1

ATHIRDSPRING:G.K.Chesterton

andtheConvertCardinalsACollectionofPaperspresentedataconferenceoftheAustralian

ChestertonSocietyon31October2015atCampionCollegeAustralia,Sydney

2

CONTENTSIntroduction 3

G.K.Chesterton-TheDilemmaoftheHumanPerson4PaulMorrisseyTheForgingofaSocialTradition–Manning12andChestertonGarrickSmall NewmanandTheCatholicUniversityofIreland27StephenMcInerneyEdmundCampionandJohnHenryNewman:36ThePeterandPaulofCatholicHigherEducationKarlSchmudeTheAustralianChestertonSociety 61

3

INTRODUCTIONKarlSchmude

TheAustralianChestertonSocietywasfoundednearly25yearsago,havingbeenestablishedinWesternAustraliabyTonyEvansbeforebecominganationalassociationintheyear2000.TheSocietyhasheldconferencesovertheyearsinvariouscentres,butsince2007atCampionCollege,wherethereisanaturalaffinitywithChesterton.Heis,insomanyways,anexemplaroftheliberalartstaughtattheCollege–thatis,apersonofbroadintellectualinterestsandlearning,whohassynthesisedknowledgeandunderstandingacrossmanysubjects,andpursuesandpromotestruthinthelightofbothreasonandfaith–humanreasonanddivinefaith.Chestertonwasamodeloftheintegratedman.ThisconferenceoftheSocietyfocusesonthreemen–Chesterton,ManningandNewman:two‘convertCardinals’and,wemightsay,a‘convertlayman’.Atasurfacelevel,theyareastrikingcontrast–thegenial(andgenerouslyproportioned)journalistChesterton,thereservedscholarNewman,andthegauntasceticManning.ThetwoCardinals,NewmanandManning,madedistinctivecontributionstothetreasuryofChristianthoughtandwitnessinthe19thcentury–Newmanintheintellectualsphere,revealingagreatloveoftruth,andregisteringadeepandenduringimpacteducationally,especiallyinuniversities;andManninginthesocialsphere,helpingtoshapeandinspirethedevelopmentofCatholicsocialthoughtatacriticalmomentinhistory,andwitnessinginhisownlifetoagreatloveofthepoor.Inthe20thcentury,Chesterton,inmanyways,broughtthesestrandsofthoughtandactiontogether.Heshowed,asapractisingjournalist,anardentloveoftruthandanintenseloveofthepoor.Hepractisedboththesevocations–anintellectualoneandasocialone,whetheritwasdefendingChristianbeliefinbookslikeOrthodoxyandTheEverlastingMan,orfightingforamorejustsocialorderinthepagesofhisjournal,G.K.’sWeekly.InapoetictributewrittenonChesterton’sdeath,MsgrRonaldKnoxexpressedthesedimensionsofChesterton’slifeandthoughtbyinvokingtwogreatsaints(StThomasAquinasandStFrancisofAssisi)toaskGodtoaccepthimintoParadise:

Takehim,saidThomas,forheservedthetruth;Takehim,saidFrancis,forhelovedthepoor.

Atthisconference,wewill,inadditiontoexploringthedistinctivecontributionsofthesethreefigures(Chesterton,NewmanandManning),beseekingtolinkthem–connectingthetraditionstheyarticulatedanddeepenedandre-enlivened;thetraditionsofthoughtandtestimonythathaveformedsomuchofthemindandheartofourculture.Inthisway,wemayhopetorecognizethesinsofa‘ThirdSpring’,buildingonthe‘SecondSpring’whichNewmanannouncedinafamoussermoninEnglandmorethanacenturyandahalfago.

4

G.K.CHESTERTON’SPHILOSOPHYOFTHEHUMANPERSON

PaulMorrissey

Introduction

GilbertKeithChesterton(1874-1936)wasifnothingelseamanofmanytalents.Aprodigiouswriter,hecoveredeveryimaginablesubjectinavarietyofgenres.Hedescribedhimselfasprimarilyajournalist,buthewasalsoapoet,philosopher,fictionwriter,biographer,theologian,Christianapologist,literarycriticandwriterofdetectivestories.Hiswritingwasknownforitswit,goodhumourandtheuseofparadox.

ThroughouthislifeChestertontookonmanyintellectualandsocialtrends,includingmanyliteraryheavyweightssuchasBernardShawandH.G.Wells.MostofChesterton’swritinghadasitscentralaimadefenceoftheorthodoxChristianworldviewthathewouldeventuallyembrace.AthisfuneralMass,MonsignorKnoxsaidofChestertonthat‘hewillalmostcertainlyberememberedasaprophetinanageoffalseprophets.’1

ThispaperisreallyanexplorationofChesterton’sphilosophyofthehumanperson.Asheneverwroteaspecificstudyofthehumanperson,itisnoeasytasktofindanythingremotelysystematicregardingChesterton’sviewsonthissubject.However,throughouthisworkliesaprofounddepthofthoughtandwonderatthenatureofman.

Itishopedthatthispaperwillpresentsomethingcoherent,forinmanyrespectsChestertonwasananti-intellectual,preferringtoshockthereaderwithstrangeanalogiesandparadoxes.Hewasmoreanentertainerandstylistthananintellectual.However,thispaperhopestodemonstratethatitispossibletofindscatteredthroughoutChesterton’swritingathoroughandprofoundanswertothequestionofwhatisthehumanperson.

Chesterton’sworldview

AlthoughChestertondidnotentertheRomanCatholicChurchuntillaterinlife,hisworldvieworbasicphilosophywasconsistentlyCatholic.HeheldthattherealityofGodwasthefocalpointofhumanexistenceandhistoryandthattheIncarnationofJesusChrististherevelationofthisGodwhoispersonal,lovingandtriune.

AsanorthodoxChristian,ChestertonbelievedthatmanwascreatedinGod’simage–hisbody,soul,reason,imaginationandwillareallgiftsfromGodandeachindividualpersonisauniquereflectionofthedivinemajesty.However,thegoodnessofthehumanpersonisnotperfectandChestertonwasafiercedefenderofthedoctrineoforiginalsin.ItisthroughthelensofanorthodoxChristianfaiththatChestertonviewedtheworldandupheldthedignityofthehumanperson.Hewasparticularlyinterestedindefendingthe

1QuotedinPearce,Joseph,WisdomandInnocence–ALifeofG.K.Chesterton,SanFrancisco:Ignatius,1996,viii

5

‘commonman’2andhisinstitutions:hisChurch,hishome,hisfamilyand-veryimportantly!-evenhispub.

InmovingtowardstheCatholicfaithChestertoncametoadmiretwooftheChurch’sgreatestsaints,FrancisandThomasAquinas.InFrancishesawatrulyhumanreflectionofGod’slove;amanwhowalkedtheworldlikethepardonofGodshowingthatmencouldbereconciledtoGod,tonatureandtothemselves.3InSt.Thomas,Chestertonfoundathoroughlyintellectualandplausibleaccountofwhathehadalwaysintuitivelybelieved:thateverythingthatexistsmatters;thereisawonderinallthings.

AsRonaldKnoxnoted:

‘ItwasafavouriteprincipleofChestertonthatitispossibletoseeathingagainandagainuntilithasbecomeutterlystaledtoyoubyfamiliarity,andthensuddenlytoseeitforthefirsttime…itwaspossibletohaveavisionofthetruthinthesameway–toseeathingasitreallyisforthefirsttime,becauseallyourninehundredandninety-ninepreviousglimpsesofithasgivenyouamerelyconventionalpictureofit,andmisseditsessentialtruth.4

ForChestertonitwasimportanttohavetheinnocenceofachildtoappreciatethewonderandtruthofthings.Hisworldviewwasinmanywaysthatofachild.Hestates,‘Whatwaswonderfulaboutchildhoodisthatanythinginitwasawonder,itwasnotmerelyaworldfullofmiracles;itwasamiraculousworldlikeahundredwindowsopenedonallsidesofthehead.5Chestertonshowedagreatmistrustofanyonewhotriedtorationalizeeverything,leavingnothingtotheimaginationorthemystical.Tobewise,accordingtoChesterton,onehastobeinnocent.6

Chesterton’sphilosophyofthehumanperson

Chesterton’sapproachtothehumanpersonwasdeeplyaffectedbyhisnaturalaffectionandloveforpeople.Heoncewrotewhimsicallythathewouldliketomeetallpeople.

MrGilbertChestertonRequeststhepleasureOfHumanity’scompanyToteaonDec.25th1896.Humanityesq.,TheEarth,CosmosE.7

ForChestertonanyrealphilosophyofthehumanpersonmustbeginwiththeuniquenessoftheperson;likeallthingsthereisawondertopeople.Hewrote:

‘Thestartlingwetnessofwaterexcitesandintoxicatesme:thefierinessoffire,thesteelinessofsteel,theunutterablemuddinessofmud.Itisjustthesamewithpeople…Whenwecallaman‘manly’orawoman‘womanly’wetouchthedeepest

2‘CommonMan’isthemanofcommonsenseandtradition.SeeChesterton,G.K.TheCommonMan,NewYork:SheedandWard,1950.3Chesterton,G.K.,StFrancisofAssisi.London:HodderandStoughton,1996,1544Knox,Ronald,quotedinPearce,WisdomandInnocence,viii5ChestertonquotedinPeters,ThomasC.,TheChristianImagination-G.K.ChestertonontheArts.SanFrancisco:Ignatius,2000,36.6ThisisthecentralargumentofPearce’sbiography,WisdomandInnocence.7QuotedinFagerberg,DavidW.‘TheEssentialChesterton’,FirstThings,101,March2000,24.

6

philosophy.’8

InhisbookTheEverlastingManChestertonargues,contratheevolutionistsandmaterialists,thatthehumanpersondiffersinkindandnotindegreefromanimals.TheevolutionistsofChesterton’stime–andmanytothisday–sawthehumanpersonasananimalwithsomecultureaddedon.Hearguedstronglyagainsttheideathatart,language,literature,familyetc.weresimplyanevolutionaryadvancefromprimitivemanwhowasevolvedfromtheapes.WhenmansingspraisetoGodheisnotmakinganinstinctiveanimalnoise.Chestertonwasnotsomuchinterestedinevolutionasscience,ratherhewasperturbedwhenthephilosopherorthepsychologisttakesthetheoryandconcludesthatthehumanpersonisultimatelynodifferentfromtheapefromwhichhehasevolved.ForChesterton,‘themorewereallylookatmanasananimal,thelesshewilllooklikeone.9

InTheEverlastingManChestertontakesparticularissuewithH.G.WellsandhisOutlineofHistory,whichconcludesthatthecavemanwasthefirstofmanyevolutionarystagesforthehumanpersonthatwillbeultimatelyrealizedwithatypeofutopiansocietywhenmanhasreachedevolutionaryperfection.Chestertonsetsouttodebunkthemythofthe‘caveman.’Usingtheonlyevidenceofprimitivesocietyknownatthetime–thesimpledrawingsofanimalsfoundincaves–Chestertondemonstratesthatprimitivemanwastrulyman;hewasnothalfperson,halfape.Hewrites:‘Themostprimitivemancoulddrawapictureofamonkey,itwouldbeajoketothinkthatthemostintelligentmonkeycoulddrawapictureofaman.’10Furthermore,‘Monkeysdidnotbeginpicturesandmenfinishthem…thehorsewasnotanImpressionistandtherace-horseaPostImpressionist.’11Indeed,forChesterton,‘Artisthesignatureofman.’12

Unlikesomecontemporaryphilosophers,Chestertonwouldhavenoproblemwithbeinglabeledaspecieist:‘Manisatoncetheexceptiontoeverythingandthemirrorandthemeasureofallthings.’13Thatis,thehumanpersonisdifferentandsuperiortoallotherlivingthings;heis,infact,astrangeronearth.14Hediffersinkindtoanimalsinamyriadways:heclotheshimself,hecannottrusthisinstincts,heisbothacreatorandacripple,hehasamindthatdoubts,dreamsandknowsthingsand,importantlyforChesterton,‘Aloneamongtheanimals,heisshakenwiththebeautifulmadnesscalledlaughter;asifhehadcaughtsightofsomesecretintheshapeoftheuniversehiddenfromtheuniverseitself.’15

Chesterton’sfierceupholdingoftheuniquenessofthehumanpersonextendedtohisdefenceoffreewill.Contrathedeterministsofhisday,Chestertonsawfreewillasagiven.InhisAutobiography,Chesterton,withhischaracteristicwit,stated:‘IregretthatIcannotdomydutyasatruemodern,bycursingeverybodywhomademewhateverIam.Iamnotclearaboutwhatthisis;butIamprettysurethatmostofitismyownfault.’16ForChesterton,determinism,whetherofthematerialistorpuritanvariety,isdehumanizing.Oneofthehumanperson’smostnoblecharacteristicsishisabilityto 8LetterofChestertontohiswifeFrancis,quotedinFagerberg,EssentialChesterton,24.9ChestertonG.K.TheEverlastingMan.SanFrancisco:Ignatius,1993,36.10ibid.3411ibid.3512ibid.13ibid.3614ibid.15ibid.16Chesterton,G.K.Autobiography,London:Hutchison,1936,3

7

choosebetweengoodandevil;toovercomeadversityandconquerobstacles.

Chestertonsawthetruthoffreewillasamatterofcommonsense;anynotionofmoralityorethicshingesonit.‘Theonewhorepresentsallthoughtasanaccidentofenvironmentissimplysmashinganddiscreditingallhisownthoughts–includingthatone.’17Furthermore,farfromfreeingthehumanpersonfromreligiousdogmas,thedeterministsindestroyingfreewillenslavemanintheprisonofhisenvironment.

Youmaysay,ifyoulike,thatthebolddeterministspeculatorisfreetodisbelieveintherealityofthewill.Butitisamuchmoremassiveandimportantfactthatheisnotfreetoraise,tocurse,tothank,tojustify,tourge,topunish,toresisttemptations,toincitemobs,tomakeNewYearresolutions,topardonsinners,torebuketyrants,oreventosay‘thankyou’forpassingthemustard.18

ThroughouthislifeChestertonbattledagainstthevarieddeterministsofhistime.Heknewthatanydenialoffreewillwouldhavedireconsequences.Whenhumanactionsareseentobepre-determined,eitherbyone’senvironment(thebehaviourists)orbyone’sphysicalmatter(scientificdeterminists)orbyone’sGod(thepre-determinists),individualresponsibilityformyactionsisabsolvedandthenotionthatIcanchangetheworldthroughmywillisdestroyed.Thedignityofthehumanpersonisthusdiminished.

Chesterton’sphilosophyofthehumanpersonisneatlysummarizedinhisessay,‘PhilosophyfortheSchoolroom’.Hearguesthatallargumentsbeginwithaninfallibledogma;somethingthatmustnotbedoubtedbeforeanargumentisbuilt.Hesawthescepticsofhisdayasquitemadfortheybegananydebatebysayingwhattheydidnotbelieve.Chestertonheldthatallmenbelievefirmlyinfourthingswhichare‘unprovedandunprovable.’

First,everysanemanbelievesintherealityoftheworld;thathislifeisnotadream.Secondly,theybelievethatthisworldmatters;thatthereissomethingintrinsicallywrongwhensomeonesays:‘Ididnotaskforthisfarceanditboresme.Iamawarethatanoldladyisbeingmurdereddownstairs,butIamgoingtosleep.’Thirdly,thatthereexistssuchathingasself,an‘I’oranegowhichiscontinuous.Finally,theybelieve,andinpracticeassume,thattheycanchooseandareresponsiblefortheiractions.19

Chestertonbelievedthatthesefour‘certainties’–quiteapartfromanyreligiousbeliefordoctrine–areessentialinupholdingtheinherentdignityofthehumanperson.Thehumanpersonexistsobjectively,heexistssubjectively,heisamoralbeingabletochoosegoodorevilandheisfree.ThisforChestertonisthecommonsenseapproachtoanyanalysisofthehumanperson.

Thedilemmaofthehumanperson

ForChestertonthemetaphorthatmostaptlydescribesthehumanperson’sdilemmaisthatmanishomesickwhilebeingathome;weknowthereismore,somethinggreater,somethingbeyond,andarethereforeforeverrestless.HewritesinOrthodoxy:‘Themain

17Chesterton,quotedinMarlin,GeorgeJ.andRabatin,RichardP.‘G.K.ChestertonVersusBehaviouralPsychology’,TheChestertonReview,VolXIII,No.3,August1987,346.18Chesterton,Orthodoxy,22819Chesterton,G.K.‘PhilosophyfortheSchoolroom’,DailyNews,June22,1907,fromwww.chesterton.org

8

problemforthephilosopheristobeatthesametimebothamazedbytheworldandathomeinit.’20

Ourseparatenessform‘home’isforChestertonanotherwayoftalkingaboutoriginalsin.Inanswertothequestion:whatisthefallofman,Chestertonanswers:‘ThatwhateverIam,Iamnotmyself.’21HecallsthistheprimeparadoxofChristianity,that‘somethingthatwehaveneverinanyfullsenseknown,isnotonlybetterthanourselves,butisevenmorenaturaltousthanourselves.’22

Theproblemthenformanisthathestridestwoworlds,thespiritualandthematerial,heissoulandbody;ifthebalanceisnotrightbetweenthetwo,catastrophewillfollow.

