. 2005).

CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 361

relative sea level variations and the impact ofregional and global environmental change.

A major review of reef development since thelast glacial maximum (23 ka) across the greaterIndo-Pacific region (far Western India to farEastern Pacific Oceans) is based on drill core data(684 cores) through shallow water carbonates(Montaggioni 2005). Despite the comprehensivereview of available data, no cores were availablefrom the central Indo-Pacific biodiversity hotspot(Indonesia and the Philippines). Cores are predomi-nantly from oceanic ‘blue-water’ reefs that are unli-kely to be representative of many SE Asiancarbonate systems (Tomascik et al. 1997). Montag-gioni (2005) defined three main Indo-Pacific reefbuilding periods: 17.5–14.7, 13.8–11.5 and 10 kato present. Nutrient levels, hydrodynamic energyand to a lesser extent substrate availability andocean circulation were major influences on reefaccretion at local and regional scales (Montaggioni2005). There is a need for a programme of shallowwater carbonate drilling in SE Asia to better charac-terize the variability of Indo-Pacific reefs, theirhistory and controlling influences.

The growing number of studies on SE Asian Cen-ozoic carbonates are beginning to reveal factors con-trolling carbonate development over timescales ofmillions of years (Fulthorpe & Schlanger 1989;Wilson 2002, 2008; Renema et al. 2008; Wilson &Hall 2010). However, just 10% of the regions 299carbonate formations documented by Wilson(2002) have detailed biofacies studies. There islittle recent systematic palaeontology, (with theexception of the foraminifera; Wilson & Rosen1998; Renema et al. 2008 and early Dutch studieson corals and molluscs [e.g. von Fritsch 1878;Martin 1879; Gerth 1930, 1931; Umbgrove 1939,1946], geochemistry has been undertaken on veryfew deposits, and isotopic dating of sections islimited. There is a need for further detailed sedimen-tological, biotic, geochemical and rigorous datingstudies of outcrop and subsurface Cenozoic carbon-ates. In short, further baseline data together withtargeted studies are required to continue to testhypotheses of environmental change and influenceson equatorial carbonates on all timescales andduring all time periods.

Environmental change: comparisons

from terrestrial, shallow and deep

marine systems

To investigate environmental change in theequatorial tropics a holistic approach is requiredintegrating data from terrestrial, coastal and deepmarine systems as well as the shallow marinesystems discussed here. Notwithstanding the need

for further studies in all fields (see above, Oldfield1998) how do the emerging trends from theshallow marine carbonates compare with thosefrom other realms? Also what can be learnt aboutthe role of the equatorial tropics in global climatechange?

The terrestrial and deep marine records, similarto shallow water carbonates, show the major influ-ence of local environmental perturbations andclimate change on annual to thousand year scales(e.g. fire, volcanism, deforestation, precipita-tion, ENSO, glacials–interglacials). Palynologicalresearch of marine cores is now providing a connec-tion between marine and terrestrial environments(Dam et al. 2001). There is recognition of a corre-lation between droughts, biomass burning andextreme ENSO events in the equatorial tropics(Goldammer 1999). Cores extending back .20 kareveal charcoal records showing that in some areastropical forests may never have been continuouslyfire-free for long (Hope 2001). Changes in foreststructure and replacement by grassland vegetationtogether with increases in disturbance pollen indi-cators and charcoal levels have been related toincreased human impacts on the landscape particu-larly during Holocene, but also the late Pleistocene(X. Wang et al. 1999; van der Kaars et al. 2000;Anshari et al. 2001), and possibly development ofENSO climatic variability (Anshari et al. 2001;Haberle et al. 2001). Many palynological and/ordeep marine records show evidence for reducedprecipitation, reduced temperatures (by up to orgreater than 4 8C), grassland expansion and altitudi-nal lowering of montane floras during glacialperiods (Flenley 1979; van der Kaars 1991; vander Kaars & Dam 1995; Dam et al. 2001; Hope2001; Rosenthal et al. 2003). This may not havebeen the case for what are now the most humidregions today, and increased strength of thewinter monsoon may be a possible cause duringrecent glacial maxima (Sun et al. 2000; Visseret al. 2004). Over longer time periods everwet con-ditions have been inferred for SE Asia during theMiddle Eocene and Early Miocene (Morley 2000).Although everwet conditions persisted in areassuch as Borneo for extended periods, more seasonalconditions were experienced in Java and Malaysiaduring the late Oligocene and from the middleMiocene (Morley 2000; Lelono & Morley 2011),both periods of ice cap expansion (Zachos et al.2001).

