Asif FaizThe World Bank

Kathmandu, Nepal

GITERegional Workshop on Transport Sector

Inspection and Maintenance Policy in Asia

Bangkok, 10-12 December 2001

Overview of Inspection and MaintenancePolicy and Programs

Keynote Presentation

Air Pollution in Asia

• Air pollution has been worsening in urban areas• PM is the most significant pollutant• Other criteria pollutants include CO,VOCs, NOx,

SO2, Pb,

• ,Impact on human health is serious• Major sources: transport vehicles, power plants,

industries, bio-mass and refuse burning, domestic and commercial fuel combustion, resuspension of road dust .

Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles anAcute Environmental Problem in almost

all Asian Megacities

Bangkok, Beijing, Delhi, Dhaka, Jakarta,Karachi, Kolkota, Manila, Mumbai, Shanghai,Seoul, Tehran, Tianjin

• Problem rapidly spreading to urban centers ofover 5 million population

• Sporadic episodes in cities in vulnerablelocations

Overview of Ambient Air Quality in Selected CitiesSubjective Assessment of Monitoring Data

(1990-1995)Pollutants

Cities CO NO2 Lead SPM SO2 O3

OECD London Los Angeles New York TokyoEast Asia Seoul Beijing Jakarta Bangkok ManilaSouth Asia Karachi Mumbai DelhiLatin America Mexico City Sao Paulo Buenos Aires Rio de Janeiro

Central Asia, Africa & Europe Tehran Cairo Lagos Moscow

Low pollution WHO guidelines are normally met (short-term g/lines may be exceeded occasionally). Moderate to heavy WHO guidelines exceeded by up to a factor of two (short-term pollution guidelines exceeded on a regular basis at certain locations). Serious problem WHO guidelines exceeded by more than a factor of two.

Not available Information on ambient pollutant concentrations not available.

Global Distribution of the Motor VehicleFleet (1994)

(percent)

0

10

20

3040

50

6070

80

OE

CD

E.E

urop

e

LA

C

Afr

ica

Asi

a

CarsBuses and Trucks2-3 Wheelers

Motorization Trends in Asia

• Unabated increase in motorization bringing unprecedentedmobility to Asian societies;

a) China - 11 percent per year over the last 30 years;

b) India - 7 per cent per year for the past 10 years;

• Vehicle ownership per capita in most Asian countries still verylow compared to OECD countries and will continue to grow.

Road Transport Characteristics in Asian Countries

• Concentration of motor vehicles in major metropolitan regions with inadequate andinefficient infrastructure ;

• Aging and poorly-maintained diesel engine vehicles run on fuel with a higher sulfurcontent; these are a principal source of respirable PM, smoke and SO2 emissions inurban areas;

• Motorcycles and other motorized 2-3 wheelers, mostly with 2-stroke engines,constitute a major part of the vehicle fleet in Asian countries; these are a majorsource of HC, smoke and particulate emissions containing unburnt lubricant oilaerosols;

• Higher average age of the vehicle fleet and low scrappage rates in some countries(Bangladesh, Philippines,Vietnam); rapid motorization and fleet turnover in others(China, Korea,Thailand).

• Poor fuel quality, particularly the high lead and /or aromatic content of gasoline andthe high sulfur content of diesel; adulteration of diesel and gasoline with other fuels--kerosene and fuel oil– because of price differentials or imbalance in domesticrefinery outputs;

• Insufficient urban road space, heterogeneous traffic composition and ineffectivetraffic management, poor public /mass transportation services and inadequateinvestment in transport infrastructure.

Comparison of Vehicle Composition inEight Asian Cities

Commercialized Motorcycles Truck/Bus/Auto

Motorcycle Commercial NMVs

Bicycle/Tricycle

Composition (%)

Hanoi Phnom Penh Manila Chiang MaiKanpur Dhaka George Town Surabaya

0

20

40

60

80

100

Why Inspection and Maintenance ?

• Vehicle Roadworthiness and Safety• Control of Noise and Pollutant Emissions

Vehicle safety standards are necessary to ensure unsafe vehiclesare not manufactured locally or imported from abroad, and todevelop a safety culture among vehicle operators, owners, andusers. Standards must be backed by regular safety inspectionincluding roadside checks. The end result is a reduction in thecontribution of vehicle defects to road accidents.

Vehicle Safety Inspection

Items typically inspected:• Braking system• Steering• Tires• lights

Objective of I/M Programs: To ensure that benefits of emissioncontrol technologies are not lost through poor maintenance andtampering with emission controls.

Two Main Purposes:• Help identify vehicles with high emissions caused by

maladjustments or other mechanical problems• Discourage tampering with emission control equipment so that

emission controls remain effective over useful life of the vehicle.

