getting started with academic writing writing critically with confidence
TRANSCRIPT
Getting Started with Academic Writing
Writing Critically With Confidence
Getting Critical Get familiar with your area
READ Get general overview first Make notes
Identify key concepts, Understand approaches, Summarise understanding
Process Reflect on what you have read Identify ideas, agreements, contradictions, gaps
Getting Critical Formulate your opinions and questions
Do you agree or disagree? Are you aligning with one grouping or another in
the research area? What are the most common research approaches? Do you think there are other ways tackling things? Why? (to all the above) Talk to peers and lecturers Find your questions
Write Cohesive, coherent narrative – talking to the
reader Write with flow – can your reader follow your
thinking from start to finish and see where your ideas are coming from ?
Critical Thinking Use critical thinking to develop arguments, draw conclusions, make inferences and identify implications for your research question and ideasTransfer the understanding you have gained from your critical evaluation and use in response to your research question and ideas
Build into your approach
Assess the worth of an idea in terms of its relevance to your needs, the evidence on which it is based and how it relates to other pertinent ideas
Evaluate
Comment critically on evidence to support your
question or ideasBring together different sources of information to serve an argument or idea you are constructing. Make logical connections between the different sources that help you shape and support your ideas.
Synthesise
Bring together all previous steps into coherent, cohesive picture of your
context
Explore the similarities and differences between the ideas you are reading
Starting here to create your questions and evidence
Examine how these key components fit together and relate to each other
Identifying agreements,
contradictions and gaps Comprehend the key points, assumptions, arguments and
evidence presented
Describing - Terms, definitions, etc
Take in the information Proces
s
Understand
Analyse
Compare
Justify
Apply
Support your approach and conclusions
Source Open University (2008), Critical Thinking, http://www.open.ac.uk/skillsforstudy/criticalthinking.php, [Date Accessed: 21st October 2011]
Writing
Describing Analysing
First step – you always have to do this
Expected to move quickly beyond this
Describe with perspective
Move quickly to analysis
Crucial to all postgraduate work
Pick out key themes, ideas, points
Show relationshipsComparing (and contrasting) Need to do both Similarities and
differences
Writing
Synthesising Evaluating
Bringing it together Cohesion and
Coherence Linking description,
analysis, comparison etc
Drafting and editing
Considering merits of analysis, comparison, synthesise
Value of evidence Justify
Develop ideas Comment Defend Show evidence
Being Critical in Writing Selecting sources is a demonstration of critical
thinking Making connections between sources is a
demonstration of critical analysis Formulating an opinion or idea from sources is
a demonstration of critical analysis Constructing and presenting a comment on
sources is a demonstration of critical writing
Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.
Being Critical in Writing – Things you can do Compare and contrast theories, concepts,
terms from literature and include a statement on the position most valid for your work
Selecting references to support your arguments
Bringing together ideas/arguments from more than one source to create a new perspective or extend an existing view
Agree with, confirm or defend a view through analysis of its strengths and weaknesses
Conceding a view has strengths but with qualification
Rejecting a view giving reasons for the rejection
Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.
Being Critical in Writing When you reference a source
You need to include an adequate summary or paraphrase It should be clear why this source is included
Key researcher, well cited etc (no need to state this)
To be critical you do not need to completely dismiss the ideas/opinions in a source
When you need to show a gap or disagreement between sources you will need to include negative criticism E.g. Highlighting work not done Identifying flaws/weaknesses Showing alternate approaches Applying approach in different context
Be respectful, know you may also be challenged Choose your language carefully
Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.
Writers Voice Leading reader through the content
Cohesion, coherence Writing with flow
Make your own position clear Be explicit about how you use aspects of work in
the source in your own work Evaluation, Justification
Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.
How to do it Connect to the citation
To other work Or your own However, Similarly ….
Summarise and evaluate source Present an overall conclusion at the end of a
section Verbs used
Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.
Constructing Arguments – Starting Point An argument is a particular stand on an issue
or question. Usually a paper has one main idea – called
‘claim’ or ‘thesis statement’ A statement of position or opinion about a certain
subject usually an answer to a direct research question
What you are setting out to discuss or establish Made up of a series of other claims or
‘premises’ Other claims that lead to or contribute to the
thesis statement. Part of the discussion prior to the establishing the
conclusion claim.
Claims Should not be
Stated as a question A list Vague, aggressively argumentative or confrontational
Should be Definitive and arguable As clear and specific as possible
Constructing an argument – Need to demonstrate Understanding of related material Discussion of related material Application of understanding to form own
opinions
Constructing an Argument – Support Required Research Approach
Theories Methodologies Results Relationship between above
Counterarguments Have you thought about your argument? Can you refute counterarguments?
Discussion Have you discussed all the above?
Constructing an Argument – Support Required Evidence
Facts Agreed upon, accepted, cannot be disputed
Statistics Comparison of amounts or numbers in context, from a
reliable source and are an accurate representation of reality
Expert Authority Support from known ‘experts’ in your area
Personal Experience Must be relevant, must be credible, be related to the
claim
Research Approach Discussion
Strong Argument Convinces the reader that the conclusion is
correct. gaps or bad connections in premises, undermine the
linked conclusion
Evidence is convincing and objective, and it supports the claims
Argument considers all the different perspectives, and comes to a reasonable conclusion based on those perspectives
Argument is clearly and consistently reasoned.