‘ThisiswhatIcallbeingbornupsidedown.Thescepticmaytrulysaidtobetopsy-turvy,forhisfeetaredancingupwardsinidleecstasies,whilehisbrainisintheabyss.Tothemodernmantheheavensareactuallybelowtheearth.Theexplanationissimple:heisstandingonhishead.’23

Oneoftheperilsofthehumanconditionisthatthehumanintellectisfreetodestroyitself.Whenphilosophers,scientistsandpsychologistsproclaimthattheminddoesnotexist–acurrentofthoughtthathasbecomemoreandmoreprevalentsinceChesterton–they,infact,teachthatthereisnovaliditytohumanthought.Chestertonusestheanalogyofthepowerofonegenerationbeingabletopreventtheexistenceofthenextgenerationbyallenteringamonasteryorcommittingsuicide;hisgenerationwastryingtostopthenextfromthinking.This,hewrites,‘istheonlythoughtthatshouldbestopped.’24

Thus,anotherdilemmaofthehumanpersonforChestertonisthetemptationtobetrappedinourdesiretothinkourwayoutofeverything;toexplaintheworldaway.Thus,hisfamousstatement:‘themadmanisnotthemanwhohaslosthisreason.Themadmanisthemanwhohaslosteverythingexcepthisreason.’25Thisisindeedatrap,whichwilllead,asChestertonwasfondofputtingit,tothepaddedcellortheasylum.Wemustbewillingtostraddlethematerial,scientificworldaswellasthemysticalandimaginativeworld.Afailuretodosowillresultintheprisonofthematerialistsortheasylumofthegnostics.

Chesterton’sanswertothedilemmaofthehumanperson

Putsimply,theanswerthatChestertongivestowhathecalledtheriddleofmanwastheGod-Man.ItisintheIncarnationwherewefindthetwoworlds,thedivineandthehuman,perfectlyunited.Thehumanpersonislostanddisorientatedbetweenthesetwoworlds,itisJesusChristwhobridgesthem.ThecentralargumentofTheEverlastingManisthattheyearnings,themythologiesandtheartofthe‘caveman’arefulfilledintheGodwhohumbledHimselftobeborninacave.26

20Chesterton,Orthodoxy,212.21ibid.363.22ibid.23ibid.365.24ibid.236.25ibid.26Chesterton,EverlastingMan,PartII,ChapterI.

9

ThuswhenChestertondescribesthehumanconditionasfeelinghomesickathome,heproposesthatitisJesusChristwhopointsustoourtruehome,whichisinHim:Ashewrites:‘Jesusismorehumanthanhumanity.’27InOrthodoxy,Chestertondescribeshispre-Christianattitudestotheworldandthehumanperson,attitudesthatreflecttheChristianfaiththathewouldlaterembrace.Hesawtheseattitudesasanantidotetotheproblemsofhiscontemporaryworld.First,theworlddoesnotexplainitself–neitherthemagiciannorthescientistcansatisfactorilydefineeverythingabouttheworld.Second,thisworldmusthaveameaningandapurposeforitisaworkofart;thispurposeispersonal.Third,theworldisbeautiful,butnotperfect.Yes,theworldisgood,butitisdangeroustodenyitsdefects.Fourth,thefactthattheworldisgoodmeansweneedtothanktheGodwhomadeitthatway.Finally,Chesterton’sattitudewas‘thatinsomewayallgoodwasaremnanttobestoredandheldsacred…ManhadsavedhisgoodasCrusoesavedhisgoods:hehadsavedthemfromawreck.’28Here,likeKantandNewman,ChestertonissayingthatwecanarriveatknowledgeofGodfromanintuition,fromourconscience.HebelievedinGodbecausehethoughttheremustbesomeonetowhomhecouldgivethanks.29ForChestertonmysticismisimportantbecauseitkeepsmensane.Theordinarymanissanebecauseheisamysticwith‘onefootinearthandtheotherinfairyland.’30Heisfreetodoubt,butalsofreetobelieve;hecanbelieveinfateaswellasfreewill.Thehealthypersonisthepersonwhocanbalancecontradictions.31OnecanthereforeseewhyChestertonwouldfindthetruthofallthingsintheCatholicreligion–thereligionof‘ands’ratherthan‘either/ors’:faithandreason,natureandgrace,scriptureandtradition,humananddivine,threeandone;spiritandletter;bodyandsoul.Inbeingamysticthehumanpersonneedstotranscendhimself.Chestertoncomparesthedifferenceofanover-emphasisontheimmanenceofGodandaproperunderstandingofGod’stranscendence.ThefirstheseesascharacteristicofBuddhism,aspiritualityofintrospectionandisolation.ThelatterheassociateswithChristendom,aspiritualityofwonder,curiosityandmoralandpoliticaladventure.Hewrites:‘InsistingthatGodisinsideman,manisalwaysinsidehimself.ByinsistingthatGodtranscendsman,manhastranscendedhimself.’32Thisisessentialforthetruenatureofthehumanpersontoberealized.Chestertonalsosawthevirtueofhopeasessentialinaworldcharacterizedbythetwoextremesofoptimismandpessimism.Hewroteamusingly,‘thattheoptimistthoughteverythinggoodexceptthepessimist,andthepessimistthoughteverythingbad,excepthimself.’33Heexplainsthatboththeoptimistandthepessimistseetheuniverseasthoughtheywerelookingatpurchasinganewhome,whereasthemoreacceptableattitudeissomethingakintopatriotism.‘Thepointisnotthatthisworldistoosadtoloveortoogladnottolove;thepointisthatwhenyoudoloveathing,itsgladnessisareason

27ibid.18528Chesterton,Orthodoxy,268.29Hollis,Christopher,TheMindofChesterton,London:HollisandCarter,1970,71.30Orthodoxy,230.31ibid.32ibid.33733ibid.269

10

forlovingit,anditssadnessareasonforlovingitmore.’34ForChestertonitistheCatholicunderstandingofaworldcreatedbyGod,aworldthatisgoodbutfarfromperfect,thatanswerstheproblemposedbytheoptimistandthepessimist.Wearecalledtobecreaturesofhope.Aboveandbeyondallthis,Chestertonproclaimedthecrucialneedforjoy.Thisjoyisnotjustsupernatural–althoughthesourceofalljoyisGod–butveryhuman.Itisexpressedinlaughter,song,playandnonsense.Hiscritiquewasnotjustofadrab,pessimisticandoverlyintellectualizedworld,butalsoofanoverlypiousandseriousreligion.Ashewrote:‘Idonotlikeseriousness.Ithinkitisirreligious.Themanwhotakeseverythingseriouslyisthemanwhomakesanidolofeverything.’35ForChesterton,thegreatsecretoftheChristianisjoy;thejoythatcomesfromGod.InwritingaboutChrist,ChestertonpointsouthowHispathoswasnatural,thatHistearsflowedandHisangerwasopenfortheworldtoseeandyet‘therewasonethingthatwastoogreatforGodtoshowuswhenHewalkeduponourearth;andIsometimesfancieditwasHismirth.’36Thehumanpersonlongstobehappy,andtobehappyweneedtobegrateful.AsDavidW.Fagerberghascommented,

Untilwearegrateful,wewillnotfindtheworldmiraculous;untilwefindtheworldmiraculous,wewillnotfinditimportant;untilwefinditimportant,wewillnotbehappyhere.ThedifferencebetweenourselvesandChestertonisthatwedon’tthinkourworldisimportantbecauseitseemsordinary,whilehethinkshisworldisimportantbecauseheisordinary.‘Iamordinaryinthecorrectsenseoftheterm;whichmeanstheacceptanceofanorder;aCreatorandtheCreation,thecommonsenseofgratitudeforCreation,lifeandlove.’37

AnevaluationofChesterton’sthoughtInevaluationChesterton’sphilosophyonemustbemindfulthatChestertonwasnotanintellectualinthenarrowsenseofthisterm.Hisnon-fictionworkisnotscholarly:footnotesarerare,quotationsareoftenmistakenandnevercited,andhepreferredabroadgeneralizationtofactsandstatistics.Forthishehasbeencriticized.However,thisis,onecouldargue,oneofthegreatcharmsofChesterton;hisanti-intellectualapproachendearshimtothecommonmanwhomhehadsuchaffectionfor.Thedangerofthemodernworld,asChristopherHollispointedout,isthatwearesocaughtupinprogress,inarguingaboutirrelevantorsecondarypoints,thatwecanmissthegreattruths.ThisisthevalueofChesterton’swork,wherethegreattruthofthehumanperson,hisdignityandintrinsicvalue,illuminatesnearlyeverypagethathewrote.38Chesterton’sviewofthehumanpersonistheorthodoxCatholicposition:maniscreatedintheimageandlikenessofGod,heissubjecttooriginalsinandhehasbeenredeemedbyChrist.ThelessonofChesterton’sthoughtisthatthistruthaboutwhoweareissomethingthatwemustbegratefulforandexpresswithjoy. 34ibid.27035ChestertonquotedinPeters,ChristianImagination,12436Orthodoxy,365,36637Fagerberg,‘EssentialChesterton’,2638Hollis,MindofChesterton,275

11

Aspreviouslynoted,Chestertonsawseriousness,evenreligiousseriousness,asakintoheresy.AreligiouspersonneedstheimaginationofthechildifheistoappreciatethewonderoftheCreator,ofcreationand,indeed,thewonderofhimself.‘Thechildhasnoneedofnonsense:tohimthewholeuniverseisnonsensicalinthenoblestsenseofthatnobleworld…(thechild)hasappreciatedthisworldataglance,andfirstglancesarebest.’39IftheChristianmessageistrue,thensurelyitissomethingtobehappyabout.Theologyandphilosophyaresciences,butforChestertonitisadangertolimitthemtoreason.AChristianneedsanimagination,otherwisehewillnotseethingsastheyreallyare.TotrulyreflecthisCreator,healsoneedsasenseofhumour.AsThomasC.Peterswrites:

Chesterton’stheologyisanassertionthattheCreatorexistsindeed;thatthissameCreatoroftheearthandthestarsistheCreatorofthebaconontherafterandthewineinthewood;andtheGodthatmadegoodlaughterhaspronouncedthemgood.WearecreatedintheveryimageoftheGodwhocreatedlaughter,joy,play,nonsense,andimagination.40

Christianitytakesthehumanpersonseriously,butbecauseittakeshimseriouslyitacknowledgeshowwondrousheis.PerhapsthatisChesterton’smostenduringmessageforustoday.ToasocietythatoftenstereotypestheChristianastakinghimselftooseriously,ofbeingmoralisticandakilljoy,thethoughtandlifeofChestertoncanactasadecisiverejoinder.TheCreatorwantsustoenjoy,inmoderation,Hiscreation,toplayinHisfieldsandgloryinthewonderofthings.ForG.K.ChestertonitisonlyinChristianorthodoxythatafullaccountofthehumanpersonisfound.ItistheChristianfaiththatacknowledgesthedignityofmanasimagoDei,reflectingGod’slove,goodness,truth,beauty,playfulnessandhumour.ThisGodhascalledustoahappinessandjoybeyondalltelling.TorespondtothiscallwemustfollowthewordsofJesus,wordsthatChestertonwasfondofquoting,‘TrulyIsaytoyou,whoeverdoesnotreceivethekingdomofGodlikeachildshallnotenteritatall.’(Luke18:17)_______________________________DrPaulMorrisseyisPresidentofCampionCollegeAustralia.HewaspreviouslyaSeniorLecturerinTheologyandAssociateDean(Acting)intheSchoolofPhilosophyandTheologyattheUniversityofNotreDameAustraliainSydney.DrMorrisseygainedaDoctorateinSacredTheologyattheSydneyCollegeofDivinity/CatholicInstituteofSydney,andhasaLicentiateinSacredTheologyfromtheLateranUniversityinRome.Hehaspublishedinvariousjournals,includingLogos,NewBlackfriars,andNovaetVetera,onsubjectsrelatedtohisresearchinterestsin20thcenturytheologyandtheinterplaybetweenfaith,historyandculture.

39ChestertonquotedinPeters,Imagination,41.40Peters,Imagination,127

12

THEFORGINGOFASOCIALTRADITION–MANNINGANDCHESTERTON

GarrickSmall

GilbertKeithChestertonandHenryEdwardManningaretwofiguresthatdisappearedfromviewinthelatetwentiethcentury.Theywerebothbrilliantpublicfigureswhoexcelledinmultipleareasofimportanthumanaction.Theywereoutspoken,irrefutable,worldchangingleaders,buttodaytheyarelargelyignored.Theirintellectualsources,theirfortitudeandtheirdynamismcamefromtheonetruesource,whichisTruthHimself,butthisisalsoareasontheyareignoredtoday.Theirlivescouldbedescribedasdevotedtoknowing,lovingandservingGodinthislife.TheyunderstoodthattherecouldonlybeonetrueGod,thatGodcouldproduceonlyonetrueChurchandthatherteachingalonecouldsolvethemanyproblemsoffallenhumansociety.TheysoughtandfoundthatonetrueChurchundergreatdifficultyandatnosmallpersonalcost.TheirlivesweredevotedtoexplainingandrealisingHervisionforhumanity.ForCardinalManningthatmeantapubliclifeofaction;forChestertonitwasalifeofvastandvariedliterarywork.Manning’sworkearnedhimcritics,evenwithintheChurch,despitetheevidenceofhisalignmentwiththeGospel.Chesterton’sliterarygiftwastobeabletotreatweightytopicswithlevity,makinghisownphysicalbulklooksomehowelfin,anddisarminghisstaunchestenemieswiththejoyofthetruthandawayofpresentingitthatalwaysshowedrespectandhumility.AnencounterwithChestertonalwaysleavesyoujollierattheendthanatthestart,evenwhenhedealswiththemostsoberingoftopics.TheeclipseofChestertonisperhapsmorepeculiarthatthatofManning.ItiseasierfortheyoungtooverlookDisraeliorBismarkorPopePiusIXthanSantaClausorSaintFrancisortheBrothersGrimm.YetChesterton’sdetectivefictionismoresatisfyingthanSherlockHolmes,hisnovelsmoreengagingthanMaryShelley,hisapologeticsmoreinsightfulandprescientthatalmostanythinginthelastfiftyyearsandhissocialthoughtmorereasonablethanAdamSmithorKarlMarx.StudentsdonotreadChesterton’sfiction,orhispoetry,inliterature,hisdefencesoftheChurchandHerwaysinapologeticsortheology,orhissocialthoughtineconomics.ThisismosttellingininstitutionsthatclaimtobetruetotheCatholicintellectualtradition,eventhoughmuchofhiswritingismuchbroaderandmoregenuinelyliberalthananythingnarrowlysectarian.IntellectualintegrityPerhapsChestertonisavictimofhisintellectualintegrityinanagethatnolongerbelievesinintellectualintegrity.Morethanthat,hecomplainedaboutthefading

13

interestinintellectualintegrityhalfacenturybeforerelativismcametodominatetheWest,ortheuniversalscepticismofpost-modernity.InthesocialspherehehadoutgrownsocialismwellbeforeitmanifestedasthecommunistrevolutioninRussia.Thisdoesnotmeanheembracedcapitalism,butratherrecognisedthembothasthetwinfacesofthesamerootevil.Inthiscomesanotherreasonforhisdiscreteeliminationfromthemodernmindofourpost-modernculture.Inthisheisjoinedbyseveralotherfiguresfromthefiftyyearseithersideoftheyear1900.OneofthemostimpressiveofthosewastheCatholicarchbishopofWestminster,CardinalManning.HenryEdwardManningwasbornintoanAnglicanToryfamilyin1808(Kent,1910)1.Hisfather,WilliamManningwasmemberofparliamentandagovernoroftheBankofEngland.By1850hehadrisenintheChurchofEnglandtothepostofArchdeaconofChichester,withareputationasagreatpreacherandoneoftheleadersofthehighAnglicans.Hetookhisfaithseriously.Asarchdeaconhewasactiveinpersonallyvisitingtheparishesandthereisevidencethatthiswasbothanexpressionandastimulusofhiscarefortheordinaryman.AsahighchurchAnglicanhisformalassociationssuggestedanalignmentwithpowerandwealth,buthisfriendsincludedSamuelWilberforce,thesonofWilliamWilberforce,thecampaigneragainstslavetradeandslavery.Manningwasamanwholivedbyhisbeliefsandappearstohavebeenoneofthoserarepeoplewhounderstandthatthemostauthenticbeliefsarethosethatarefound,ratherthanthoseshapedbyone’sownneeds.TheleaderasFatherAsayoungAnglicanpriestManningcommittedhimselftohispeople.Manywerepoor.Hespenttimewiththemandlearnedtheirpovertyandtheirdignity.UnlikethegeneralthrustoftheEnglishculturethroughtheAnglicanera,Manningmaintainedanalmostmedievalrelationshipbetweenhispeopleandtheirpastor.TheMachiavellianrevolutionthatreframedtheprinceastheself-interestedtyranthadoverturnedtheideaoftheleaderasfather,orpatriarch.Themodernera,whichhasMachiavelliasitsfather,hasmadefathersintotyrantsandreformedtheChristiancommunityintoanassociationofself-interestedindividuals.ChristianityhasalwaysopposedthiscorruptionofhumansocialorderbyrecognisingthathumansocialorderismadeintheimageandlikenessofthedivinesocialorderoftheMostHolyTrinity.St.Bonaventure’sunderstandingofthemechanicsofthecommunityoflovethatistheTrinity,extendedtoitsimage,imprintedonthehumansoul(Bonaventure,1979).InthatdivinearchetypetheFathercreatorhasallpowerandauthority,but,inaninfiniteeternalactoflove,devotesallHispowerandauthoritytothegoodoftheSon.InsodoingtheFatheristheeternalservant,whoremainstheeternalomnipotentGod,tobefearedbyallcreation,whilestillbeingcalled‘abba’.TheFranciscantraditiontakesthisfurthertorecognisethat,bygivingall,theFatherholdsnothingtoHimself,andistherebyinfinitelypoor.

