Germany

The Peasants’ Revolt Some people began to apply Luther’s revolutionary ideas to society. In

1524, German peasants, excited by reformers’ talk of Christian freedom,

demanded an end to serfdom (feudalism). Bands (groups) of angry

peasants went about the countryside raiding monasteries, pillaging, and

burning. The revolt horrified Luther. He wrote a pamphlet (article) urging

the German princes to show the peasants no mercy. The princes’ armies

crushed the revolt, killing as many as 100,000 people. Feeling betrayed,

many peasants rejected Luther’s religious leadership.

Germany at War In contrast (difference) to the bitter peasants, many northern German

princes supported Lutheranism. While some princes genuinely shared

Luther’s beliefs, others liked Luther’s ideas for selfish reasons. They saw

his teachings as a good excuse to seize (take) Church property and to

assert their independence from Charles V.

In 1529, German princes who remained loyal to the pope agreed to join

forces against Luther’s ideas. Those princes who supported Luther signed

a protest against that agreement. These protesting princes came to be

known as Protestants (Protestors). Eventually, the term Protestant was

applied to Christians who belonged to non-Catholic churches.

Still determined that his subjects should remain Catholic, Charles V went

to war against the Protestant princes. Even though he defeated them in

1547, he failed to force them back into the Catholic Church. In 1555,

Charles, weary (tired) of fighting, ordered all German princes, both

Protestant and Catholic, to assemble in the city of Augsburg. There the

princes agreed that each ruler would decide the religion of his state. This

famous religious settlement was known as the Peace of Augsburg.

France

SETTING THE STAGE In 1559, King Henry II of France died, leaving four young sons. Three of them ruled, one after the other, but all

proved incompetent (horrible rulers). The real power behind the throne during this period was their mother,

Catherine de Médicis. Catherine tried to preserve royal authority, but growing conflicts between Catholics and

Huguenots (French Protestants) rocked the country. Between 1562 and 1598, Huguenots and Catholics fought

eight religious wars. Chaos spread through France.

Religious Wars and Power Struggles In 1572, the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in Paris sparked (started) a six-week, nationwide slaughter of

Huguenots. The massacre occurred when many Huguenot nobles were in Paris. They were attending the

marriage of Catherine’s daughter to a Huguenot prince, Henry of Navarre. Most of these nobles died, but Henry

survived.

Henry of Navarre Descended (came from) from the popular medieval king Louis IX, Henry was robust, athletic, and handsome. In

1589, when both Catherine and her last son died, Prince Henry inherited the throne. He became Henry IV, the

first king of the Bourbon Dynasty in France. As king, he showed himself to be decisive, fearless in battle, and a

clever politician. Many Catholics, including the people of Paris, opposed Henry. For the sake of his war-weary

country, Henry chose to give up Protestantism and become a Catholic. Explaining his conversion, Henry

reportedly declared, “Paris is well worth a mass.”

Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu After Henry IV’s death, his son Louis XIII reigned. Louis was a weak king, but in 1624, he appointed a strong

minister who made up for all of Louis’s weaknesses. Cardinal Richelieu (RIHSH•uh•LOO) became, in

effect, the ruler of France.

Richelieu took two steps to increase the power of the Bourbon Monarchy. First, he moved against Huguenots.

He believed that Protestantism often served as an excuse for political conspiracies (plans) against the Catholic

king. Although Richelieu did not take away the Huguenots’ right to worship, he forbade Protestant cities to

have walls. He did not want them to be able to defy the king and then withdraw behind strong defenses.

The efforts of Henry IV and Richelieu to strengthen the French monarchy paved the way for the most powerful

ruler in French history—Louis XIV. After Colbert’s death, Louis announced a policy that slowed France’s

economic progress. In 1685, he canceled the Edict of Nantes, which protected the religious freedom of

Huguenots. In response, thousands of Huguenot artisans and business people fled the country. Louis’s policy

thus robbed France of many skilled workers.