Constructing an argument Consider your audience Consider the review process Consider the area How do these influence ?
Testing your argument Read your work critically Use the techniques covered in critical reading How well does your work stack up?
Arguing and discussing You need to identify
your claim - your point of view, what you believe; your reason(s) - why you believe what you do; your evidence - the facts, data and examples that support your
point of view; and your argument - how the evidence you have provided leads to
the claim your are making. Example
claim – causes of failure in software development projects is largely due to communication
reasons – identify the main causes showing communication as one of them and show its influence on others
evidence – show number of examples that support the view – agile in particular
argument – draw conclusion from discussion numerous causes but show that communication is central
Arguing and discussing The balanced view
Present both sides of an argument then conclude The persuasive view
Start by presenting your view and construct argument to convince
Evaluating other points of view Present the viewpoint
Paraphrase, summarise Comment negatively or positively
E.g. Agile methodologies are widely criticised as being chaotic
in nature, focusing all control in the hands of software developers (….) .
This stems largely from the fact that agile methodologies advocate reducing bureaucratic elements which do not contribute directly to the creation of software (…)
However, the majority of agile methodologies have a disciplined approach at their core.
For example, XP…, SCRUM…. (detail of discipline) Therefore it is evident that rather than chaos, agile
methodologies advocate discipline where needed and lightweight where not.
Critical Analysis Frameworks
SWOT PEST(LE)
Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats
Political Economic Social Technical Legal Environmental See also SLEPT
Critical Analysis Frameworks
6 Thinking Hats COR T techniques
Information: (White) Emotions (Red) Bad points judgment
(Black) Good points judgment
(Yellow) Creativity (Green) Thinking (Blue)
Plus Minus Interesting
Consider All Factors First Important
Principles Alternate,
Possibilities, & Choices
Consequences & Sequels
Aims, Goals, Objectives
Getting StartedAims, Goals & Objectives AGO To introduce and emphasise the idea of
purpose Focus directly and deliberately on the
intention behind actions. Aim is the general direction Goal is an ultimate destination Objective is a recognisable point of achievement
along the way
Applying Six-Hats Technique
Blue White Yellow Black Green Red Blue
PMI
Expressing your argument - Structure Introduction
Introduce reader to the issue Outline the background Outline motivation for argument Map out how you will address the argument in particular
structure of the rest of the paper Main Body
Each section deals with establishing a premise Each section will have an introduction and conclusion Include evidence Include discussion and analysis Deal with alternatives Sequence is significant
Expressing your argument - Structure Conclusion
Restate the points made Restate your claim Restate how you have achieved your claim Link to evidence
Paragraph A collection of related sentences dealing with
a single topic. Use to decompose your narrative
Break it into chunks Present ideas coherently
Each paragraph Should have a clear central point Focus on one topic Contain only relevant information
If you feel your paragraph addresses more than one topic Introduce another paragraph
Paragraph Opening Sentence – Topic Sentence
Short, to the point Introduce the main point
Body Explanation and clarification Discussion of the main point
Evidence Provide supporting evidence for your main point
and discussion Concluding Sentence
Comment on evidence, draw conclusions from discussion, signpost to next paragraph
Paragraph Unity
Focus on one idea Try not to wander off onto others
Coherence Paragraph should make sense Sentences should flow
A Topic Sentence Indicates generally what the paragraph will be
about Adequate Development
Discuss your topic adequately Use examples, cite, compare and contrast,
analyse, describe etc
Writing with flow Write Coherent Paragraphs
You have to connect your sentences in a paragraph
Provide Flow Sentence Connectors
used to link ideas from one sentence to the next and to give paragraphs coherence.
placed at the beginning of a sentence. used to introduce, order, contrast,
sequence ideas, theory, data etc.
Sentence ConnectorsCategory Sample words
addition again, also, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, second
Sequence first, second, lastly, earlier, later, in parallel, in addition, further, furthermore, also
comparison also, likewise, similarly
contrast although, yet, despite, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, compared to
concession granted, naturally, of course
emphasis/importance
certainly, indeed, in fact, of course, significantly, most significantly, primarily, above all
example after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed, in fact, in other words, in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus, truly
summary as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to summarize
conclusion as a result, as a consequence, therefore, thus, consequently, hence, in conclusion
Links between paragraphs Pick up key points and words from previous
paragraphs Use linking words (see sentence connectors)
as transition http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/57
4/1/
Topic Sentence The topic The main point about the topic
<topic><main point> The waterfall model of software development is a useful
tool in introducing the phases of software development to novice developers.
<main point><topic> A useful tool in introducing the phases of software
development is the waterfall model of software development.
Signals the content of the paragraph.
Concluding sentences Put key points at the end of sentences Put key findings at the end of paragraphs
Writing Paragraphs Create a topic sentence
Introduce the main idea Explain or define any terms needed to clarify
the topic sentence Show evidence to support the main
idea/argument Comment on the evidence and mention other
evidence Conclude
WEED for paragraph construction What
Is it clear what point I am making Evidence
Have I provided evidence for what I am saying Example
Do I need to give an example to illustrate what I am saying
Do So what? What do I do with what I have
presented?
Using the Diamond
Paper is a diamond
Each section is a diamond
Each paragraph is a diamond
Start
Middle
End
Using the Diamond
Main body is a series of diamonds linked
Each section is a series of diamonds linked
Section with one or more paragraphs
Links to the next section
etc