1BiographicaldetailsofCardinalManningaretakenpredominantlyfromKent(1922)

14

ItisnosurprisethatChestertondiscoveredthatthekeytounderstandingGodwastoembraceparadox.Hewasnotthefirst.St.Bonaventure’stheologyrippleswithparadox,butsotoodoestheGospel.EwertCousins(1978)capturedthisideainthetitleofhiswork:“BonaventureandtheCoincidenceofOpposites”.IntheFranciscantraditionthisinfinitepovertyofGodtheFatheralsobecomesthearchetypefortheSeraphicOrder.JosephRatzinger(1971)notedwithapprovalthetraditionthatacknowledgesthattheFranciscantraditionwillprovidethespiritualityofthetrueChurchattheendofhistory.InthisisacknowledgedthefactalludedtoinRevelations19thatavaricewillbethesinattheendofhistory.Modernityprefersthethinrationalityofelementaryempiricism.Powermaybeobserved,butlovemustbeinferred.Loveisanimmaterialrealitythatcannotbedirectlyobserveddespitebeingthemainspringbehindallcreation.Thepatriarch’sexerciseofpowerisevidentasafact.Hisloveisnot,andhenceescapesthemodernunderstanding.PowerandauthorityTheChristianorderingofpower,underlove,intheserviceofGodistheexerciseofauthority.Whileauthoritysubjugatesthoseunderit,itsexerciseisfortheirgood,itisanactofloveandanimitationofGodtheFather.TheMachiavellianemphasisontheappearanceofgood,despitetherealityofviceintheserviceofself-interestrecognisespower,butisincapableofunderstandingauthority.Thisleavespowerasfundamentallyproblematictothemodernmind.Therearetwosolutionstotheproblemofpower,oncetheobligationsofauthority,arestrippedfromit.OneistosanctifyrawpowerassomehowtheshadowofauthorityandargueforitsrawexerciseassomehowthewillofGod.Theotheristoopposepowerinalltheconventionalplacesitisfoundbytherevolutionaryreformationofpowerinthehandsofthoseunderit.Thefirstcutspowerloosefromitsmoralbondsbyclaimingitisitsownmoralend.Thesecondseekstoneutralisepowerbypreventingitsconcentration,andinsodoingatomisessocietyintofactionalconflicts.Bothhaveanarchyastheirend.ThepoliticalRightandLeftrepresentthesetwinexpressionsofMachiavelliansocialorder.Bothofthesesolutionsrevolveaboutapreoccupationwithmanasanindividual.Botharemodern.Bothultimatelybelievemanisdrivenbyself-interestandbotharepoisonforcivilisation.InEnglandpowerwascutfromauthoritywhenHenryVIIIcutfromRome.Henry’schurchwasnomorethanHenry’schurch.ItwasnottheChristianChurch,despiteretainingsomeofitsaccoutrements.ItsdistinctivefeatureswerethosethatmarkeditapartfromtheChurchChristfounded.Thatis,Henry’schurchwasChristiantotheextentthatitretainedprinciplesfromtheChurchofChrist,butsomethingotherthanChristianinallthatmadeittheChurchofEngland.TheEnglishhaveneverbeentotallycomfortablebeingAnglicans.Ithassuitedsome,butnotothers,andmostseemtohavebeendisadvantagedbyit,eveniftheyhaveneverbeenawareofwhatithasdonetothem.Cobbett,despitebeingAnglican,paintedagraphicportraitofhowitsuitedCramner.TheAnglicanhierarchyseemsto

15

havehaditsshareofCramner’s,butithasalsobeenblessedwithitsFishers.TheestablishedchurchinEnglandhaslongbeenacomfortable,commercialaffairwithbeneficesandthesupportofthestate.CobbettalsopointedouthowitimpoverishedtoomanyEnglishmen(Cobbett,1830,1988).UnliketheChurchfoundedbyChristthatreliesonapostolicsuccessiontomaintainitsauthority,theChurchofEnglandreliesonthemonarchandtheEnglishPrivyCouncilfordirectioninitsfaithandmorals.OncriticalissuesitsfaithandmoralshavemoretodowiththeinterestsofthekingandthemembersofthePrivyCouncilthanthewillofGod.ItwasintothishierarchythatHenryManningwasbornandwithinitherosetoprominence.HisobjectivewasprimarilytheserviceofGod,whichhewasbroughtuptobelievewastheobjectoftheChurchofEngland.Therearecertainthingsthatcanbeknownaboutanauthenticreligionusingnomorethanthelightofreason.Theseincludethenecessaryexistenceofaunique,omnipotentandpersonalGod,theobjectivenatureoftruth,andtheunchangingnatureoftheessentialprinciplesoffaithandmorals.Fromthese,theauthenticityoftheGospelsmaybededucedandfromthatthenecessityforasingleChristianChurchasthevehicleofsalvationforallpeople.ManningwascontenttoacceptthattheChurchofEnglandwasabranchofthatsingleChristianChurchandthatitstraditionsandteachingscontainedthedirectionsonemustfollowinordertoachieveone’sfinalend,theBeatificVision.Theseincludedtheefficaciousnessofthesacraments,beginningwithbaptism.ThisisoneofthereasonsthatAnglicanministersretainthetitlepriest,unlikethenon-conformistProtestantreligionsthatuseanarrayoflessspecifictermstodenotetheirreligiousleaders.OneAnglicanpriestwhotestedthisdistinctionwasGeorgeCorneliusGorhamwhoseviewsonbaptismwereinManning’sopinion,morelikeanon-conformistministerthantheconstanttraditionoftheChurch.Manningwasnotalone,andtheAnglicanBishopHenryPhillpottswassufficientlyconcernedthathedeniedGorhamapostasAnglicanvicartoasmallvillageinDevon.Gorhamcontestedthematter,firstatanAnglicanecclesiasticalcourt,andthenonappealtothePrivyCouncilthateventuallyfoundinGorham’sfavourin1850.Manningconsideredthematterofbaptismfairlystraightforward,butthefactthatacivilcourtcouldruleonecclesiasticalmatterscausedhimtodoubtthelegitimacyoftheAnglicanreligion.Tomakehisloyaltytohischurchmoredifficult,ManningwasmovingincirclestouchedbyJohnHenryNewman’sOxfordMovementanddespitethelatter’ssuccessiontoRomein1845,ManninguphelditsearlieraimsofreturningtotheAnglicanreligionmanyofthetraditionsandpracticesthatithaddroppedthroughthesixteenthcentury.ThePrivyCouncil’sapparentauthorityovertheChurchofEngland,especiallywhenexercisedtoforceittoembraceahighlyproblematictheologicalidea,provedtoomuchforManning,andhefollowedNewman’sleadin1851toentertheCatholicChurch.LikeNewman,hewassoonordainedapriest,andin1865raisedtothepositionofArchbishopofWestminster.Tenyearslaterhewascreatedacardinal.

16

ManningasCatholicleaderHisachievementsinbothchurchesweresubstantial,thoughitwasasaCatholicleaderthatheexercisedmostinfluence.HehadalwayshadaninterestineducationandthiswascarriedintotheChurchtogreatlyexpandCatholiceducationinEngland.AsarchbishopofWestminsteritfelltoManningtobuildtheCatholicWestminsterCathedral,andasapublicfigurehewasinstrumentalinsettlingtheLondondockStrikeof1889.TheinnocentandtheweakwerethoseManningdevotedtheexerciseofhispowertoasthemostinfluentialCatholicinEngland.Hisconsiderablepersonalcapacitiesasaspeakerandleader,andhisbackgroundamongsttheinfluentialinEnglandcombinedtoaugmentthatpowerconsiderably.Hisexerciseofthatpowerwasasaservant,atruepatriarchexercisinghisfatherhoodintheimageofGodtheFatherandintheFranciscansenseofgenerativelove.Hisinterestinindustrialrelations,however,foundpermanentexpressioninanareathatdoesnotbearhisname,nororiginatefromhiscountry.AsaCatholicecclesiasticalleaderManningenjoyedgoodrelationswithPopePiusIX,andlaterhissocialviewswereveryinfluentialininformingPopeLeoXIIIinthewritingofRerumNovarum(1891)whichwasissuedtwoyearsaftertheLondonDockStrike.Thisencyclicalwaspivotalinmanyways.Itstandsasthelinkbetweenthelongtraditionofscholasticmoralthoughtoneconomicissuesandthepracticalneedsoftheindustrialworld.Italsoprovidesapivotpointbetweenthetwinmoderneconomicerrorsofliberalism2andsocialism.Itconnectedtheologytoeconomicsatatimewhentheworldwaschaffingtoassertthateconomicswasanindependentpositivescience.Italsoremindedtheworldthatitwasthefamilyandnottheself-interestedindividualthatwasthecentreoftheeconomicprocess,fromwhicheconomicproductionemanated,andtowhichitwasaimed.InallthisitrevealeditsGodlyoriginsinitsabilitytounitesomuchthatappearedinoppositionwithintheoverarchingframeworkoftheGospel.RerumNovarumwasatrulygreatencyclicalandHenryManningwasoneofitsprominentintellectualarchitects.Manningwasnotalone,TheGermanBishopWilhelmvonKettlerofMainzalsocontributedtoitconsiderably,andinsodoingaddedtheGermanperspectivetotheEnglish.Germanyhadcomelatetoindustrialisationandtheneweconomythataccompaniedit.ThestoryofGermany’seconomicachievementsthroughthenineteenthcenturytendtobeignoredthesedays,butitisalmostimpossibletounderstandtwentiethcenturyhistorywithoutit.EnglishcommerceandChristiansocialteachingItiswellknownthattheEnglishcommercialempiregrewfromtheElizabethanpiracychampionedbyDrakeandhisassociates.Henry’sbreakfromRomefesteredintotheAnglo-SpanishtensionsthatgavesomeinexplicablemoraljustificationtotheEnglishplunderingoftheSpanishgold-bearingshipsthatcrossedtheAtlanticfromtheNewWorld.IthasbeenestimatedthattheentiretrajectoryoftheEnglish

2Liberalismrefersto‘Britishliberalism’whichissynonymouswithcapitalism.

17

commercialempirecanbetracedwithreasonableprecisionagainstamodestrateofcompoundinterestappliedtothegoldthatEnglandstolefromSpainatthattime.Englishcommercedidnotonlythriveoncompoundinterest,eventhoughHenryVIIIwasthefirstkinginChristendomtopermitalicitrateofinterestonamoneyloan,andinsodoingoverturnedtheChristianrecognitionoftheimmoralityofusury(Goyder,1993).EnglishcommerceflourishedbyproducingthingsinlowwagecoloniesandsellingthemintohighwageEuropeanmarkets.Insodoingitgrewrichbyundercuttinglocalwagesinthedestinationcountriesandhenceimpoverishingmostoftheirpeople.NowherewasthismoreevidentthaninEnglanditself.ThrowingofftheyokeofCatholicisminthesixteenthcenturymeantthatEnglandcouldalsothrowofftheChristianmoralburdenofalivingwage.Experimentsinundercuttingwageshadbeenprogressingfrombeforethefifteenthcentury,especially,butnotexclusively,inEngland.Thisproto-capitalismwasalsothecorruptionoftheguildsandhasresultedinrenderinganunderstandingoftheguildsalmostimpossible,especiallyintheEnglishculture.Trueguildpracticeinvolvedrecognitionthatacraftassociationheldconsiderableeconomicpower.Poweralwaysinvolvesmoralobligation.TheChristianguildsunderstoodtheirmoralobligationtoavoidusingtheirpowerforself-interest,andinsteadfreelychoosetouseittodelivertheoptimumeconomicresulttothecommunity(Kurth,1987).Itmeantpayingfairpricesforresources,applyingbestpracticetotheircraft,andchargingjustpricestotheircustomers,allfortheloveofGod,exercisedasloveofneighbour.Todaytheideaoffreelychoosingnottoexploitabusinessopportunitysoundsridiculous.Mostpeoplebelievethathumanityisnotlikethat,isnotcapableoftheself-restraintthatisentailed.Whileitistruethatpeoplewiththeirfallenhumannaturehaveaweaknesswhenexposedtotheoccasionsofsin,itispreciselythehopethat,throughgraceandtheembraceofmorality,peoplecanactinacivilisedway.Thesamemechanismappliestootherareasofthemoralorder.Towalkdownastreetatnightinanuncivilisedpartoftown,istoriskbeingvictimtorapeandpillage,butinacivilisedpartoftownthoseaboutmighthavethesamephysicalstrengthandanimalinclination,buttheydistinguishthemselvesbybeingprotectorsratherthanexploitersoftheweak.Thatis,civilisationismarkedbypersonswhousetheirpowerwithintheorderofmoralself-restraintandhumanityiscapableofcivilisation.Christianityisthegreatestcivilisingpower,whichisperhapswhyitscorruptedformsdistinguishthemselveswithculturalexpressionsthatcorruptcivilisation.Thisisevidentinourtimewiththecorruptingeffectsofcontraception.ChestertonrecognisedthattheprotestantreligionswereChristianheresies,makingitnosurprisethattheywouldembracecontraceptionfollowingtheAnglicanLambethconferenceof1930.

18

ChristianityandModernismTheprotestantreligionsbegancoincidentwiththedawnofmodernityandthiscoincidenceisperhapsnocoincidenceatall.Modernthoughtflourisheswithintheprotestantreligionsandtheprotestantreligionsflourishontheintellectualfoundationofmodernthought.Whiletheyneedeachother,modernthinking,whenappliedtoChristianity,isknownwithintheCatholicintellectualworldastheheresyofmodernism.ModernismwasdescribedbyPopePiusXastheculminationofallheresies,andsoitis.Itcanbeevidentinmanydifferentformsanddifferentdegrees.Protestantisminitsmanyformsisintelligibleasasetofmodernistexpressions.Likewise,withintheChurch,manyspeciesofmodernismhaveeruptedfromtimetotime.Somegobackbeforethedawnofmodernity,andcanbeseenasaberrationsinCatholicculturethatputtheindividualbeforethecommongoodandtheexerciseofpowerforthegoodoftheselfattheexpenseofthecommunity3.Nowhereisthismoreevidentthanincommercialrelations.Ifwecanbecivilisedwithrespecttoanyaspectofthemoralcode,thenwecanbecivilisedwithrespecttoallofit,includingcommercialrelations.Thecorruptionsoftheguildsinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturieswhicharenowseenasproto-capitalism,ortheavariciousnessoftheSpanishconquerorsofSouthAmericathatmarredthetransmissionofChristianitytothatcontinent,areallinstancesofmodernistcorruptionofcommercialmorality,despiteoccurringwithinCatholiccommunities.TheascendencyofProtestantismwasfuelledatleastinpartbyaliberationfromtheChristianmoralorder,whichisreallyonlylicence.TheGermanprinceswhofollowedLuthersoughtlicencetorulewithoutthemoraloversightofRome,themerchantswantedthelicencetoabandonjustpricesandjustwages,andbankerswantedlicencetopracticeusury4.Lutherhimselfpracticedhisliberationfromtheconfessionalincarnalexcessesundertheslogan‘sinstrongstrongly,buthavefaithmorestrongly’.Heresycanbeviewedinmanyways.ItisusuallybasedontakingatruthfromtheCatholicreligiontosomeimbalancedexcess.Thetruthofaheresysecuresitsgeneralacceptance,thelicenceofaheresyprovidesitsleaderswiththelicencetoexercisetheirpowerasindividualsandnotaspartofcommunitiesmodellingontheMostBlessedTrinity.Heresiesusuallyincluderejectionofthepre-existingtheologicalandmoralthinkingofbalancedreligion.InthecaseofmodernitythismeantrejectionoftheScholasticdoctors,especiallySt.ThomasAquinasandSt.Bonaventure.Tobeeffective,thehereticmusteitherclaimthatheisperfectingthepre-existingthinking,orexposinganddealingwithitshithertohiddenflaws.Modernphilosophyassertsthatitdoesboth.Modernspridethemselvesas‘standingontheshouldersofthegiants’,andin

3MichaelHoffman(Hoffman,2010)arguedpersuasivelythattheChurch’stoleranceofusury,whichbeganinpracticebeforetheProtestantrevolt,wasevidenceofmodernisminactionwithinthechurch.4OddLangholm(Langholm,1984)notedthatprohibitionsagainstusuryfellastheReformationsweptacrossEurope.