The English Reformation

In 1509 the King of England, Henry VIII, married Catherine of Aragon from Spain. She was his brother’s widow and the

youngest child of Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand. They had a daughter, Mary, in 1516; as well as a son. The son died

in infancy, though, leaving Henry with no male heir. After years of no male heir, Henry was fed up. He wished to annul

his marriage with his wife. This is an action that officially ends a marriage. He turned to the Catholic Church for help.

Henry VII was a strong supporter of the Catholic Church. He had even written an essay defending the Church at the

beginning of the Reformation. For this he received the title “Defender of Faith” from Pope Leo X in 1521.

In 1527, Henry asked Pope Clement VII for an annulment. He had already found his next bride in Anne Boleyn. The

Pope refused. An angry Henry ignored the Pope’s ruling and banished Queen Catherine from the court, giving all her

rooms to Anne. All blame for the pope’s ruling fell on to the Lord Chancellor, Thomas Wolsey. Wolsey was stripped of

his title and replaced by Sir Thomas More in 1529.

As Henry’s defiance of the pope grew, More’s qualms (problems) grew, as well. In 1532, Thomas Cromwell brought

before Parliament a number of acts (rules) that states royal supremacy (control) over the Church. More, a devoted

Catholic, stepped down as Lord Chancellor, leaving the job to Cromwell. More would be executed for treason (going

against your country) for keeping with his Catholic beliefs.

In 1533, Henry married Anne without the consent of the pope or Catholic Church. She gave birth to a daughter,

Elizabeth, also in that year. That next year, Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy that gave Henry control over the

Church of England. The split with the Catholic Church was complete. All adults in England had to take an oath (promise)

that they acknowledged the Act and printing anything about the King’s annulment and subsequent marriage as invalid

could be punishable by death.

Over the next few years, Henry saw Anne could not give him a son and he had her executed. His third wife died after

complications giving birth to Henry’s only son. Henry annulled his marriage to his fourth wife, and executed his fifth. He

died while married to his sixth wife. His heir to the throne, his only son, Edward VI, died at the age of 15 while trying to

keep his older half-sisters from gaining the throne. Catherine of Aragon’s daughter, Mary, a devoted Catholic came to

rule next and when she died Anne Boleyn’s daughter, Elizabeth came to rule. She was Protestant and upheld her

father’s later ideas on religion. She was also the first monarch to recognize she ruled by popular consent. (the people

wanted her)

Spain

SETTING THE STAGE Charles V became the new ruler of Spain in 1516. He became one of the most powerful kings ever in Europe.

As the Hapsburg king, Charles inherited Spain, Spain’s American colonies, parts of Italy, and lands in Austria

and the Netherlands. As the elected Holy Roman Emperor, he ruled much of Germany. It was the first time

since Charlemagne that a European ruler controlled so much territory.

A Powerful Spanish Empire A devout Catholic, Charles not only fought Muslims but also opposed Lutherans. In 1555, he unwillingly

agreed to the Peace of Augsburg, which allowed German princes to choose the religion for their territory. The

following year, Charles V divided his immense (large) empire and retired to a monastery. To his brother

Ferdinand, he left Austria and the Holy Roman Empire. His son, Philip II, inherited Spain, the Spanish

Netherlands, and the American colonies.

Philip II’s Empire In 1580, the king of Portugal died without an heir. Because Philip was the king’s nephew, he seized the

Portuguese kingdom. Counting Portuguese strongholds in Africa, India, and the East Indies, he now had an

empire that circled the globe.

Philip’s empire provided him with incredible wealth. By 1600, American mines had supplied Spain with an

estimated 339,000 pounds of gold. With this wealth, Spain was able to support a large standing army of about

50,000 soldiers.