Vehicle Emissions Inspection

Note: A small malfunctioning fraction of the fleet contributes asubstantial portion of overall vehicular emissions. Typicallyless than 10% of the fleet contributes more than 50% ofemissions for any given pollutant. Thus targeting of gross(high) emitters in emission control programs can yield majoremission reductions.

Significant Milestone in Evolution ofUS Motor Vehicle Emissions Control Technologies

Crankcase Emissions Control• Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) to eliminate blow-by

emissions (1964 to current)

Engine Emissions Controls• Engine Adjustments (1968 to 1974)

• Oxidizing Catalysts (1975 to 1980)

• Closed Loop Three-Way Catalysts (1981 to current)

Primary control consisted of modifications to mixture strengthand spark timing.

Lean mixtures and oxidization catalysts were used forhydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) control. Exhaustgas recirculation (EGR) was used to control nitrogen oxides(NOx).

Precise mixture control and three-way catalyst control of HC,CO and NOx.

Significant Milestone in Evolution ofUS Motor Vehicle Emissions Control Technologies

(Cont.)

Evaporative Emissions Control• Early Trap Test Technology (1971 to 1977)

• Early sealed housing for evaporative determination (SHED) TestTechnology (1978 to 1995)

• Enhanced Evaporative Emissions Controls (1996 to 2003)

Tank and carburetor bowl were vented to a small carboncanister

Material in the detail seals on the carburetor are claimed forreduced permeation and increased purge.

Three-day diurnals, measuring running losses, high-temperaturehot soaks, and 10-year life required larger canisters and morepermeation control. Refueling controls were added to carsstarting in 1998.

Significant Milestone in Evolution ofUS Motor Vehicle Emissions Control Technologies

(Cont.)

On Board Diagnostic Systems (OBD)

• Pre-regulatory Systems (1981 to 1993)GM and Ford had OBD Systems starting on 1981 models.

• OBD I (1994 to 1995)

• OBD II (1996 and beyond)

Vehicle Emissions TestingExhaust Emissions

• Mass Emission tests– directly measure mass of emitted pollutantswith vehicle driven on a dynamometer (gm/mile). Examples: FTP –City Driving Test; SFTP; IM240; BAR31; IM93/CT93; IM147;VMASS(BAR97 coupled to a transient dynamometer)

• Concentration tests- measure concentration of pollutants in exhaustemissions (% or ppm). Examples: Low/High Idle Test (No load);ASM (loaded mode, steady state); BAR97; BAR84, 90, 94 (only idletests); Remote Sensing

Test Conditions for Measuring Exhaust Emissions• Steady State – one stable operating condition, constant load on the

engine• Transient – varying operating conditions with different engine

speeds and loads, transitory in nature

Vehicle Emissions Testing

Evaporative Emissions

• Gas-cap check• Fuel-tank Vapor System Pressure check/Full pipe test• Purge check

Notes:1. No test prescribed to check for liquid fuel leaks. 2. Emissions Inspection includes visual and functional

inspection of the emission control hardware besides theemission tests.

3.0(g/mile)

3.0(g/mile)

2.5(g/mile)

7.0 (g/mile)

7.0 (g/mile)

3.5 (g/mile)

3.0 (g/mile)

2.0 (g/mile)

2.0 (g/mile)

1.2(g/mile)

7.5 (g/mile)

3.2 (g/mile)

3.2 (g/mile)

2.4 (g/mile)

60.0 (g/mile)30.0 (g/mile)

20.0(g/mile)

100 (g/mile)

80 (g/mile)

80 (g/mile)

60 (g/mile)

Arizona (Enhanced I/M)

Passenger Cars

1981-82

1983-90

1991 and later models

Trucks

1979-83

1984-87

1988-90

1991 and later models

50%

500 (ppm)

400 (ppm)

250 (ppm)

220 (ppm)

220 (ppm)

5.5 (%)

5.0 (%)

2.2 (%)

2.2 (%)

1.2 (%)

Arizona (Basic I/M)

Passenger cars and light trucks

1967-71

1972-74

1975-78

1979

1980 and later models

Diesel-fueled vehicles

n.a. n.a.

2.0(g/mile) n.a.

220 (ppm)

0.8(g/mile)

1.2 (%)

15 (g/mile)

U.S. EPA Basic I/M program

Passenger cars (1981 and later models)

U.S. EPA Enhanced I/M program

All vehicles (1981 and later models)

NOx Smoke OpacityHCCOJurisdiction/vehicle type/model year

In-Service Vehicle Emission Standards for Basic Inspection and MaintenancePrograms, United States

Distribution of FTP Emissions as aFunction of Highest to Lowest Emitters

Types of I/M Programs

• Centralized – High volume test facilities operatedby government or contracted to competitively-selected private operator.