19

sodoingsupposedlyappropriatetitletotheirachievementsandtakethemfurther.Curiously,theydothisinpracticebyignoringthem,ormisrepresentingthem,orclaimingtohavediscoveredtheirtruemeaning,whichjusthappenstomakestudyingthemunnecessary.Newman,ChestertonandManningCardinalNewmancameintotheChurchdiscoveringthattobedeepinhistoryistoceasetobeProtestant,andthiswastobethepathofChestertonandManning.InChestertonthispathbacktothepuresourcesofChristianitytookhimbacktowhenhischurchseparatedfromthetrueChurchandtheintegrityofthemedievaldoctors.HismasteryofSt.Thomas’sthoughtiswellknownintheaccoladepaidhimbythegreatThomistEtienneGilsonwhoconfessedthat,despitehislearning,theinsightfulcommonsenseappropriationoftheAngelicDoctorbyChestertonsurpassedhisown.Manningappearstohavefollowedasimilartrajectory,perhapsaidedbythelatenineteenthcenturyCatholicrespectfortheAngelicDoctorthatculminatedwithPopeLeoXIII’srecognitionthatSt.Thomas’sthoughtwasthemeasureagainstwhichanyChristianintellectualinnovationmustbemeasured(PopeLeoXIII,1879).ItisnosurprisethatthepracticaldeclineoftheCatholicChurchinrecentdecadeshasbeenaccompaniedbythepracticaleliminationofSt.ThomasfromthesyllabusofCatholicplacesoflearning,eitheroutofdownrightcontempt,orthestrangebeliefthatthepresentationofhisthoughtneededfundamentalcorrectionthathasresultedinitspracticalelimination5.Theseattitudeshaveasimpleexplanation,theheresyofmodernism,thoughitsmutatingmanifestationshaveprovenhardtoidentifyinthetimelywaydemandedbythesetroublingtimes.PopeLeoXIIIdidmorethanestablishSt.ThomasasthereferencepointforCatholicthought.Heisbetterknownforhisgreatencyclical,RerumNovarum,thatinitiatedwhatisknowntodayasCatholicSocialThought.RerumNovarumcanbeviewedasitselfnomorethanarestatementoftheeconomicthoughtofthemedievaldoctorsadaptedforthecommercialsituationofthetime.Inasense,RerumNovarumisarefutationofaspectsofthede-civilisingmoralaberrationsthathadcreptintotheWestonthebackofthemodernismthatundergirdedtheProtestantreligions,aswellasinfectingthecommercialpracticesofsomepeoplewithinCatholiccommunities.ManninghadseenthisfirsthandwithhisworkamongstthepoorofEngland,bothasanAnglicanandaCatholic.Herecognisedthenecessityforareturntothemoraldirectionsthatwereavailablefromthemedievaldoctors.Thatis,herecognisedtheneedtorejectaformofmoralmodernismthathadunravelledChristiancivilisationinthesocialarena.ThisunravellingshouldbeevidentinthehistoryofourveryownNewSouthWales,populatedasitwasfromonlyalittlebeforeManning’sbirthwiththevictimsofthesavagepowerunleashedbyEngland’scommercialmoralmodernism. 5Attentiontothemodernthinkersbehindthistrendrevealsthatwhiletheyallflourishedinthelasthalfofthetwentiethcentury,theystraddletheprogressive/conservativedividethatispopularintheChurchatpresent.

20

MorallogicofRerumNovarumThespectacleoftherichestandmostsuccessfuleconomicempiretheworldbeingunabletobuildsufficientprisonstohouseitsowndesperatepoor,andstartingaprisonthesizeofacontinent(Australia),shouldbesufficientevidencetosuggestthatsomethingwasbadlywrongin‘MerryEngland’.ManningsawitinitiallyasthefailureoftheChurchofEnglandtomeasureupasaChristianChurch,andlaterasacourseofactiontocorrectit.HisinsightsareacknowledgedtohavecontributedinnosmallmeasuretothemorallogicadoptedbythepopeandpublishedasRerumNovarum.RerumNovarum,therefore,canbeviewedaspartlyanintellectualmanifestationofManning’spracticalworkwiththepoor.Itbeginswitharelativelyshortintroductorysurveyoftheproblem,whichcanbesummarisedbyPopeLeo’srecognitionofthe‘rapacioususury’(n.6)thatwascausingsomuchhardshipforordinarypeople,followedbyabriefbutpotentrejectionofsocialism,adetaileddenunciationofwhatisnowcalledcapitalismthatthePopeidentifiedasthemassiveproblem,andanultimateremedythatwassimplyevangelisationandareturntothetruereligion.Withinitssubstantialcontentitcanbeviewedasarestatementanddevelopmentofquestions66,77,78,117,129&134(property,price,usury,liberality,magnanimity&magnificence)ofthesecondpartofSt.Thomas’sSummaTheologica6.Tothiswereaddedsomereferencestomedievalsocialorganisationandtheimportanceofevangelisationasthekeytoacivilisedsocialorder.ThepoliticalLeftandRightareintelligiblewithinquestions66and77,onpropertyandprice.InbothcasesAristotle’sdictum‘virtusstatinmedia’7providesthekeytotheChristianorder.Inthecaseofproperty,virtuesitsinthemiddlebyrequiringpropertytoexhibitbothprivateownershipwithcommonuse.Withrespecttoprice,itisthemoralobligationonbothpartiesnottoexploittheotherintransactions,despitehavingthepowertodoso.Inboththesecasesitprovidesexplicit,objectiveandknowablemoralprinciplesthatmaybeusedtodesignparticularsocialsystems.Beingasetoffundamentalmoralprinciplesandnotturnkeyeconomicsystemsolutionshasbeenachallengeforeconomistswhotendtothinkintermsofsystems,andespeciallythetwosystemsthathavedominatedtheattentionofmodernity,communismandcapitalism. 6 Available for download from “New Advent” see: Property: Q 66: http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3066.htm Trade: Q 77: http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3077.htm Usury: Q78: http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3078.htm Liberality: Q117: http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3117.htm Magnanimity: Q.129: http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3129.htm Magnificence: Q.134: http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3134.htm 7Virtuestandsinthemiddle

21

ChestertonHudgeandGudgebygovernmentandbigbusinessThetwinrejectionsoftheeconomicprescriptionsofwhatisnowidentifiedwiththepoliticalLeftandthepoliticalRightwasnotcontentiousforlatenineteenthcenturyeducatedCatholics.ChestertonwroteaconsiderablevolumeonthesetwinevilsandpersonifiedthemasHudgeandGudge.TheserepresentedbiggovernmentontheLeftandbigbusinessontheRightbothgreedilyseekingtoexploittheordinaryperson,Jones,whosimplywantedtolivebyhonesthardwork,raisehisfamilyandserveGodhumblyinhisstateinlife.CardinalManninginhisdefenceofthepoorwasnotpromotingsocialism,butmoresocialbehaviourfromthosewhoheldeconomicpower.Itcouldbedescribedasamoreself-restrainedexerciseoftheireconomicpower.Thisdidnotstophisdetractorsfromtarringhimwiththesocialistbrushasthoughtheseweretheonlyalternativesavailable.Thisispartofthemodernconditionandcomesfromthenatureofmodernthought.Ithasbecomeevenmorecommonoverthelastcentury.Tounderstandit,onemustappreciatetheconnectionbetweeneconomicsandthemetaphysicsofcreation.Modernityisbasedontheempiricistbeliefthattheonlythingsthatcanbeknowntoexistarethosethingsthatareapparenttothesenses,whichmakestheBigBangthemostlikelysourceofexistenceandpeoplearetheresultoftheevolutionarychancecollisionofatoms.Fromthisfollowstheanthropologyandmoralityofself-interestedindividualism.ElizabethGrozdescribedtheresponsestothisconditionaseitherthatoftheslaveorthetyrant.Thesealternativesproducethetwomodernpoliticalalternatives.ThetyrantwantsthefreedomtoexploitothersandthishasgivenrisetotheBritishliberalismthatwasthedynamicfortheBritishcommercialempire.Itsothernameiscapitalism.Theslave,orvictim,seekstowrestpowerfromthetyrantbyvestingeconomicpowerinthestateascommunism.Chesterton’sHudgeandGudgearebothmodern,andexhaustthepoliticalandeconomicpossibilitiesformodernman(Chesterton,1910).Theyarebothinhuman,orperhapssub-human.Theirsolutionstotheeconomicproblembothclaimliberty,whilerelyingonexternalforcestoconstrainpeopletomoralaction.Thecapitalistreliesontheexternalforcesofthemarket,whilethecommunistinsistsontheexternalforceofthestate(Small,2013).PopePiusXI(1931)describedthesetwinmodernaberrationsastwinrocksofshipwreckinQuadragesimoanno8.Moreincisively,hehadearlieridentifiedthemasrepresentingvariantsofmoral,juridical,andsocialmodernisminhisfirstencyclical,UbiArcano(1922)9.Thatis,theeconomicsystemsofthepoliticalLeftandthepoliticalRightthatLeoXIIIdenouncedarenotmerelymoralerrors,butthefruitofthatvirulentheresythatwasfirstevidentinthenineteenthcenturyandappearstohaveneverbeensupressed.PopePiusXisrememberedforhisattempttodefineandremovemodernismfromtheChurch,especiallywithhisgreatencyclicalPascendiDominiciGregis(1907).However,aclosereadingofitrevealsthathis 8Seen.469Seenn.60-61

22

targetwasmodernismappliedtotheologicalmatterssuchastheefficacyofthesacramentsandrealityofmiracles.CardinalManningwasawarefirsthandofthemoralmodernismontheRightofPoliticsintheAnglicaninclinationtowardsthecommercialsuccesstheologyofBritishliberalism.Inourtimethisisoftenlabelledconservativismanditisevidentinalackofsolidaritywiththeeconomicallyweak.Chesterton’sGudgeisaRightwingmoral,socialandjuridicalmodernist.ItisapositionthatMaxWeberassociatedwithProtestantism(Weber,1920trans.1930).Chesterton’sHudgerepresentsthebiggovernmentofthesocialismofthePoliticalLeft.Itisnolessarockofshipwreckandaformofmoral,juridical,andsocialmodernism.InrecenttimesithasbeenseeninliberationtheologyanditsadherentswithintheChurchareoftenlabelledprogressives.ItwasdenouncednolessvigorouslybytheearlysocialencyclicalsofLeoXIIIandPiusXI,butittendstoliveon.Gifteconomy–vs–contracteconomyCardinalManningwascontenttomilitateforconcessionsfortheworkingpoorinEngland.Thatsolutionwasnotquiteaselegantasinspiringthosewitheconomicpowertoexerciseself-restraintfortheloveofGod,buttotheextentthathenegotiatedasapowerlessreligiousleader,perhapstherewassomeelementofthatinspirationamongsttheoutcome.HisapproachwasneitherLeftnorRight,butinsolidaritywithsufferinghumanity.Itmayhaveappearedasacompromise‘thirdway’betweenthepolesofLeftandRight,butitreallyconceivedofhumansocietyinatotallydifferentway.Acenturylater,PopeBenedictXVI(2009).wouldrecognisethateconomicjusticewasagiftthatthestronggivetothepoor.InthislightChristianeconomicscanbeviewedagifteconomybetweenpersonsconnectedinChristcomparedwiththecontracteconomyoftheself-interestedindividualsofmodernity10.Chestertonusedthesesameprinciplestoconceiveofadifferentsolution.HerecognisedthatwidelydistributedprivatepropertycouldachievethesameChristianoutcomesforsociety.Onthesurface,thisappearstoslipintotheerrorofutopianismassomesortofmagiceconomicadjustmentthatwouldautomaticallysolvetheeconomicproblem.Itisnot.Widelydistributedprivatepropertyrequiresself-restrainttoachieveandmaintain.Totheextentthatitrequiresself-restraint,itrequiresexplicitmoralaction.Itisadifferent,andperhapsmoredevelopedsolution.Itillustratesthatmorethanonesolutionexistsandcouldexist.TheChristianfeudaleconomyoftheMiddleAgescanbeshowntobeanother.ItmightbenotedthatbothChestertonandManningwereEnglishandsowerebothimmersedinEnglishcultureandperspective.Manning’sfatherhadbeenaseniorpartoftheBankofEngland,andboththeireducationswouldhaveincludedtheEnglishhistoricalperspective.EnglandhadbeenusinghistoryforhalfamillenniabythetimeChestertonandManningweretaughtit.InAustraliatheCatholicbishopsof 10LesterK.Little(Little,1978)outlinedthewaythatthecontracteconomyoftheChristianmiddleagesgavewaytothecontracteconomyofmodernity.

23

thelatenineteenthcenturybegantheCatholicschoolsystemlargelyonthebasisofwhattheyperceivedastheperniciouserrorsofEnglishhistory.HenryVIIIneededtorewritethehistoryofthemonasteriesinordertosacktheminthesixteenthcenturyandElizabethIhadencouragedaformalisationoffictionalisedhistorytosupportherreign.DavidHumelargelysupportedhimselfontheincomehederivedfrom“TheHistoryofEngland”,whichhewroteinthemideighteenthcenturythatThomasJeffersondescribedas“poison”.ItneverthelessbecomethestandardreferenceforEnglishhistoryfromthenon.BothChesterton’sandManning’sinterestinsocialissueswasbasedontheEnglishexperienceofcapitalism.Theirmilitancywasinpartdrawnfromawarenessofthehistoricaldefectsinthatsystem.ThisisespeciallyevidentinChesterton,whosepromotionofWilliamCobbett,aswellashisownhistoricalwritings,revealaconnectiontoEnglishhistoryastruthincontrasttoHume’shistoryasideologicalapologetics.ThoroldRogers(1884)tracedEnglishwagelevelsthroughthesixcenturiestotheendofthenineteenthcenturytodemonstratethesocialfailureoftheEnglishsystemofliberalcapitalism.AlthoughRogerswasratheranti-Catholicinhisoutlook,hewashonestenoughtorecognisethattheReformationhadbeendevastatingfortheEnglishworker,whoseconditiondeterioratedprogressivelyuntilthedesperationofthenineteenthcenturyproducedthepoliticalrebelliontoitthateventuallyeruptedintocommunism.WhatisoftenignoredintheEnglishworldisthatexampleofindustrialisationwhichwasnotmarredbyBritishliberalcapitalismandwhichdevelopedonthecontinentthroughthenineteenthcentury.Germanywaslatetoindustrialise.IthadbeenwrackedbytheprotestantrebellionunderLuther,buteventuallyreturnedtoitsCatholiccharacter.IthadbeenawareofthedamagebeingdonetoitsinternaleconomybycheapBritishimportswhichhadtheeffectofdrivingdownitswagesandendangeringitslocalproductivecapacity.Itsresponsewastorecognisethemacroeconomicimportanceofthelivingwageandthenecessityforprotectingitsdomesticproductivecapacity.BishopWilhelmvonKettlerwasamongstthosewhocontributedtoGermaneconomicpolicyatthattime.PopeLeoXIIIalsoreliedonvonKettler’sinsightsinframingRerumNovarum.GermanCatholicperspectivesTheGermanapproachwasrelativelysimpleandcanbereducedtoperhapsthreepolicies.First,applyself-restraintagainstthetemptationtobuycheapgoodsproducedbyquasi-slavelabouranddomesticwageswillnotriskfallingtoquasi-slavewagelevels.Second,ensurethemajorityofthepopulationhavegoodwagesbecausethesewageswillbespentondomesticgoodsandstrengthendomesticproductivecapacityandbusinesses.Third,encouragequalityproductionasaservicetothecommunitywhichwillimproveoverallutility,reducewaste,andmaximisetheoverallobjectiveofprovidingthematerialmeansforagoodqualityoflifefortheentirecommunity.TheGermanapproachwasessentiallyCatholicinitsprinciplesandoutstandinglyeffectiveinitseconomicperformance,eventhoughitwasoperatingwellbeforeRerumNovarumwaswritten(Jones,2014).

24

ItwasalsofrustratingtotheambitionsandrequirementsoftheBritishcommercialempire.Britishliberalismrequiredeverexpandingsourcesofcheaplabourandeverexpandingmarketstodumptheircheapproductsintoataprofit.TheGermanswereblockingthesecondpartofthatequation,thoughthetensionsthateruptedasaresultarebeyondthescopeofthispaper11.SufficetonotethattheGermaneconomicsolutionwasyetanotherpracticalsystembuiltonthefoundationsoflongstandingCatholiceconomicmoralprinciples.Overall,vonKettlerdemonstratesthatManningandChestertondidnotsomuchforgeaCatholicsocialtraditionaspresentittotheEnglishaudience.ItwasinEnglandthatmercantilecapitalismfounditsmostsuccessfulhome,eventhoughsomeCatholiccountriesalsoindulgedinit.ItwasalsoinEnglandthatKarlMarxwroteDasKapitalsinceitwastherethattheevilsofthatsystemweremostapparent,evenifRussiawastogoontobeitsfirstpracticalpoliticaldisciple.Theconnectionbetweenaberranteconomicorganisationandmodernismdeservesfurtherattention.PiusXI’stwinmoralmodernismshavebeenlargelyignoredbutthereisevidencetosuggestthattheyprovideakeytounderstandingmuchofthelasthalfcenturyofchangesintheCatholicChurch.WhileithasbeendemonstratedherethatChesterton’sHudgeandGudgerepresenttheprogressiveandtheconservativemoralmodernistsintheeconomicrealm,inthetheologicalrealmthesetermscanbeshowntorepresentsimilarunderlyingelements.TheprogressivesintheChurchtodaypromoteimmoralityinfamilyaffairswhichcanbeshowntorestonmodernistfoundations.TheconservativesintheChurchtendtobealignedwitheconomicimmoralitywhichalsorestsonsimilarlymodernistfoundations.WetendtobeimmersedinthecultureofmodernismthatmakesitdifficulttopenetratebacktoanauthenticunderstandingofthetruththattheSonofGodpromisedtoHisChurch.Animportanthintliesinthosewhoarerememberedandthosewhoareforgottenbythevariousparties.IfChesterton,St.ThomasandCardinalManning,perhapsalongwithahostofotherCatholicintellectualleaders(suchasPopesPiusIX,X,XI&XII,ChristopherDawson,EdwardCahill,Garrigou-Lagrange,AustinWoodbury,AmintoreFanani,CardinalOttaviani,etc),arebeingforgottenbyafactionwithintheChurch,thenitisasignthatthatfactionisnotalignedwiththeirChurch.ChesteronandManningweredistinguishedbytheircourageousdeterminationtoseekandlivethetruthdespitetheireducation,theircultureandthereligionoftheirbirth.TheywerepowerfulforcesforbringingChrist’sChurchbackintothecountryoftheirbirthandthecultureithadspreadglobally.TheylivedandpromotedtheperennialsocialmessageoftheGospelwithinamodernistenvironmentandsucceededinshiningthelightoftruth.Theirmessageforourtimeshouldnotbeignored,northeparallelsbetweentheirsituationandours. 11See(Knuth,1945),(Jones,2014)andperhaps(Carroll,1981)forconnectionsbetweenGermany’seconomicsuccess,itsrelationshiptointernationalfinanceandWorldWarI.