Defender of Catholicism When Philip assumed (took control) the throne, Europe was experiencing religious wars caused by the

Reformation. However, religious conflict was not new to Spain. The Reconquista, the campaign to drive

Muslims from Spain, had been completed only 64 years before. In addition, Philip’s great-grandparents Isabella

and Ferdinand had used the Inquisition to investigate suspected heretics, or nonbelievers in Christianity.

Philip believed it was his duty to defend Catholicism against the Muslims of the Ottoman Empire and the

Protestants of Europe. In 1571, the pope called on all Catholic princes to take up arms against the mounting

power of the Ottoman Empire. Philip responded like a true crusader. More than 200 Spanish and Venetian ships

defeated a large Ottoman fleet in a fierce battle near Lepanto. In 1588, Philip launched the Spanish Armada in

an attempt to punish Protestant England and its queen, Elizabeth I. Elizabeth had supported Protestant subjects

who had rebelled against Philip. However, his fleet was defeated by Elizabeth.

Although this setback seriously weakened Spain, its wealth gave it the appearance of strength for a while

longer. Philip’s gray granite palace, the Escorial, had massive walls and huge gates that demonstrated his

power. The Escorial also reflected Philip’s faith. Within its walls stood a monastery as well as a palace.

Switzerland

Calvin Continues the Reformation Religious reform in Switzerland was begun by Huldrych Zwingli (HUL•drykh ZWIHNG•lee), a Catholic priest

in Zurich. He was influenced both by the Christian humanism of Erasmus and by the reforms of Luther. In

1520, Zwingli openly attacked abuses in the Catholic Church. He called for a return to the more personal faith

of early Christianity. He also wanted believers to have more control over the Church.

Zwingli’s reforms were adopted in Zurich and other cities. In 1531, a bitter war between Swiss Protestants and

Catholics broke out. During the fighting, Zwingli met his death. Meanwhile, John Calvin, then a young law

student in France with a growing interest in Church doctrine, was beginning to clarify his religious beliefs.

Calvin Formalizes Protestant Ideas When Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in 1517, John Calvin had been only eight years old. But Calvin grew

up to have as much influence in the spread of Protestantism as Luther did. He would give order to the faith

Luther had begun.

In 1536, Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion. This book expressed ideas about God, salvation,

and human nature. It was a summary of Protestant theology, or religious beliefs. Calvin wrote that men and

women are sinful by nature. Taking Luther’s idea that humans cannot earn salvation, Calvin went on to say that

God chooses a very few people to save. Calvin called these few the “elect.” He believed that God has known

since the beginning of time who will be saved. This doctrine is called predestination. The religion based on

Calvin’s teachings is called Calvinism.

Calvin Leads the Reformation in Switzerland Calvin believed that the ideal government was a theocracy, a government controlled by religious leaders. In

1541, Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland, asked Calvin to lead their city. When Calvin arrived there in the

1540s, Geneva was a self-governing city of about 20,000 people. He and his followers ran the city according to

strict rules. Everyone attended religion class. No one wore bright clothing or played card games. Authorities

would imprison, excommunicate, or banish (kick out) those who broke such rules. Anyone who preached

different doctrines (beliefs) might be burned at the stake. Yet, to many Protestants, Calvin’s Geneva was a

model city of highly moral citizens.

Calvinism Spreads One admiring visitor to Geneva was a Scottish preacher named John Knox. When he returned to Scotland in

1559, Knox put Calvin’s ideas to work. Each community church was governed by a group of laymen called

elders or presbyters (PREHZ•buh•tuhrs). Followers of Knox became known as Presbyterians. In the 1560s,

Protestant nobles led by Knox made Calvinism Scotland’s official religion. They also deposed their Catholic

ruler, Mary Queen of Scots, in favor of her infant son, James.

Other Protestant Reformers

The Anabaptists

One such group baptized only those persons who were old enough to decide to be Christian. They said that

persons who had been baptized as children should be re-baptized as adults. These believers were called

Anabaptists, from a Greek word meaning “baptize again.”