Deep marine cores are revealing high resolutionrecords of changing current, monsoonal as wellas ENSO and glacial–interglacial climatic fluctu-ations in SE Asia over Cenozoic and Quaternarytimescales. Geochemical data from the intermit-tently dysoxic Kau Bay in Halmahera is used tosuggest diminished ENSO amplitude or frequency

M. E. J. WILSON362

during the Medieval Warm Period (1000–750 a BP)and decreasing El Nino activity during, and after,the Little Ice Age (Langton et al. 2008). Oceanicproductivity increases are associated with reducedprecipitation during glacial periods from a 460 karecord in the Timor Sea (Kawamura et al. 2006).This data supports the hypothesis that the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool (IPWP) experienced ENSO-like conditions during glacial periods (Stott et al.2002), with low summer radiation and a weakaustral summer monsoon (Kawamura et al. 2006).Regional variations are inferred for the WesternPacific marginal seas from sedimentation rates andgeochemistry (Wang 1999). The South China Seaexperienced emergence and cooling during glacialsand has been linked to aridity in China. Converselystrengthened winter monsoons and intensified sea-sonality of the marginal seas could bring moistureto the islands of SE Asia during glacial periods(Wang 1999; also seen in the palynological recordabove). Many of the region’s other shallowshelves, such as the Sunda and Sahul Shelvesexperienced emergence during glacials (Umbgrove1938; Pelejero et al. 1999; Wilson & Moss 1999).Emergence and drowning of SE Asian shelvesimpacted monsoonal transport of moisture, hydrolo-gical and geochemical cycles of the western Pacific,impacting global climate with La Nina conditionsinferred for glacials (Pelejero et al. 1999; L. Wanget al. 1999). Emergence and drowning also dramati-cally influenced biogeographical connectivitybetween areas resulting in a region of dynamic geo-graphical, ecological and biogeographical mosaicsin which shallow marine carbonate platform andcoastal terrestrial development were influenced(B. R. Rosen, pers. comm. 2010; Potts 1983; Rosen1984). There is debate on the timing of initiationand intensification of the monsoons using a rangeof proxy data including lithologies, grain texturesand geochemistry of marine sediments (Jia et al.2003; Wang et al. 2005). There is the possibilityof inception of a monsoon around 20 Ma, initialstrengthening in the early to middle Miocene andstrengthening of the winter monsoon around 7 Ma(Clift et al. 2002; Jia et al. 2003). In the Maldivesit is proposed that onset and intensification of themonsoon promoted vigorous bottom currents, trig-gered nutrient upwelling and caused a switch fromaggradation to backstepping sequences and ulti-mately drowning of carbonate platforms (the latterwhen associated with periods of eustatic sea levelrise; Betzler et al. 2009). Any potential linkbetween monsoons, platform development anddrowning in SE Asia requires further testing, butmay be important where currents are intensifiedand/or nutrient influx occurs (Wilson 2008).

There is growing consensus that not only are theequatorial tropics involved in global environmental

change, but that this region may be far more impor-tant in controlling climate variability than pre-viously thought (Kerr 2001). Visser et al. (2003)showed that 3.5–4 8C rises in SST in the MakassarStraits during glacial to interglacial transitions aresynchronous with atmospheric CO2 rises and Ant-arctic warming, but pre-date Northern Hemisphereicecap melting. The inference was that the tropicalPacific region was driving glacial–interglacialcycles perhaps through ENSO regulation of transferof water vapour and heat to the poles (Visser et al.2003). The theory is that as the IPWP warms, theregion supplies additional water vapour and CO2