25

ReferenceList

Bonaventure,St.(1979).DisputedQuestionsontheMysteryoftheTrinity(Z.Hayes,Trans.).St.Bonaventure,NY:TheFranciscanInstitute,St.BonaventureUniversity.

Carroll,W.H.(1981).1917:RedBanners,WhiteMantle.FrontRoyal,USA:ChristendomPress.

Chesterton,G.K.(1910reprint2007).What'sWrongwiththeWorld.NewYork:Cosimo.

Cobbett,w.(1830).RuralRides:Nelson&Sons.Cobbett,W.(1988).AHistoryoftheProtestantReformationinEnglandandIreland.

Rockford,Illinois:Tan.Cousins,E.H.(1978).BonaventureandtheCoincidenceofOpposites(J.d.Vinck,

Trans.).Quincy,Il:FranciscanHeraldPress.Goyder,G.(1993).TheJustEnterprise:aBlueprintfortheresponsiblecompany.

London:Adamantine.Hoffman,M.(2010).UsuryinChristendom.Coeurd'Alene,Idaho:Independent

HistoryandResearch.Jones,E.M.(2014).BarrenMetal.SouthBend,Indiana:FidelityPress.Kent,W.(1910).HenryEdwardManningTheCatholicEncyclopedia.NewYork:

RobertAppletonCompany.Knuth,E.C.(1945).EmpireoftheCity(2nded.).USA:Knuth.Kurth,G.(1987).TheWorkingmen'sGuildsoftheMiddleAges(D.Fahey,Trans.).

Hawthorne,CA:Omni.Langholm,O.(1984).AristotelianAnalysisofUsury.Bergen:UniversitetsforlagetAs.Little,L.K.(1978).ReligiousPovertyandtheProfitEconomyinMedievalEurope.New

York:CornellUniversityPress.PopeBenedictXVI.(2009).CaritasinVeritate.Vatican.PopeLeoXIII.(1879).AeterniPatris.PopeLeoXIII.(1891).RerumNovarum(N.C.W.C.,Trans.).Boston:St.Paul.PopePiusX.(1907).PascendiDominiciGregis.PopePiusXI.(1922).UbiArcanoVatican:Vatican.PopePiusXI.(1931).QuadragesimoAnno.Vatican:PaulistPress.Ratzinger,J.(1971).TheTheologyofHistoryinSt.Bonaventure.Chicago:Franciscan

HeraldPress.Rogers,J.T.(1884).SixCenturiesofWorkandWages.London:GeorgeAllen&

Unwin.Small,G.(2013).Property,EconomicsandGod.CultureWars,32(17).Weber,M.(1920trans.1930).TheProtestantEthicandtheSpiritofCapitalism(T.

Parsons,Trans.).London:GEORGEALLEN&UNWINLTD_______________________________

26

AssociateProfessorGarrickSmallisapropertyeconomistwithtwentyfiveyears’experienceasanacademicandconsultantpropertyeconomist.HehastaughtattheUniversityofTechnologySydney,theUniversityofNewSouthWales,theUniversityofWesternSydneyandtheUniversityoftheSouthPacific(Fiji),inadditiontohiscurrentplacementatCentralQueenslandUniversity(CQU)Rockhampton.HecompletedhisPhDontheapplicationofSt.ThomasAquinasandAristotletotheproblemofpropertyanditssignificancetomoderneconomics,andhassincecontinuedtosolvecontemporaryproblemsinpropertyeconomicsusingtheclassicalrealismofSt.ThomasandAristotle.Hehaspublishedwidelyontopicsrelatingtohisresearchinterests,includingpropertyeconomicanalysisandfinanceandadvancedvaluationmodellingandforecasting.HeisaFellowoftheAustralianPropertyInstituteandservesonseveraleditorialboardsrelatingtopropertyeconomicsjournals.HisscholarshipincludesnumerousarticlesinCatholicjournalsandperiodicalsonCatholicSocialThought(CST)aswellaspresentationsonthisareaofinterestatCatholicconferencesinAustralia,theUSAandEurope.HehastaughtCatholicSocialThoughtattheLidcomeCatholicAdultEducationCentreinSydneyandiscurrentlyproducingaseriesofpresentationsonCSTforonlineaudiences.

27

NewmanandtheCatholicUniversityofIreland

Stephen McInerney

“Controversiesineducation,asinanythingelse,”JohnSeniorsaid,“areconsequencesofdeeperdivisionsinphilosophyandultimatelyinreligion”.1JohnHenryNewman’sIdeaofaUniversity,perhapsthemostfamousandinfluentialdefenceofliberaleducationeverwritten,arosefromsuchacontroversy.In1845,theyearNewmanwasreceivedintotheCatholicChurch,TheQueen’sCollegesIrelandActwaspassed,toenable,asthesubheadingoftheactstates,“HermajestytoendownewcollegesfortheAdvancementinLearninginIreland.”2Thisledeventually,in1850,totheestablishmentoftheQueen’sUniversityofIreland.ThemovewaspromotedbySirRobertPeel,theBritishconservativepoliticianandtwicePrimeMinister,withtheintentionofopeningupuniversityeducationinIrelandtonon-Anglicans,includingRomanCatholics,whothoughabletomatriculatewereineligibletotakedegreesfromTrinityCollege,Dublin,Ireland’soldestandmostprestigiousuniversity,becauseofthereligioustestsenforcedthere(testswhich,likethoseofOxfordandCambridgeinEngland,requiredstudentstoassenttothearticlesofAnglicanism).

Peel,whohadbeenafoeofJohnHenryNewman’sduringthelatter’sAnglicanyears,wasagenerousmanwhopromotedthekindofliberalismNewmandetested.Peel’saddressontheopeningoftheTamworthReadingRoom,in1841,hadelicitedfromtheAnglicanNewmanasearingthoughanonymouslettertotheTimesinwhichhechallengedPeel’scontentionthatthenaturalsciencesandhumaneletters(inNewman’ssummary),represent“akindofneutralground,onwhichmenofeveryshadeofpoliticsandreligionmaymeettogether,disabuseeachotheroftheirprejudices,formintimacies,andsecurecooperation.”3Worksof“ControversialDivinity”,bycontrast,weretobeexcludedfromtheReadingRoomonthegroundstheydividedratherthanunitedmenofgoodwill.4Newmanofcoursewouldhavenoneit;hedeploredtheideathatreligioustextsshouldbevigorouslyexcludedwhilescienceandhumanelettersshouldbepromotedintheirsteadasthesourceofmoral

1JohnSenior,“AFinalSolutiontoLiberalEducation”,TheRestorationofChristianCulture(Norfolk,VA:HISPress,2008),p.107.2TheStatutesoftheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandIreland(London:HerMajesty’sPrinters,1845),p.5093JohnHenryNewman,“TheTamworthReadingRoom:AddressedtotheEditoroftheTimes.ByCatholicus”,TheNewmanReader:http://www.newmanreader.org/works/arguments/tamworth/section1.html4SirRobertPeel,“InauguralAddressontheOpeningoftheTamworthLibraryandReadingRoom1841”,inAWebofEnglishHistory,http://www.historyhome.co.uk/peel/education/tamread.htm

28

good.Newmansawnoessentialconflictbetweenreligionandscience,andasagreatcontroversialistinreligiousmattershecertainlysawthepursuitoftruthasmoreimportantthanaquietpeacebasedonignoringthe‘elephantintheroom’–thedifferencesbetweenmenonmattersthattouchedontheireternaldestinies.TheliberalismthatinspiredPeel’sspeechfortheopeningoftheReadingRoomalsoinspiredhispromotionoftheQueen’sCollegesIrelandAct.TheemergenceoftheQueen’sCollegesinturnelicitedasimilarreactionfromthemajorityoftheCatholichierarchyasPeel’searlierspeechhaddrawnfromtheAnglicanNewmanyearsbefore.Onthefaceofit,onemightimaginethatadevelopmentliketheQueen’sCollegeswouldbewelcomedbytheauthoritiesoftheCatholicChurch–afterall,herewasanopportunityforCatholicmen,hithertodeprivedoftheordinarypathwaysofsocialadvancement,totaketheirplaceamongtheirnon-CatholicpeersattheforefrontofIrishsociety,effectingthekindofsocialmobilitythatCatholicstoday,atleastinthedevelopedworld,takeforgranted.ApartfromasmallminorityofIrishbishops,however,theChurchauthoritieswerebyandlargeunenthusiastic–fearfulratherthanexcitedbytheprospectoftheirfaithfulgettingembroiledin‘mixededucation’.TheIrishhierarchyneverthelessrecognizedtheneedtorespondtothechallengesthattheQueen’sCollegeswereendeavoringtomeet–andtothechallengeposedtoCatholicconsciencesbytheemergenceoftheQueen’sCollegesthemselves.CouldCatholicsattend?Thehierarchy’sanswer,followingRome’slead,wasno,althoughArchbishopMurrayofDublinhadfavoredtheidea.5Itwouldbeonething,however,toforbidCatholicstotaketheopportunitytoattendtheQueen’sColleges;itwouldbequiteanotherthingnottoprovidethemwithalegitimateCatholicalternative.In1850,thesameyearthattheQueen’sUniversityofIrelandopeneditsdoors,therefore,theCatholicChurchinIrelandwiththeendorsementofPopePiusIXestablishedtheCatholicUniversityCommittee,undertheleadershipofArchbishopPaulCullenofArmagh(afutureCardinal),withtheaimofestablishingaCatholicUniversityinIreland.

Ayearlater,aletterfromCullenarrivedonthedeskofoneFrJohnHenryNewman,England’smostfamousconvert,athisOratoryinBirmingham.CulleninvitedNewmantodeliversomelecturesinDublinoneducation,inthecomingyear,andtoadvisehimonstaffappointments.ByNovember1851NewmanhadbeenmadeRectorofthefutureCatholicUniversityofIreland,apositionhewouldholdforseventurbulentyears.Hebegantopreparehislectures,andTheIdeaofaUniversitywasborn.TheologyastheintegratingprincipleOnceagain,ashehaddoneinhisfirstbattlewithPeel,Newmanwouldarguestronglyagainsttheideaoftherebeingastrictly“neutralground”ineducation.Intheabsenceoftheology(including“Controversialdivinity”,asPeeldescribedit),whichNewmansawastheveryepitomeandintegratingprincipleofeducation, 5IanKer,JohnHenryNewman(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2009),p.377.ForthedatesanddetailssurroundingNewman’sappointment,IamindebtedthroughouttoFrKer’sdefinitivebiography.

29

someotherideologywouldtakeitsplace.G.K.ChestertonputitbestinTheCommonMan:

[E]veryeducationteachesaphilosophy;ifnotbydogmathenbysuggestion,byimplication,byatmosphere.Everypartofthateducationhasaconnectionwitheveryotherpart.Ifitdoesnotallcombinetoconveysomegeneralviewoflife,itisnoteducationatall.6

BythetimeCullen’sinitialletterarrivedforNewmaninBirminghaminApril1851,itsrecipienthadbeenaCatholicforjustoverfiveyears,andaCatholicpriestforevenfewer.ButNewmanwasstillinsomewaysanobviouschoiceastheUniversity’sfirstRector.AlthoughhedidnotyetexerttheinfluenceovertheBritishCatholicimaginationthathewouldcometodoafterthepublicationofhisApologiaProVitaSuain1864,hewasnonethelesseasilythebest-qualifiedEnglishCatholicpriesttorunaUniversity.Newmanhadbeen,asanAnglican,themostfamousmanatOxford,fromthetimehefirstbecameafellowatOrielCollege,in1822,untilhisconversiontoRomanCatholicismin1845.HespearheadedtheOxfordMovement,whichtransformedtheChurchofEnglandandrecalledittoitsvocation–asNewmanandotherTractariansunderstoodit–aspartoftheOne,Holy,CatholicandApostolicChurch;notonlytheChurchofEngland,buttheChurchinEngland:Catholicandreformedatonce,aViaMediabetweentheexcessesofRomanCatholicismontheonehandandEvangelicalProtestantismontheother.ThroughaseriesofTracts,Newman,EdwardPusey,JohnKebleandothersarguedfortheApostolicityoftheChurchofEngland;theyencouragedregularattendanceattheserviceofHolyCommunion,fosteringindoingsoaliturgicalrevivalinAnglicanism,andsawthemselvesascontinuingtheethosandambienceoftheChurchoftheFathers.Bythemid1830s,theChurchofEnglandwaseffectivelydividedthreewaysbetweentheolderHighChurchmen,EvangelicalsandthisnewbreedofAnglo-CatholicwhowereatoncemoreconservativethantheolderHighChurchmenandmoreradicalthantheEvangelicals.TheOxfordMovementandLiberalismTheOxfordMovementreactedagainstliberalizinglawsthatallowedRomanCatholicsandNon-ConformiststoassumepositionsofauthorityintheEnglishparliamentandthereforepositionsofinfluenceovertheChurchofEngland.7And

6G.K.Chesterton,TheCommonMan(London:SheedandWard,1950),p.167.IamindebtedtoKarlSchmudeforthisreferencewhichI’vetakenfromhispaper,“‘Chesterton’sVisionofEducation’:APaperfortheSeminar,‘CapturingtheImagination–G.K.ChestertonandCulture’,Melbourne,Dec2,2006.7Newman’srelationshipwithliberalismisfullofironies.AsaCatholic,ofcourse,hebenefitedfromthegrowingfreedomsaccordedtoCatholicsinEnglandwhichasanAnglicanhe’dopposed.ItwasPeel,who,asFrankTurnershows,havinginitiallyopposedCatholicemancipation,in1829“carriedthemeasurethroughthehouse”whichenabledCatholicstobeseatedintheWestminsterParliament.SeeFrankTurner,JohnHenryNewman:TheChallengetoEvangelicalReligion(NewHaven:Yale,2002),p.16.NotwithstandingTurner’sownprejudices,hisrevisionistaccountofNewman’srelationshipwithliberalismisanimportantcorrectivetothetemptation(onemanyCatholicscholarshavesuccumbedto)toacceptuncriticallyNewman’sownassessmentofhisadultlifeasabattleagainstliberalism.

30

theyarguedagainstliberalizingtendenciesintheUniversityitself,notinfrequentlychallengingtheorthodoxyoftheirpeersinOxford,callingforbookstobeinvestigatedfordoctrinalrectitude,andinsistingonthenecessityofassenttotheArticlesoftheAnglicanReligionasanecessaryprerequisitetomatriculatetotheUniversity–yetalsoredefining,intime,whatassenttothosearticlesmeantand,inturn,themselvesbecomingthesubjectofinvestigationandcensurebytheUniversityauthorities.8Newmancametoargue,forexample,inTract90,thatonecouldinterprettheThirty-NineArticlesinawaythatallowedonetoacceptmanyofthetenetsofRomanCatholicism.

Throughallthis,theimaginationsoftheyounginOxfordwerestirred;hundredsflockedtohearNewmanpreachattheUniversityChurchofStMarytheVirgin,wherehewasVicarfrom1828to1843.Heexertedanincredibleinfluenceonyoungmen,manyofwhom,becomingimpatientwiththeChurchofEngland’smiddleormuddledway,astheysawit,precededNewmanintotheCatholicChurch–exceedinghiminimpatiencejustas(inNewman’smind)theyexceededhiminimprudence.By1843,NewmanandagroupoftheseyoungmenhadretiredtotheparishchurchatLittlemorewheretogethertheylivedaquasi-monasticlife,celebratedtheEucharistdaily(anunusualpracticeinAnglicanismatthetime)andevenrecitedtheRomanCatholicbreviary,withminorchanges,ratherthantheestablishedBookofCommonPrayer.9RoleoftheuniversitytutorYetnoneofthismighthavehappenedwereitnotforanearliercontroversyNewmanembroiledhimselfinsomeyearsbefore,atOrielCollege–acontroversyovereducation.NewmanhadnoticedthatmanyofOrielCollege’sstudentshiredprivatetutorstopreparefortheirUniversityexams.ThisseemedtohimtopointtodeficienciesinthewaythetutorialsystemwasrunathisCollegeandindeedattheOxfordcollegesmoregenerally.Why,ifthecollegesweremeetingthestudents’academicneeds,wouldthestudentsneedtopayforadditionalprivatetuition?Newmanbelievedthatthetutor’srolehadbeengraduallywhittledawayoverthecourseofcenturies.Thetutorideally,forNewman,wassupposedtobeaguideinlife,notonlyinstudies;inmoralsandattitudes,notonlyindiscipline.ThetutoroughttomodelforhisstudentsthelifeoftheGentlemanand,morethanthis,thelifeoftheChristianGentleman.Hisroleoughttobepastoral,aswellasacademic.Heshouldthereforehavemoreinvolvementinhisstudents’lives,advisingthemontheirlectureprogramsandtheirsubjects,andteachingthemhimselfwheneverpossible.Insteadofthisideal,thetutorshadbecomebyNewman’stimemeredisciplinariansatworstordistantdonsatbest,unconcernedwiththeinnerlivesoftheirstudents. 8RennDicksonHampden,targetedbytheTractarians,wascensuredbytheUniversityin1836.Thetableswereturned,however,whentheHebdomadalBoardcondemnedNewman’sTract90in1842.PuseywassuspendedfrompreachingbytheUniversityauthoritiesin1843,becoming,inTurner’swords,“thethirdmajorreligiousOxfordfiguresince1836toreceivesomeformofuniversitytheologicalcondemnation”.SeeTurner,JohnHenryNewman,pp.246,455-459.9FordetailsofNewman’suseoftheRomanbreviarywhilestillanAnglican,seeDonaldWithey,JohnHenryNewman:TheLiturgyandtheBreviary–TheirInfluenceonhislifeasanAnglican.London:SheedandWard,1992.