The Anabaptists also taught that church and state should be separate, and they refused to fight in wars. They

shared their possessions. Viewing Anabaptists as radicals who threatened society, both Catholics and

Protestants persecuted them.

But the Anabaptists survived and became the forerunners of the Mennonites and the Amish. Their teaching

influenced the later Quakers and Baptists, groups who split from the Anglican Church.

Women

Women’s Role in the Reformation Many women played prominent roles in the Reformation, especially during the early years. For example, the

sister of King Francis I, Marguerite of Navarre, protected John Calvin from being executed for his beliefs while

he lived in France. Other noblewomen also protected reformers. The wives of some reformers, too, had

influence. Katherina Zell, married to Matthew Zell of Strasbourg, once scolded a minister for speaking harshly

of another reformer. The minister responded by saying that she had “disturbed the peace.” She answered his

criticism sharply:

P R I M A RY S O U R C E Do you call this disturbing the peace that instead of spending my time in frivolous amusements I have visited the plague-infested and carried out the dead? I have visited those in prison and under sentence of death. Often for three days and three nights I have neither eaten nor slept. I have never mounted the pulpit, but I have done more than any minister in visiting those in misery.

KATHERINA ZELL, quoted in Women of the Reformation Katherina von Bora played a more typical, behind-the-scenes role as Luther’s wife. Katherina was sent to a

convent at about age ten, and had become a nun. Inspired by Luther’s teaching, she fled the convent. After

marrying Luther, Katherina had six children. She also managed the family finances, fed all who visited their

house, and supported her husband’s work. She respected Luther’s position but argued with him about woman’s

equal role in marriage. As Protestant religions became more firmly established, their organization became more

formal. Male religious leaders narrowly limited women’s activities to the home and discouraged them from

being leaders in the church. In fact, it was Luther who said, “God’s highest gift on earth is a pious, cheerful,

God-fearing, home-keeping wife.”

Netherlands

The Dutch Revolt In the Spanish Netherlands, Philip had to maintain an army to keep his subjects under control. The

Dutch had little in common with their Spanish rulers. While Spain was Catholic, the Netherlands had many

Calvinist congregations. Also, Spain had a sluggish economy, while the Dutch had a prosperous middle class.

Philip raised taxes in the Netherlands and took steps to crush Protestantism. In response, in 1566, angry

Protestant mobs swept through Catholic churches. Philip then sent an army under the Spanish duke of Alva to

punish the rebels. On a single day in 1568, the duke executed 1,500 Protestants and suspected rebels. The Dutch

continued to fight the Spanish for another 11 years. Finally, in 1579, the seven northern provinces of the

Netherlands, which were largely Protestant, united and declared their independence from Spain. They became

the United Provinces of the Netherlands. The ten southern provinces (present-day Belgium) were Catholic and

remained under Spanish control.

The Independent Dutch Prosper The United Provinces of the Netherlands was different from other European states of the time. For one thing,

the people there practiced religious toleration. In addition, the United Provinces was not a kingdom but a

republic. Each province had an elected governor, whose power depended on the support of merchants and

landholders.

Dutch Trading Empire The stability of the government allowed the Dutch people to concentrate on economic growth. The merchants of

Amsterdam bought surplus grain in Poland and crammed it into their warehouses. When they heard about poor

harvests in southern Europe, they shipped the grain south while prices were highest. The Dutch had the largest

fleet of ships in the world—perhaps 4,800 ships in 1636. This fleet helped the Dutch East India Company (a

trading company controlled by the Dutch government) to dominate the Asian spice trade and the Indian Ocean

trade. Gradually, the Dutch replaced the Italians as the bankers of Europe.

France

King Henry IV of France Cardinal Richelieu

Spain

Spanish Armada King Philip II of Spain

Switzerland

Short Bio of John Calvin Ulrich Zwingli

Other Protestant Reformers

Marguerite of Navarre