(reduced solubility in warm waters) to the atmos-phere, resulting in atmospheric transfer of heat pole-ward and enhanced greenhouse effects therebywarming the planet (Kerr 2001; Dunbar 2003;Visser et al. 2003). In addition, changing configur-ations of land and sea in SE Asia associated withtectonics and glacial cyclicity influenced ocean–atmosphere circulation patterns with impacts onregional and global climates (Dam et al. 2001).The Indonesian Throughflow Current is a majorinfluence on global thermohaline circulation whichin turn impacts global climate. Restricting thedeep Throughflow due to tectonic convergencearound 25 Ma reduced the input of cool deepwaters to SE Asia (Kuhnt et al. 2004). The resultantincrease in sea surface temperatures is inferred tohave promoted evaporation and the developmentof humid, but stable conditions in the central archi-pelago (Morley et al. 2003). Change in position ofthe Throughflow passages, again due to tectonicchange in the Pliocene are inferred to have causedreduced atmospheric heat transfer from the tropicsto high latitudes (Kuhnt et al. 2004). An unrestrictedThroughflow (from benthic foraminifera records)between 1.6 to 0.8 Ma is inferred to influenceinitiation of the Leeuwin Current along WesternAustralia and the transfer of heat to southerly lati-tudes (Gallagher et al. 2008). A range of studiesshow the complex links between the IndonesianThroughflow, ENSO fluctuations and the AsianMonsoon (Wang et al. 2005; Kawamura et al.2006). During the boreal winter monsoon there iscooling of the tropical Indian Ocean since thewarm surface flow of Indonesian Throughflow ishindered by monsoonal winds. This enhances thecontrast in sea surface temperature between thewestern Pacific and Indian Ocean with potentialfeedback for ENSO, the Indian Ocean Dipole andweakening monsoonal phenomena (Gordon et al.2003; Xu et al. 2008).

Conclusions

This study highlights the use of carbonate producersand deposits in evaluating environmental and

CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 363

climatic changes on all scales through the last 50million years in SE Asia. Major drivers of localand regional changes at a variety of temporalscales are inferred to include oceanography, nutri-ents, precipitation patterns and terrestrial runoff.At a higher level these are driven by tectonicchanges in SE Asian ocean gateway configurations,subsidence versus uplift, eustasy, and global/regional climatic and ocean–atmosphere changes(e.g. ENSO, monsoons and CO2 fluctuations).Despite conditions that commonly differ signifi-cantly from the more traditional view of ‘blue-water’ oceanic reefs, SE Asia has the highest modernshallow marine biodiversity and the most volumetri-cally extensive and complete record of equatorialcarbonates spanning much of the Cenozoic.

In general the western SE Asian seas are stronglyinfluenced by terrestrial runoff, the IndonesianThroughflow current and monsoonal effects,whereas the east experiences major nutrient upwel-ling and ENSO impacts. These factors all influencecarbonate producers and the edifices they build, asevidenced from geochemical signatures, facies andcarbonate platform studies of modern and Quatern-ary deposits in SE Asia. Spectacular coral reef ter-races reveal significant localized tectonic upliftand coeval subsidence during the Quaternary andPleistocene with rates (up to 3–6 m/ka) similar tosome of the fastest known. Quantification is possibleof amounts, or timing, of factors such as interglacialto glacial temperature changes (up to 3–6 8C),ENSO fluctuations (+2 8C extending back at least130 ka), meltwater pulses associated with ice sheetbreakup, and movement of the ITCZ. Over millen-nial timescales siliciclastics, nutrients, tectonics,eustasy and oceanography all influence the location,evolution and variability of individual carbonatesystems. Over the Cenozoic major changes inoceanography, plate tectonics, climate change andperhaps fluctuating atmospheric CO2 influencedsignificant changes in carbonate producers and thetypes of platforms that were constructed. Compari-son with parallel studies from terrestrial and deepmarine deposits reveals many similar trends tothose emerging from the carbonate record, but theformer are currently yielding more informationabout variations in precipitation, currents and themonsoons. There is considerable scope for furtherstudy in all fields. It is anticipated that study of SEAsian carbonates will continue to aid evaluation ofthe relative response of tropical marine systems toglobal or regional change versus their potential tobe dominant drivers of climatic change.

I thank Robert Hall and the SE Asia Research Group fortheir continued support, aiding my research of the fascinat-ing carbonate systems of the region, and enabling me topresent this study at the SAGE 2009 conference. Funding

through an Internal Curtin University Research Grant toundertake this study is acknowledged. Bob Park andBrian Rosen are thanked for their constructive reviews.

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