31

Newmanhadsomesupportforhissuggestedchangesbutnotthesupportofthemanwhomostmattered,theCollege’sProvost,EdwardHawkins.Eventually,althoughNewman’sexperimentalsystemwasattempted,HawkinsinsistedthatifNewmandidnotreturntotheprevioussystemhewouldsimplynotsendhimanymorestudents,whichisinfactwhathappened.Newman,whosereformswereinspiredbyhisbeliefthattutorsneededtobemoreengagedwiththeirstudents,endeduphavingnoformalteachingdutiesatall,althoughheretainedalltheotherprivilegesofhisfellowship:room,boardandagoodincome.Newmanthushadtimeonhishands,andheusedittothrowhimselfintoever-greatercontroversies.10TheOrielexperimentteachesustwoimportantlessonsaboutNewman,whichshedlightonhisfutureasPresidentoftheCatholicUniversityofIreland,andonhisIdeaoftheUniversity.ThefirstisthatNewmanthoughtdeeplyaboutwhateducationactuallymeant:hewasnotcontentsimplytoridethewaveofprivilegeatOriel;hebelievedatutorwasinarealsenseacureofsouls,servinghisstudentsinamannerconsistentwithhisvocationasanAnglicanpriest,andhewantedtosituatethisrolewithinthelargerideaandpurposeofauniversity.Itwasessentiallyamedievalview,onethatreachedbackforitsinspirationtothetimeofOxford’sfoundationinthetwelfthcentury.ControversyasUniversityRectorThesecondlessonfromtheOrielepisode–andoneevidentthroughoutNewman’ssubsequenttimeintheOxfordMovement–isthatNewmanwaswillingtoengageincontroversy,ifnotopenconflict,inordertoarticulate,refineanddefendhisownideas.Newmanalwaysdemurredattheideaofhimselfasatheologian,preferringtostylehimselfasacontroversialist.AndwhetheratOriel,asanAnglican,orinBirminghamandDublinasaRomanCatholic,controversyalwaysseemedtofindhim,andNewmanalwaysseemedtodiscoverhisbestandworstselvesintimesofcontroversy.HisroleasRectoroftheCatholicUniversityofIrelandwouldprovenodifferent.Hewouldhaverun-inswithCullen,justashehadwithHawkinsatOriel–andhewouldneedtounderstandandaccountforallthecompetingviewsinplayaboutjustwhatauniversitywasfor,andtodosoinarelativelyaliencontext:CatholicIreland,asfarfromOxfordintellectuallyandsociallyascouldbeimagined.NewmanevenrelishedtheideathatinspearheadingaUniversityinIreland,“thebattletherewillbewhatitwasinOxford20yearsago”.11ButhedidnotperhapsanticipatethathewouldbeembroiledincontroversywithfellowCatholics.

10ThedisputewithHawkinsisaddressedinbothmajorbiographies,Ker’sandTurner’s,andmostrecentlybyPaulShrimptoninhisThe‘MakingofMen’:TheIdeaandRealityofNewman’sUniversityinOxfordandDublin.Leominster:Gracewing,2014.PeterNockles,inareviewofShrimpton’swork,challengestheaccuracyofhisassessmentofHawkins’educationalphilosophyas“entirelyimpoverished”andarguesthatNewman“wasasmuchtoblameaswastheprovostformisunderstandingsandconflictsbetweenthem”.SeePeterNockles’reviewinBritishCatholicHistory(Vol.32,No.4,October2015):pp.605-608.11JohnHenryNewman,TheLettersandDiariesofJohnHenryNewman,ed.CharlesStephenDessainet.al(Oxford,1978-84),Vol.xiv.,pp.389-90,quotedinKer,Newman,p.377.

32

OnesuchcontroversyaroseoverNewman’sgeographicaldistancefromtheUniversity.NewmanalwaysinsistedinhisdealingswithCullenthatintakingontheRectorshipofthenewUniversityhewouldstillneedtodevotetimeandenergytohisroleassuperioroftheBirminghamOratory.Cullenseemedtounderstand,atfirst,butheneverquitegotusedtotheideaofanabsenteeRector,onewhowould(quiteliterally)sailinandoutofIrelandafewtimeseachyear.Newmanmusedthatperhaps,oneday,hecouldestablishanOratoryinDublinitself,neartheUniversity,whichcouldserveineffectasachaplaincytotheUniversity.Thisnevereventuated.LimitedunderstandingofIrelandIhavesaidthatNewmanwasinmanywaysthebestcandidateastheUniversity’sfoundingRector,butinsomerespectshewasstillnotparticularlywellsuitedtotherole.Foronething,andmostobviously,hewasanEnglishman,withalimitedinterestinIrishaffairsandevenlessunderstandingofthem.SaraCastro-KlarénhasnotedjusthownarrowisTheIdeaofaUniversity’sconceptionofcivilization(restricted,asitis,toGreco-RomanChristiancivilization).12ButNewmanappearstous–unfairlynodoubt–asadinosaurinanotherrespect.HewasseriouslylackinginthesensitivitiestotheIrishpredicamentthatwereneededtoensuretheUniversitywouldbemorethansimplyatransplantedEnglishUniversityinIreland.Forastart,itneveroccurredtohimthatIrishculturewasitselfunique,withitsownlanguage,butthenithadn’tseemedtooccurtoIrishchurchmeneither,whoseemtohavebeencharacterizedbythatstrangecombinationofslavishnesstoEnglishwaysandresentmentoftheirculturalenslavementthatisasadpartofthestoryofnineteenth-centuryIreland.13(TheChurchhad,afterall,notcovereditselfinglorywhenitactivelydiscouragedthespeakingofGaelicinthehomesofitspeople).Newmandidhavetheforesight,however,toinsistthatwhereverpossibleIrishnationalsshouldbeappointedtokeyposts,14butagainheseemsnottohaverecognizedthecontradictionthatthesesameIrishmen,especiallythoseteachinghistoryandliterature,wouldbeexpectedtobeimmersednotindistinctivelyIrishculturebutinBritishandmorespecificallyEnglishculture.HisviewthattheUniversitywouldstraightforwardlyrepresenttheimportationofOxfordintoIrelandisrevealing.TheAustralianpoetLesMurraywritesthatinpost-WorldWarIIAustralia“amajorinEnglishmadeoneaminorEnglishman”,15andmuchthesamewastrueofnineteenth-centuryIreland.

12ForacritiqueofNewman’srestrictedviewofcivilization,seeSaraCastro-Klarén,“TheParadoxofSelfinTheIdeaofaUniversity”,inJohnHenryNewman,TheIdeaofaUniversity,ed.FrankTurner(NewHaven:Yale,1996):pp.318-338.Castro-KlarénnotesthatNewman“disparagedthewaysnon-Europeanpeopleshavebuiltcomplexanddurablesocieties…Forhimonlyonecivilizationisworthyofthename,andthatisEuropeanChristianitywithitspeerlessintellectualaccomplishments.”(p.325).13IndiscussingNewman’sEnglishculturalimperialism,Castro-KlarénarguespersuasivelythatforNewman:“TheIrishCatholic,asaliberallyeducatedperson,mustbecometheverymodelofanEnglishgentleman.NewmancannotbringhimselftoimaginethattheremightbeadistinctlyIrishCatholicgentlemanwithhisownreligiousandculturalcharacteristics.”Ibid.p.329.14Ker,Newman,p.412.15“SideremensEademMutato”,CollectedPoems:1961-2002(PottsPoint:DuffyandSnellgrove,2002),p.109.

33

NewmanwasstillrelativelynewasaCatholic,too,andhadhardlycometotermswiththefullimplicationsoftheculturalandreligiousshifthehadmade,andwhatitmeantforhislife,bythetimeCullen’sletterarrivedonhisdesk.Oneepisode,recountedbyIanKerinhisbiographyofNewman,pointssymbolicallytoanotherproblemNewmanfaced.ArrivinginDublininFebruary1854,tostartatlasttheCatholicUniversity,NewmanclimbedintoacabatKilkennystationandaskedtobetakentothebishop’sresidence:thecabmanpromptlyagreed,butinsteadoftakingNewmantoCullen’saddress,hetookhiminsteadtotheresidenceoftheChurchofIrelandbishop(the“protestantbishop”,asNewmancalledhim).Thecabby,evidently,hadmistakenNewmanforanAnglicanorChurchofIrelandclergyman.NewmanwasbyCatholicstandardsverynewtotheChurchandhewasapparentlywearingthetypeofplaidshirtcommonlyseenonAnglicanclergymanbutnotonCatholicpriests.16IfatypicalIrishcabbymistookNewmanfora‘protestantclergyman’,whatwouldothersmakeofthisstrangecreaturefromacrossthewaters,whospokewithanupper-middle-classEnglishaccent,hadattendedOxford,studiedinRome,andwho,itseemslikely,wouldneverhavevisitedIrelandwereitnotforCullen’sletter?

WhatthenoftheCatholicUniversityofIreland?Perhapspredictably,itfailed.Newmanleftitin1857.20yearslateritenrolledonlythreestudents.TheJesuitsassumedcontrolofit,underitsnewname,UniversityCollege,Dublin,in1883,andoneoftheirmostfamousmembers,thepoetGerardManleyHopkins–whohadbeenreceivedintotheChurchbyNewmanandwasonceemployedbyhimattheBirminghamOratorySchool–livedandtaughtGreekattheUniversityforfiveyearsbeforehisdeath.ItwastheunhappiestperiodofHopkins’life,butweowetoittheso-called‘terrible’sonnets,whichareamongthegreatpoemsinthelanguage.By1909,theUniversitywasabsorbedbytheNationalUniversityofIreland.Cullen’sdreamhadcometoanend.Newman’sthoughlivesoninTheIdeaofaUniversity,whichhas,asTurnerhasargued,“exertedextraordinaryinfluenceoverthediscussionandconceptualizationofhighereducation”,17especiallyinthetwentiethcentury.NewmanandOxfordYetNewmanstillhopedtobeinvolvedinsomewayinCatholichighereducation.Ashesearchedhisheart,herealizedhestillharbouredadesiretoreturntothecityofthedreamingspireswherehehadfeltsoathomeforsomanyyearspriortohisconversiontotheCatholicChurch.Indeed,in1860,onlytwoyearsafterresigningtherectorshipoftheCatholicUniversityandonlyfouryearsafterithadopeneditsdoors,NewmanbegantoprepareforthepossibilityofCatholicsbeingreadmittedtoOxford.Hisoppositionto“MixedEducation”wasclearlynotabsolute.In1864,hepurchasedlandinOxfordwiththeaimofbuildingacollegeandachurchthere,18hopefulthattheChurchwouldpermitCatholicmentostudywiththeirProtestant

16Ker,Newman,p.406.17FrankTurner,“Editor’sPreface”,TheIdeaofaUniversity,p.ix18EamonDuffy,“ANewmanChronology”,notesforhis“JohnHenryNewman:Life,Thought,Legacy”,PaperC5TheologicalandReligiousStudiesTriposPartIIB,FacultyofDivinity,UniversityofCambridge,2011-12.

34

peers.19BishopUllathornewishedtobuildaCatholicChurchinOxford,andfromtheoutsetwantedNewmaninvolvedinthatproject.RomeeventuallygavesupporttotheestablishmentofaCatholicmissioninOxford,butorderedNewman–whohadstartedtoraisefundsfortheproject–toceasehisinvolvement.20BythistimehewasoutoffavourinRome;hewasseenasanallyofliberalCatholics,includingDollingerandActon,andhisownwritingsandideas(includingTheEssayonDevelopment,OnConsultingtheFaithfulonMattersofDoctrine,hiscriticismintheApologiaofanextreme“ultraparty”intheChurch,andhisviewsontheTemporalpowersofthePope)wereconsidereddeeplysuspectinsomequarters.21Moreover,hisfreshfame,inthewakeoftheApologia,madehimaparticularlydifficultcustomerfortheCatholicauthoritiesinRomeandEnglandalike.HisdreamsofplayingakeyroleinCatholichighereducationweredashed,buttheirlegacyliveson.UniversalknowledgeAbout12monthsago,asIdrovehomefromCampionCollege(aventureinconceivablewithouttheinfluenceofNewman’sreflectionsinTheIdeaofaUniversity)Ilistenedasauniversityprofessorspokeontheradioabouttheneedforstudentstoencounter“bighistory”–adiscipline,heargued,thathelpsstudentsseethefundamentalconnectednessofthingsandtoaskthebigquestions:whatdoesitallmean?howdoesitallfittogether?Ithoughttomyself:thisispureNewman,whowasaskingandansweringthesamequestions150yearsago;whobelievedauniversitywaspreciselythatplacewherestudentscouldpursuewhathecalled“universalknowledge”,includingtheology,andwherethedisciplinescouldconversewithoneanother,asthosethatundertookthemsoughttobecomegentlemen.Andwhere,inaCatholicUniversity,asNewmanbelieved,thosesamegentlemencouldadvancealsointheirtruevocation,tobesaints.

ButNewman’sIdeaisfarfrombeingapiousorevenstrictlyspeakingareligiouswork(withthenotableexceptionofhisencomiumofthepapacyintheopeningchapter).Andauniversityisnot,asNewmanmadeclear,aseminary.Norisitaplaceprimarilydesignedtopreparepeoplefortheprofessions.Itisironictherefore,giventhatNewmanisthemostarticulateadvocateforthenotionofthewonderful‘uselessness’oftheliberalarts(preciselybecausetheyarestudiedfortheirownsake),thatthemostsuccessfulpartoftheCatholicUniversityofIrelandwasitsmedicalschool.Newman,though,wasnotopposedtopracticalsubjectsbeingstudiedatuniversity,andhecametoappreciate,notwithstandinghisownideals,thattheuniversitydidneedtoprepareitslargelymiddle-classstudentstoenterprofessions.Butthis,forNewman,wasalwaysasecondaryaim.Therealpurposeofauniversityistocreateanenvironmentwheremen: 19SeeKer,Chapter11:“OratoryandUniversity”,Newman,pp.417-462.20SeeKer,Newman,p.597.21Mgr.GeorgeTalbotandArchbishopManningeachplayedakeyroleinsecuringoppositiontoNewman’sinvolvementintheOxfordproject.ForacopyofTalbot’slettertoManningurginghimtotakethefighttoNewman,seeWilfredWard,TheLifeofJohnHenryNewman(London:Longman,GreenandCo,1913),pp.146-148.Theroleofthesemen,andWilliamWard,inunderminingNewmanatkeypointsinhisCatholicecclesiasticalcareer,deservesastudyofitsown.Anultra-traditionalistandjaundiceddefenseoftheoppositiontoNewman–whichcontainstheaforementionedletter–canbefoundathttp://www.traditioninaction.org/ProgressivistDoc/A_134_Nw-Dangerous.html

35

thoughtheycannotpursueeverysubjectwhichisopentothem…willbethegainersbylivingamongthoseandunderthosewhorepresentthewholecircle…[Where]anassemblageoflearnedmen,zealousfortheirownsciences,andrivalsofeachother,arebrought,byfamiliarintercourseandforthesakeofintellectualpeace,toadjusttheclaimsandrelationsoftheirrespectivesubjectsofinvestigation.22

The“specialfruitoftheeducationfurnishedataUniversity”,accordingtoNewman,isacertain“habitofmind…whichlaststhroughlife,ofwhichtheattributesarefreedom,equitableness,calmness,moderation,andwisdom;orwhat…Ihaveventuredtocallaphilosophicalhabit”.

Asanation,aswecontinuetodebatetheroleofuniversitiesinachangingglobalcontext,intheworldandintheChurch,wecoulddoworsethanturnagaintoNewmanasourguide.Afterall,theattributesofthephilosophicalhabithedescribes(freedom,equitableness,calmness,moderation,andwisdom)aretheveryonesneededtoensuresuchadebateisfruitful.________________________

Dr Stephen McInerney is Senior Lecturer in Literature and Associate Dean ofStudies at Campion College, Sydney. He holds a Doctorate from the University ofSydney(2006),andaBachelorofArts(withFirstClassHonours)fromtheAustralianNationalUniversity,wherehewasawardedtheUniversityMedalinEnglishin2000.In2012hecompletedanAdvancedDiplomainTheologyandReligiousStudiesattheUniversityofCambridge,completingadissertationonJohnHenryNewmanandtheLiturgy,andwasawardedtheTheologicalStudiesPrizeandtheLightfootPrize.

His scholarlymonograph,TheEnclosureofanOpenMystery,a studyof the

poetry of Gerard Manley Hopkins, David Jones and Les Murray was published byPeterLangin2012.Apublishedpoethimself,hisfirstbookwasrecommendedbyLesMurrayinTheTimesLiterarySupplement‘BooksoftheYear’,andanewvolume,TheWindOutside,isdueforpublicationinFebruary2016.