• Decentralized – Emission testing and repairs donein private garages.

• Hybrid – Has elements of both decentralized andcentralized programs. Example: High volume “testonly” stations and low-volume “repair and retest”stations.

Decentralized programs less effective because of fraud andimproper inspection.

Centralized vs. Decentralized I/M

$8.42/veh.(contractor.)

$7.46/veh.(govt.)

$17.70/veh.Cost (US)

HighLowConsumer Satisfaction

Sophisticateddynamometer

Simple garage type analyzerEquipment

20 Staff

$0.35 million/year

100 Staff

$1.2 million/year

Management Cost(Bangkok Case)

Very LowHighPossibilities of Fraud

LowHighImproper Inspections

HighLowSkills/Competence

Few dozens to coupleof 100’s

Few 100’s to over 10,000Staffing

CentralizedDecentralized

According to a 1995 national environmental agency reviewof the I&M program in Country X, falsification of resultswere found in more than 30% of the cases!

Q: Which Was Country X?A: USA! USA! (Source: USEPA, 1995)(Source: USEPA, 1995)

Reason: Inherent conflict of interest if repair facilitychecks its own work!

A Cautionary Example

Cost of I/M ProgramsInspection Costs – Quite variable

Centralized: Expensive to set up:Less Expensive to operateDecentralized: Less expensive to setup: More expensive to operate

Repair Costs – Colorado experienceTwo-speed idle test: US$86/vehicleI/M 240: US$186/vehicle

Travel to/from Inspection Station andQueuing at Station – travel time,vehicle operating cost,waiting time.

Benefits of I/M Programs

• Emissions Reduction: CO-20 to 30%HC- 7 to 10%NOx - negligible (Idle test) - 5-9% (Dynamic test)

• Fuel Economy : 0 to 7%• Reduced Tampering and Misfueling:

HC: 10-fold increase; CO: 20-fold increase.I/M: can reduce tampering and misfueling by 50%

Note: “Emissions reductions attributable to US I/M programs are fromzero to about one half of the predicted reductions.”- US NationalAcademy of Sciences, 2001

Cost Effectiveness of I/M Programs

• United StatesReduction of HC emissions:

Enhanced I/M: $2700/tonDecentralized I/M: $18,000/ton

• Canada (British Columbia)Reduction of PM-10 emissions:

Road Side Smoke Patrol: $17,000/tonCentralized (dynamometer): $64,000/ton

• MexicoToxicity-Weighted Emission Reductions:

Centralized (high-use veh.): $839/tonCentralized (passenger cars): $1720/tonDecentralized (passenger cars): $2056/ton

Key Objectives and Choices in I&M

Choices• Type: Centralized, Decentralized, Hybrid• Ownership: Government vs. Private Sector• Vehicles Targeted: Commercial, Personal; Gross Polluters; Age;

Specific vehicles• Pollutants Targeted: CO, HC, Opacity, NOx, PM• Test Procedure: Idle, Dynamometer, Visual• Monitoring & Reporting: Manual vs. Automated

ObjectivesØ I/M programs should focus primarily on identification, diagnosis,

and repair of the highest emitting vehicles along with verificationof those repairs.

Ø I/M programs should clearly state which pollutants they areseeking to reduce.

In-Use Vehicle Emission ManagementPolicies

Target Implementation1. Maintenance (tune-up, etc.) Subsidy, Clinics

Emission testing + fines

2. Retrofit (CNG, EMV, LPG) Infrastructure Emission testing + fines

3. Higher and Earlier Scrappage Per unit subsidy Age limits

Trade-in subsidyEmission testing + fines

4. Engine replacement Trade-in subsidyEmission testing + fines

Conclusions and Recommendations• Special care required in designing I/M programs in developing countries:

what pollutants to reduce? which vehicles to control?• Possibilities of massive evasion or fraudulent practices exist with I/M

programs, especially the decentralized programs• I/M testing in centralized high-volume test only facilities with primary

focus on gross emitters, backed by effective enforcement (e.g. roadsidechecks).

• Automated reading of emission measurements and computerization ofpass/fail decisions to minimize fraud

• Linkage of vehicle registration with emissions testing to avoid potential forcounterfeiting of vehicle inspection certificates

• Increased role of remote sensing in identifying gross emitters, assessingmotor vehicle emission characteristics, and I/M program effectiveness

• Testing frequency based on use of fleet emissions profiles• Greater reliance on extended warranties and new vehicle compliance

programs to encourage production of vehicles with more robust emissioncontrol systems

• Greater emphasis on public outreach and education to support I/M programs• Inspection facilities operated by small number of private contractors• Government role limited to supervision and oversight of I/M process