22Newman,TheIdeaofaUniversity,p.77.

36

CAMPIONANDNEWMAN:THEPETERANDPAULOFCATHOLICHIGHEREDUCATION

KarlSchmude

EdmundCampionandJohnHenryNewman:boththesemencanstakealargeclaimtoimportanceintheideaofaCatholicuniversity.Newmanveryplainlyandrecognizably,asaresultofhisclassicwork,TheIdeaofaUniversity;yetCampionaswell,astheexistenceofCampionCollege,namedinhishonour,testifies,asAustralia’sfirst–andatthisstageonly–institutionofhighereducation.EdmundCampionembodiedavitalpartoftheCatholiceducationaltradition,evenifhiscontributionislessamplydocumentedandlesswidelyknown.Inthispaper,IwillbesuggestingthatCampionandNewmanarefoundationalfiguresofCatholichighereducation–comparableinthesphereoftheuniversitytothepivotalroleplayedbySts.PeterandPaulinthehistoricaldevelopmentoftheChurch.Letmebeginbysketchingapictureofthesetworemarkablemen–foundationalfiguresofCatholichighereducation:the‘twintowers’,asitwere,oftheCatholicuniversity.Theywerebornthreecenturiesapart–Campioninthe16thcentury,amidthereligiousandpoliticalturmoiloftheEnglishReformation,andNewmaninthe19thcentury,aperiodofgreatreligiousandintellectualcontroversy.Iimagineeachofthem,characteristically,inacell.EdmundCampionatfirstoccupiedthesecretcellwherehewasfoundandcaptured,thespecialhidingplaceatthattimeinEnglishCatholichousesusedbyCampionandotherpriests,duringthisperiodofpersecution,intheeventofasuddenraidbytheauthorities;andfinally,theprisoncelltowhichhewasconsignedintheTowerofLondon–acellunderstatedly,moreironically,describedasthe‘LittleEase’becauseofitscrampedshapethatpreventeditsoccupantfromstandingorlyingcomfortably.FromthesecellsinElizabethanEngland,Campion,stillarelativelyyoungman,radiatedenergyandinspiration–theenergyofascholarandlecturer,amanoflearning,theinspirationofanapostleandmartyr,amanoffaith.Iimaginehiminhispain–notonlyphysicalpain,havingbeentorturedontherackandnowfacingthehorrorofbeinghanged,drawnandquartered,butalsothementalandemotionalanguishofapriesttryingtoshepherdhispeopleinthemidstofpersecution.JohnHenryNewman,too,Ipictureinacell–inhiscase,ascholar’scell,composingtirelesslyathisdesk,producingsomanymemorableworks.Inthesewritings,especiallyhisprivatelettersanddiaries,Isensehispainaswell–thepainof

37

isolation,bothreligiousandcultural,andoffrustrationofhistalents,especiallyduringthelasthalf-centuryofhislifeasaCatholic.Newmanlivedtoaformidableage–hewasalmost90whenhedied–bycontrastwiththerelativeyouthofCampionathismartyrdom(hewasonly41).Ineachcase,thecelltheyinhabitedwasasymboloftheirreligiousfidelity.Itwasaconsecratedplaceinwhichtheylivedouttheirvocationofwitnesstothetruth.Wecan,perhaps,seeitas,inCampion’scase,aconsecrationofthemartyr’sheart,andinNewman’s,aconsecrationoftheteacher’smind.Ineachcase,Iliketoimaginethemintheircellsastheylivedouttheirlastdays,andtowonderiftheycalledtomindthemissiontheyhadcarriedouttoexaltthetruthintheirtime,andtobuildthe‘idea’ofauniversityforourtime.Indeed,alltime.ThusIwillbestrivinginthispapertodotwothings–first,tocomparethecontributionsofCampionandNewmantoanunderstandingofCatholichigherlearning,bothphilosophicallyandinstitutionally;andsecondly,toconsiderthewaysinwhichCampionandNewmanepitomizedtheCatholicintellectualvocation,andcarriedoutintheuniversityspheretheleadershipexertedmorebroadlyinthelifeoftheChurchbyPeterandPaul.MenofOxfordCampionandNewmanwerebothborninLondon,buttheywere,Ithink,quintessentiallymenofOxford.EachwastheoutstandingOxfordfigureofhistime.Campionwasapersonofprecociousbrilliance.SeveralyearsafterheleftOxford,hewasdescribedbyLordCecil,anarchitectoftheEnglishreformation(andcloseadvisortoQueenElizabeth),as‘oneofthediamondsofEngland.’1AtOxford,CampionwasappointedaFellowofStJohn’sCollegeattheageof17.Heattractedapersonalfollowing,andexercisedanintellectualinfluence,thatwasnotrivalledforanotherthreecenturies–untilJohnHenryNewmandidthesame,attendingTrinityCollege,Oxford,asanundergraduateandbecomingaFellowofOrielCollegeattheageof21.NewmancalledOxford‘themostreligiousuniversityintheworld’2,andtheinstitutionplayedadecisivepartinformingthereligiousandintellectualsensibilitiesofCampioninthe16thcenturyandofNewmaninthe19thcentury.SpeakingofthemembersoftheOxfordMovement,NewmansaidthatCatholicsdidnotinfluencetheirconversiontoCatholicism.‘Oxford,’hesaid,‘madeusCatholics’3.

1 Richard Simpson, Edmund Campion: a biography (London: John Hodges, 1896), p.20. 2 C.S. Dessain, John Henry Newman (London: Nelson, 1966), p.6. Cf. the comment of Christopher Dawson, The Spirit of the Oxford Movement (London: Sheed & Ward, 1933), p.87: ‘[Newman] saw that the anti-modern character of Oxford, its unutilitarian beauty, fitted it to be the representative of religious ideals and spiritual values in an age of secularism and material progress.’ 3IanKer,JohnHenryNewman:abiography(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1988),p.493.

38

CampionandNewmaneachdeliveredmemorablesermonsintheUniversityChurchofStMarytheVirgininOxford.CampiondidsoindirectlywhenhisworkofapologeticscalledTenReasonswassecretlyprintedandleftonthepewsofthechurch,arousingthehostilityoftheauthoritiesandcausingamassivesearchforhim–saidtobethelargestmanhuntatthattimeinEnglishhistory–whichculminatedinhiscaptureandexecution.NewmanalsospokeattheUniversityChurch–onlyhedidsoinperson,andfrequently,whenheservedasVicar(1828-1843)duringhisAnglicanyears.BothCampionandNewmanlovedOxford,andtheOxfordexperienceshapedtheirphilosophyofeducationandtheirdevotiontotheuniversityasaninstitution.4EachtriedtoestablishaCatholicuniversity–andeachwasunsuccessfulatthetime.TheseeffortsbothtookplaceinIreland.Campionsoughttoreviveauniversitythathadlapsed,apapalfoundationofthe14thcentury,whichwaslatertomaterialiseasTrinityCollege,Dublin.NewmanwasdeeplyengagedinthefoundingoftheCatholicUniversityofIreland;andwhileit,too,didnotreallyflourishinNewman’slifetime,itinspiredthelectureswhichhedeliveredinDublinandformedthefoundationofhisfamouswork,TheIdeaofaUniversity.LiberalartsandaliberaleducationWhatwasNewman’s‘idea’ofauniversity?Itwasatonceapositiveconceptshapedandsharpenedbynegativeforces.Thepositivecontentwasthestudyofvarioussubjectsorbranchesofknowledge–commonlycalledthe‘liberalarts’–soastoenlargeandcultivatethemindandproduceanintegratedunderstandingofknowledgeandtruth.InthisNewmanstressedthecompatibility–evenmore,thenecessaryinterdependence–ofreligionandlearning,offaithandreason,ofrevelationandtheimagination,asformingtheunityanduniversalityoftruth.5Atthesametime,Newman’saccountofaliberaleducation–theeducationthatbefitsafreeman,andparticularlyafreelayman,sinceNewmanhadadeepdesiretofosteraneducatedlaity6–isheightenedbythedefectsanddistortionsofhighereducation,whichhaveremainedtoourowntime,andindeedintensified;especiallytheutilitarianviewwhichconfuseseducationwithvocationaltraining,andtheclericalattitudewhichmistakesauniversityforaseminary.7EdmundCampion,too,hadadeepsenseofaliberaleducation,though,bycomparisonwithNewman,onlyfragmentssurvivetoillustratehisoutlook.AfterleavingOxford,hespentsometimeinIreland,andhiswritingsofthatperiodreflect 4Simpson,EdmundCampion,p.21,andTheLettersandDiariesofJohnHenryNewman,ed.CharlesStephenDessainetal.(Oxford:Clarendon,1961-77),Vol.XXI,p.303.5 John Henry Newman, Fifteen Sermons Preached Before the University of Oxford (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1900), Sermons X and XI, pp.176-221. 6 Letters and Diaries, Vol.XXI, p.327, and John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University, ed. I.T. Ker (Oxford: Clarendon, 1976), p.392. 7Ker,JohnHenryNewman,pp.382-3.

39

hisrichunderstandingofuniversityculture,combininghabitsofmindanddemeanourthatconstitutetheidealstudent8.AdiscoursehewroteinIrelandentitledTheAcademicMan,wasdescribedbytheEnglishJesuit,Fr.C.C.Martindale,asanticipatingNewman’sIdeaofaUniversity9.Campionstressed,forexample,theblendingofmoralsandmannerswiththecultivationoflearning;theimportanceofpietyandhumilityaswellashealthyhabitsofstudyandrecreation.InIreland,heofferedthisadvicetoastudent: ...[B]uryyourselfinyourbooks,completeyourcourse...keepyour

mindonthestretch...strivefortheprizeswhichyoudeserve...Onlypersevere,donotdegeneratefromwhatyouare,norsufferthekeeneyeofyourmindtogrowdarkandrusty.10

InanorationhedeliveredinFrance–attheseminaryofDouai–notlongafterwards,hewasevenmoreexplicitonwhatwasrequiredofastudent.Theidealstudentmustkeephismindsubtle,hismemoryactive,hisvoiceresonant;heshouldcultivatehispronunciation;hisrecreationsaretobepainting,playingtheluteandwritingmusic;andheshouldbedevotedtolanguages–Latin,Greekandhisowntongue,inwhichhemustcomposeversesandepigrams;byhis16thyear,hemustbeabletoproduceGreekiambicverse.11(Onewonderswhatthecomparabledemandsonthecontemporarystudentmightbe!)CampionaseducatorWhenCampionlaterarrivedinthecityofPrague,afterhisordinationasaJesuitandbeforehisreturntoEnglandandeventualmartyrdom,heengagedlargelyineducationalactivities,teachingintheliberalarts–especiallyphilosophyandrhetoricataJesuitschool(inPrague)–aswellasgivingdisplaysoforatoryandwritingandproducingplays.Toadecisiveextent,CampionembodiedthequalitiesthatNewmanwouldreadilyidentify,threecenturieslater,withhis‘ideaofauniversity’.Andtheybothembody,Ibelieve,theCatholicintellectualvocation,consistingasitdoesofcertaindistinctiveattributes–notably,adevotiontotruth,thesynthesisoffaithandreason,anattitudeofspiritualsacrificeandfidelity,azealforsouls,andacertaindaringinchallengingthestatusquo.

Thesequalitieshaveregisteredanimpactonourreligiousandeducationalculture,notleastinthenamesofCampionandNewmanbeinginvokedbyvariousinstitutions(colleges,universityclubsandresidentialhalls,andsecondaryschools).ThespiritofaCatholicintellectualvocationisstrikinglyevidentinbothCampionandNewman.InhisbiographyofCampion,EvelynWaughdescribestheprocessbywhichtheElizabethanscholarandsaintcametorealizewhatGodwasaskingofhim–inhisfidelitytothetruth,andtoGod:

8Simpson,EdmundCampion,p.34.9 C.C. Martindale SJ, Blessed Edmund Campion (London: Catholic Truth Society, 1964), p.3. 10Simpson,EdmundCampion,p.33.11Ibid,pp.36-7.

40

OnlybyslowstageswasitrevealedtoCampionhowcompletewasthesacrificerequiredofhim.Hehadpowerfulfriendsandabrilliantreputation.Surelywiththeseitmuststillbepossibletomakeacareerintheworld,withoutdoingviolencetohisreligion?Surelyitwasnotexpectedofhimtogiveupall.12

InthecaseofNewman,too,theprocessofrealizationwasslowandyetremorseless.Hewasacutelyconsciousofthesacrifices,bothpersonalandsocial,hemadeinbecomingaCatholic,andhelamentedthelossofoldassociationsandthedisplacementofmemories.13HislastsermonasanAnglicanwascalled‘ThePartingofFriends’.14HefeltnopersonalconsolationsorrewardsintheyearsfollowinghisconversiontoCatholicism;havingtoendure,ontheonehand,grievousmisunderstanding,andontheother,repeatedneglectofhistalentsandhispotentialvaluetotheChurch.15Inthis,nodoubt,hesufferedacontinuingtorment,somewhatsimilartotheoneexperiencedinthefollowingcentury(the20th)byanotherpriest-convertfromAnglicanism,RonaldKnox,who,inthewordsofarecentreviewer,suffered‘amildmartyrdom’.16EventhepangsofintellectualconfessionweresharplyfeltbyNewman:inwritingtheApologiaproVitaSua(1864),hereportedbeing‘constantlyintears,andconstantlycryingoutwithdistress’.17CatholicintellectualvocationBothCampionandNewmanunderstoodthattheCatholicintellectualvocationinvolvedsuffering–sufferingforthetruth,andsufferingforsouls.Onemarkofthiswasthebattlefortruth–thevariouscontroversiesinwhichCampionandNewmanengaged.Campionshowedhiswillingnessandhisskillintheworkofapologeticsheproduced,TenReasons,andinhisBrag,theshortbutcrucialmanifestohewroteofhispurposeinreturningtoEngland,aswellas,followinghiscapture,intheverbaldefenceheoffered,duringhistrial,oftheCatholicmissionheandothersundertooktoEngland.Newman,forhispart,revealedatanearlydatehistasteaswellashistalentforcontroversy.LikeCampion,hewasgreatlyinfluencedasacontroversialistbytheexampleofCicero.AshisbiographerIanKerhasobserved,Newmanhadastronglylogicalmindandgreatpowersofironyandsarcasm,whichwereespeciallyeffectiveinhissatiricalwritings.18Amajortargetofhissatire,forexample,wasthereligiousandspiritualshallownessthathesawinmiddleclassEnglandduringtheVictorianera,andinthisNewmanbearsreadycomparisonwithCharlesDickensandMatthewArnoldfortheeffectivenessofhiscriticalprose. 12 Evelyn Waugh, Edmund Campion (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1935), p.33. 13Ker,JohnHenryNewman,p.293.14 John Henry Newman, Sermons Bearing on Subjects of the Day (London: Rivington, 1844), pp.447-64. 15Ker,JohnHenryNewman,pp.520,561.16IsabelQuigly,“MildandBitter,”TimesLiterarySupplement(29March2002),p.36.17LettersandDiaries,Vol.XXI,p.107.18Ker,JohnHenryNewman,pp.157,168.

41

Atthesametime,NewmanalwaysappreciatedsomeelementsoftheestablishedEnglishchurch,recognizingthesignsofreligiousawakeningduringthe19thcentury,notonlyintheTractariansbutinsomeoftheEvangelicals,especiallythesocialreformerssuchastheClaphamSect(withinwhichWilliamWilberforcefiguredimportantlyinthefightagainstslavery).TheinvolvementofCampionandNewmanincontroversy–inthegreatdebatesoftheirrespectivetimes–isofinstructiveinterestinrelationtotheircontrastingpersonalities.Campionwasastrikinglyattractivefigure.AtOxfordhegainedaloyalfollowingamongstudents:theyflockedtohislecturesandevenimitatedhismannerismsanddressstyle.Hewasamanofgentlecourtesybutnotreserved,delightinginoratoryandthetheatre.HisbiographerEvelynWaughdescribeshimas‘magneticandinspiring’.19Acrossthecenturies,hecomestous,Ithink,asamanofunmistakableflair.Newmanappearsasadifferentpersonality–reserved,evenshy;lonelyandhighlysensitive,thoughalsorobustinthefaceofadversity;and,livingashedidsomuchlongerthanCampion,muchaffectedbytheenfeeblementofage.Sufferingforthetruth–sufferingforsoulsIhaveemphasized,inexploringthewitnessthatCampionandNewmangavetotheCatholicintellectualvocation,theirreadinesstosufferforthetruth.Butafurtherdimensionoftheirvocationwastheirwillingnesstosufferforsouls.Theseare,indeed,organicallylinked,inimitationofChrist’sownstatement,that‘IamtheWay,theTruthandtheLife’(John14:6);buttheyarealsotreatedinhiswork,TheIdeaofaUniversity,whereNewmanarguesthat,whilethedirectendofauniversityisknowledge,theindirecteffectsofauniversityarereligious.20InCampion’scase,thereishisheroicvirtueasapriest,atfirstduringhissixyearsatPrague,wherehenotonlyservedanacademicrolebutwasalsopreacherandconfessorandproviderofsuccourtothoseinprisonandinhospital;andthenonhisreturntoEnglandwherehefacedthehazardsofahuntedpriestasheministeredtohispersecutedflock.Oneincidentinparticular,Ithink,epitomizeshispastoralardour–andthatis,hisforgivenessoftheman,GeorgeEliot,whobetrayedhimtotheauthorities.(Shadeshere,perhaps,ofStPopeJohnPaulII,forgivingthemanwhotriedtoassassinatehimin1981–MehmetAliAgca-inhisRomejailcell.It‘sbeenreportedthatAgca,nowreleasedfromjail,recentlyvisitedtheVaticantolayflowersatthetombofthePopehetriedtokill.)GeorgeEliotvisitedCampioninhisprisoncellandconfessedthat,afterhisJudas-likeact,hefearedforhislife.CampionurgedhimtoseekGod’smercyanddopenanceforthesakeofhissalvation.HethenofferedtoprovideforEliot’ssafetyby 19Waugh,EdmundCampion,p.62.20Ker,JohnHenryNewman,p.381.

42

recommendinghimtoaCatholicdukeinGermany.Thisoverturedidnothavethedesiredeffect–EliotreturnedtospyingfortheProtestantauthorities–butitdidproduceanotherbenefit.Campion’sgaolerwaspresentathismeetingwithEliotandwassoswayedbyCampion’sgreatnessofheartthathebecameaCatholic.Newman,too,exhibitedareadinesstosufferforsouls.HisconversiontoCatholicismdidnotloosenhisbondsofsympathywithhisAnglicanfriends.Herecalledwithfeelingthelongyearswheretheyworshippedside-by-side,butacknowledgedthathisveryoutspokennesswasduetohisconvictionthat‘theCatholicChurchistheonearkofsalvation’21,andduealsotothelovethatheharbouredfortheirsouls.Asapriest,hehadadeeppastoralsense,whichhisfameandhisfinalelevationtoCardinaldidnotimpair.ThosewhomGod‘singularlyandspeciallyloves,HepursuedwithHisblows,sometimesononeandthesamewound,tillperhapstheyaretemptedtocryoutformercy’.22Newman,indeed,thoughtthattheveryactofbeliefwasnotonlyintellectualbutalsomoral.Itdependson‘arightstateofheart’and‘isperfected,notbyintellectualcultivation,butbyobedience’.Inshort,Newmansaid,‘Webelieve,becausewelove’.23CampionandNewmaninIrelandAnimportantfactorinthezealforsoulsexhibitedbybothCampionandNewman,Ibelieve,wastheirexposuretopopularCatholiccultureandordinaryCatholicpeople.AsEdmundCampionwrestledatOxfordwithhismindandconscienceoverhisreligiousallegiance,itprovedsignificantthathemovedtoIreland.Therehelivedinthefamilyhomeofafriend,and,EvelynWaughrecords,‘forthefirstandlasttimeinhislife,hetastedthehappinessofanormal,culturedhousehold’.24HeexperiencedthetriballifeoftheIrishpeople,andthedependableroutinesandrhythmsofadeeplyCatholicculture.NewmanwasalsoexposedtothisIrishculture,duringthesevenyearsofhisefforttoestablishtheCatholicUniversityinDublin.HefeltanenduringgratitudetotheIrishpeopleforthekindnesstheyhadshownhimovertheyears–fromhisfirstvisitin1851.Butatanearlierstage,bothbeforeandafterhisconversion,hehadvisitedItalyandSicily.Hewasprofoundlyimpressedbythequalityofpopularfaith–‘everywhereasimplecertaintyinbelievingwhichtoaProtestantorAnglicanisquiteastonishing’.25Newmanalsounderstoodthenatureofpopularfaithwhich,whileitwasoftenintermingledwithpagantraditionsandcarriedsuperstitionsrequiringpurification,wasnonethelessfarpreferabletoscepticism.‘[He]whobelievesalittle,butencompassesthatlittlewiththeinventionsofmen,isundeniablyinabetterconditionthanhewhoblotsoutfromhismindboththehumaninventions,andthatportionoftruthwhichwasconcealedinthem’.26 21 John Henry Newman, Certain Difficulties felt by Anglicans in Catholic Teaching (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1918), Vol.1, p.4. 22Ker,JohnHenryNewman,pp.709-10.23 John Henry Newman, Fifteen Sermons Preached before the University of Oxford (London: Longmans,, Green & Co, 1900), pp.234,236,250. 24Waugh,EdmundCampion,p.34.25LettersandDiaries,Vol.XII,p.24.26JohnHenryNewman,TheAriansoftheFourthCentury(London:Longmans,Green&Co,1895),p.85

43

ThecultureofpopularbeliefandpracticeiscentraltothecontributionsofCampionandNewmantothecauseofCatholichighereducation.Bothwereengagedindisputesthatseemedecclesiasticalandpolitical–appearingtobeessentiallyaconflictbetweenCatholicismandProtestantism.Theywere,however,actuallyfarmoreprofound–involvingconflictsthatwerespiritual,andevenapocalyptic.ForbothmenrecognizedthatnewforcesweremenacingtheChristianfaithand,byextension,itsinstitutionssuchastheCatholicuniversity.LikeThomasMorebeforehim,Campionsaw,atleastinagerminalform,thegreatthreatposedbythepoweroftheState,whichwouldre-ordertheprioritiesofbeliefandcommitmentandjeopardizereligiouslibertyandtherightsofreligiousinstitutions.TheInfidelityoftheFutureNewman,ontheotherhand,wasacutelyalivetotheloomingdangerofsecularism–athreattothefundamentalviabilityofreligiousbeliefinWesternsocietywhichwasnotonlybecomingirreligiousbutanti-Christian.AsChristopherDawsonpointedout,‘NewmanwasthefirstChristianthinkerintheEnglish-speakingworldwhofullyrealisedthenatureofmodernsecularismandtheenormouschangewhichwasalreadyintheprocessofdevelopment,althoughacenturyhadstilltopassbeforeitwastoproduceitsfullharvestofdestruction’.27InaremarkablesermonwhichNewmanpreachedin1873entitled‘TheInfidelityoftheFuture’,heforesawthemagnitudeofthethreatposedbyamilitantsecularism.‘Christianity’,hesaid,‘hasneveryethadexperienceofaworldsimplyirreligious’,and‘thetrialswhichliebeforeusaresuchaswouldappalandmakedizzyevensuchcourageousheartsasStAthansius,StGregoryI,orStGregoryVII.Andtheywouldconfessthat,darkastheprospectoftheirowndaywastothemseverally,ourshasadarknessdifferentinkindfromanythathasbeenbeforeit’.28ItwasnolongerpossibletodependontheorthodoxfaithofProtestants,whileCatholicsinEnglandwerelikelytobeseenas‘theenemies’of‘civilliberty’and‘nationalprogress’,andtofacediscrimination,particularlysincetheyweretooprominenttobeignoredandyettooweaktodefendthemselves.29BothCampionandNewmanpossessedapropheticsensethatremainssharplyrelevanttoourowntimes–andtothefutureofaCatholicuniversityinoursociety.FrankSheedsaidthatCampionwas‘thefirstmodernmaninEnglishhistory...Hewasof20thcenturycast’.30CampionwassensitivetotheproblemoftheStateinrelationtotheChurch,especiallywhenitcametotheenforcementoffalsereligion.

27 Christopher Dawson, “Newman and the Sword of the Spirit,” The Sword of the Spirit (August 1945), p.1. 28 John Henry Newman, Catholic Sermons of Cardinal Newman (London: Burns & Oates, 1957), pp.121, 123. 29Ker,JohnHenryNewman,p.676.30 F.J. Sheed, Sidelights on the Catholic Revival (London: Catholic Book Club, 1940), p.19.

44

Nodoubtthepeopleofthe16thcenturywerefeelingtheirwayonthepreciserelationshipofreligiousandpoliticalinstitutions,especiallywhentheseinstitutionsfellintoconflictovertheprimacyofacitizen’sloyalty.ButitisperhapsarguablethatCampionhadanearlyintimationoftheextenttowhichtheStatecouldsubjecttheprerogativesofGodtothepowerofCaesar,andleadtothetwofoldoutcomeofapoliticizedChurch–andadesacralizedorsecularizedState–withwhichwetodayaremuchmorefamiliar.ApoliticizedChurchbringsthepoweroftheStateintotheverybosomoftheChurch,sothattheStatedetermines,anddictates,religiousfaith,whichleadstoafatalconfusionofsacredandsecularloyalties.Thereareabundantexamplesofthisconfusioninpresent-dayWesternsociety,particularlyinthesphereoflaw,whetheritisthelegislatureorthecourt;butperhapsthemoststrikinginstanceofapoliticizedChurchispresent-dayIslam,whichcompoundsreligionandpoliticsinasocialorderconsecratedbynationalism.ThelackofdistinctioninIslambetweenChurchandState,betweenGodandCaesar,is,ofcourse,adirectandoftenviolentconfrontationtothecomplacentyettenacioussecularismofthecontemporaryWest.IthinktheresurgenceofIslaminthe21stcenturyhasgivennewrelevance,andnewurgency,totheeventsandconsequencesofthe16thcenturyEnglishReformation.Indeed,ifIslamposesthegreatthreattoChristianityinthe21stcentury,asCommunismdidinthe20thcentury,wecanappreciateevenmoresharplythecombinedimportanceforourtimeofthepropheticinsightofEdmundCampionandJohnHenryNewman.CampionasaprecursorofNewmanCampionmay,perhapsbeseenasaprecursorofNewman,for,iftheStatecandeterminereligion,itcanalsodetermineirreligion.Itcanimposeapostasy.ApoliticizedChurch,inwhichthetemporaldisplacesthetranscendental,doesinfactpavethewayforasecularistculture,inwhichtemporalloyaltiesareelevatedtotimeless,andtotalitarianideologybecomesasubstitutefortranscendentalfaith.Theseprinciplesareofdirectrelevancetotheuniversityasaninstitution,andspecificallytheCatholicuniversity;fortheuniversitycannotmaintainitsintegrity,itsessentialmission,asaneducationalinstitution,ifitisatfirstpoliticizedandthensecularized.AsChristopherDawsonnoted,inhis1961book,TheCrisisofWesternEducation,Dawsonnoted–Ithink,withgreatprescience–that,inasecularistculture,theCatholicChurchmustnotonlydealwithCatholiccollegesanduniversities.Itmustattendtosecularinstitutionsoflearningaswell.31So,inexploringtheideaofaCatholicuniversityinthe21stcentury,wemustalsoaddress,Ibelieve,theideaofauniversity.CampionandNewman–PeterandPaul

31ChristopherDawson,TheCrisisofWesternEducation(London:Sheed&Ward,1961),p.112.

45

IhavedescribedCampionandNewman,inthesub-titleofthispaper,asthePeterandPaulofCatholichighereducation.Thereis,indeed,adegreeofdramaticlicenceinsuchaclaim;but,inponderingtheimportanceofCampionandNewman,bothfortheirowntimeandforours,IhavebeenstruckbycertainparallelswiththelivesandcontributionsofStPeterandStPaul.Intheirsenseofintellectualvocation,CampionandNewmanmaybeseentoresembleStPaul–theirfacilitywithideasandwithlanguage,theirdeepconvictionsfoundedinfaithaswellasreason,andtheirdevotiontolearning.Paulwasaconvert,aswasCampionandNewman;and,justasPaulprovidedatheologicalfoundationandanintellectualarchitecturefortheChristianfaith,soCampionandNewmansuppliedtheintellectualunderpinningfortheChristianuniversity.Incertainotherways,CampionandNewmanresembleStPaul–intheirpreachingandpoweroforatory,andintheirdaring,abraveeagernesstotakeontheprevailingintellectualorderandchallengeitwiththeTruthofChrist.TothismightbeaddedCampion’spersonalprowess–aphysicaldaring,anundeniableverve,manifestedbyStPaulinhisperilousjourneys,andbyStEdmundCampioninhisperiodofconstantlyevadingtheEnglishauthorities,until,likeStPaul,hewascapturedandmartyred.Newman,too,displaysPaulinequalities.Foronething,NewmanandPaulweregreatletterwriters.Foranother,theybothsoughttoadapttheChurchtonewconditions–Newman’sgraspofsecularismhelpingtopreparetheChurchforadifferentculture,mirroringStPaul’sroleindevelopingtheChurchbeyonditscradleinJudaismtomeetthedifferentcircumstancesofaGentileworld.NewmanhadaspecialrespectforStPaulbecauseofhishumanity–‘hisintimatesympathyandcompassionatenessforthewholeworld,notonlyinitsstrength,butinitsweakness;inthelivelyregardwithwhichheviewseverythingthatcomesbeforehim,takenintheconcrete’.32CampionandNewmanresembleStPeterintheunmistakablequalitiesofleadershipwhicheachdisplayed.Theyembodiedandprojectedavisionoflearning,oftheintellectualapostolate,oftheuniversity,thatbearsrespectfulcomparisonwiththebroaderleadershipintheChurchexercisedbyStPeter.Theyalsoshowedacapacityfororganizationaldevelopment,oneofthequalitiesofaleader,asrevealedintheirrespectivedesiretofounduniversitiesinIreland,andinNewman’scase,inhisestablishmentoftheOratoryinBirminghamasaninstitutionalcentreofChristianhumanism.AnincidentallinkofStEdmundCampionwithStPeter,whichIfindintriguing,isthatthedayonwhichCampionresignedfromOxford(in1569)andembarkeduponthepaththatfinallyledtohismartyrdomwasthefeastofStPeterinChains–asymbolic 32Ker,JohnHenryNewman,p.484.

46

prefigurement,indeed,forCampionhimself.And,afterhisreturntoEnglandin1580,CampionchosethefeastdayofStPeterandStPaul,June29,tospeakonthePapacy(underthetitle‘TuesPetrus’)beforealargeaudienceinLondon.Itwould,Ibelieve,beappropriatethat,ifJohnHenryNewman,nowbeatified,isfullyraisedtothealtarsofCatholicsainthood,hesharethefeastdayofStEdmundCampion,December1st–inagracefulechoofthecombinedfeastdayofStPeterandStPaul(onJune29).____________________________KarlSchmudeisPresidentoftheAustralianChestertonSocietyaswellasamemberoftheEditorialBoardoftheinternationalChestertonInstituteandafrequentcontributortoitsjournal,TheChestertonReview.HehasproducedabiographicalbookletonG.K.Chesterton(republishedin2008bytheCatholicTruthSocietyinLondon),aswellasotherbookletsonCatholicfiguresandsubjects.Hisoccasionalarticleshaveappearedinvariousjournals,bothinAustraliaandoverseas,onsubjectsassociatedwithreligionandculture-particularlyliterature,history,andeducation.HeservedasUniversityLibrarianfrom1984to2000attheUniversityofNewEnglandinArmidaleNSW,andthenbecameengagedinthedevelopmentofCampionCollegeasAustralia’sfirstLiberalArtscollege.

47

AUSTRALIANCHESTERTONSOCIETY

Purpose

TheAustralianChestertonSociety isanationalassociationdevoted to fosteringanappreciation of G.K. Chesterton’s writings and the value of his thought incontemporaryAustralia.

TheAustralianChestertonSociety ispartofan internationalChestertonmovementthat seeks to promote the study and understanding of Chesterton’s ideas andinsights. Various members contribute regularly to The Chesterton Review, thequarterlyjournaloftheG.K.ChestertonInstituteforFaith&CulturelocatedatSetonHallUniversity inNewJersey.SeveralmembersserveontheEditorialBoardofTheReview.Inaddition,theAustralianagentforsubscriptionstoTheChestertonReviewisMrsVirginiaSchmudeof177ErskineStreet,ArmidaleNSW2350.

Historicalbackground

TheSocietyfirstfunctionedasaregionalbody,havingbeenestablishedin1993byMr A.G. (Tony) Evans as the G.K. Chesterton Society ofWestern Australia. Duringthatperiod,theSocietylaunched,inassociationwiththeUniversityofNotreDameAustralia, an annual series of Chesterton Memorial Lectures, delivered by suchdistinguished speakers asRevDr Paul StenhouseMSC, Professor PierreRyckmans,IanWilson and Dr Race Matthews. It also held talks and debates as well as lessformalmeetingsdevotedtoconvivialconversationonChesterton’sworks.

Conferences

In2000,theSocietyassumeditsnationalidentityatamajorconferenceheldintheancientmonasterytownofNewNorcia,northofPerth.SincethattimetheSocietyhas staged conferences in such centres as Sydney (2001), Canberra (2002), andMelbourne(2004).Itsconferencessince2007havetakenplaceatCampionCollegeAustraliainSydney.

48

AUSTRALIANCHESTERTONSOCIETY

OFFICE-HOLDERS

PresidentandEditorof‘TheDefendant’:MrKarlSchmude,

177ErskineStreet,ArmidaleNSW2350.Phone:0407721458.

Email:kgschmude@gmail.com

Secretary/Treasurer:

MrRayFinnegan,

13FosseyStreet,Holder,ACT2611.Phone:(02)62885137.

Email:range2@grapevine.net.au

AssociateEditorof‘TheDefendant’:

MrSymeonThompson

Email:symeonjthompson@me.com

___________________________________________________________

MembershipoftheAustralianChestertonSocietyisavailableforA$25.00perannum.ItincludesasubscriptiontotheSociety’squarterlynewsletter,TheDefendant,andcanbearrangedbycontactingtheSociety’sSecretary/Treasurer,MrRayFinnegan,13FosseyStreet,HolderACT2611.

Email:range2@grapevine.com.auTelephone&Fax:(02)62885137

Subscriptionsarepayablebyelectronicbanktransfer,thedetailsofwhichare:

BSB:062-908(CBA,WodenACT)AccountNo.:10417201AccountName:AustralianChestertonSociety(Pleaseincludeyournameasdepositorinthedetailsbox)