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Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora Edited by

Joseph E Harris

Howard University Press Washin gton D C 1982

Copyright copy 1982 by Howard University Press

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without permission in writing from the publisher Inquiries should be adshydressed to Howard University Press 2900 Van Ness Street NW Washington Oc 20008

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publicalion Oata Main entry under title

Global dimensions of the African diaspora

Essays of the First African Oiaspora Studies Institute (FAOS) which in 1979 assembled at Howard University -Pref

Bibliography p Includes index 1 Africa-Civilization-Congresses 2 Africansshy

Foreign countries-History-Congresses 3 SlaveryshyAfrica-History-Congresses 4 Blacks-Cultural assimilation-Congresses 5 Blacks-Race identityshyCongresses 6 Afro-Americans-Africa-History-Conshygresses I Harris Joseph E 1929- II African Oiaspora Studies Institute (1st 1979 Howard University) 0T14 GS6 1982 900 0496 82-23261 ISBN 0-88258-022-1

Contents

Preface ix

Introduction JOSEPH E HARRIS

3

Conceptual and Meth od ological Issues

The Oialectic between Oiasporas and Homelands ELLIOTT P SKINNER

17

African Oiaspora Concept and Conlext GEORGE SH EPPERSON

46

African Oiaspora Conceptual Framework Problems and Methodological Approaches

ORUNO O LARA

54

Conceptualizing Afro-American African Relations Implications for African Oiaspora Studies

OKON EOET UYA

69

The Relationship between African and African-American Literature as Utilitarian Art A Theoretical Fonmulation

85

MI CERE M ClTHAE- MUCO

Concepts of O jaspora and Alienation as Priveleged Themes in Negritude Literature

DANIEL L RACINE

94

African Oral Traditions and Afro-American Cultural Traditions as a Mea~s of Understanding Black Culture

106

DJIBRIL TAMSIR NIANE

A Comparative Approach to the Study of the African Diaspora

JOSEPH E HARRI S

112

v

vi CONTENTS

Assimilation and Identity

African Culture and US Slavery LAWRENCE w LEVINE

127

Thoughts about Literature the Oiaspora and Africa DARWIN T TURNER

136

Howard University and Meharry Medical Schools in the Training of African Physicians 1868-1978

ADELL PATrON JR

142

Guinea versus Congo Lands Aspects of the Collective Memory in Haiti

GUERIN c MONTILUS

163

Blacks in Britain A Historical and Analytical Overview

170

FOtARIN SHYLLON

The Impact of Afro-Americans on French-Speaking Black Africans 1919-1945

IBRAHIMA B KAKf

195

Richard Wright Negritude and African Literature MICHEL J FABRE

210

A Lesser-Known Chapter of the African Oiaspora West Indians in Costa Rica Central America

ROY S IMON BRYCE-LAPORTE and assisted by TREVOR PURCELL

219

The Return

Garvey and Scattered Africa TONY MARTIN

243

Afro-American Influence in Colonial Malawi 1891-1945 A Case Study of the Interaction Between Africa and Africans of the Oiaspora

KINGS M PHIRI

250

The Presence of Black Americans in Lower Congo from 1878 to 1921

KIMPIANGA MAHANIAH

268

Afro-Americans and Futa Ojalon BOUBACAR BARRY

283

Brazi1ian Returnees of West Africa SY BOADl-SIAW

The Sierra Leone Krios A Reappraisal from the Perspective of the African Diaspora

AKINTOLA J G WYSE

Toward a Synthesis

Diaspora Studies and Pan-Africanism ST CLAIR DRAKE

Contributors

Index

CONTENTS vii

291

309

341

405

409

Howard University and Meharry Medical Schools in

the Training of African Physicians 1868-1978

Adell Patton Jr

Prior to 1946 the records show repeated epjdemics of smallbox at 5-10 year intervals with a high continuous prevalence in the hinterland of West Africa The United States Public Health Service Mission in Liberia became actively involved in the 1946-1947 outshybreaks The writer saw 42 cases of smallpox d isease in hinterland villages within one day with three deaths during the night Smallpox disease was so rampant in certain villages that one could observe child ren four feet tall and children who were three feet tall but no children in be-tween and the people w o uld say that was the year that the epidemic came and a ll the babjes died causshying the gap in the height of the children locally trained ~acshycinators undertook to vaccinate the en tire population of Liberia against smallpox in 1946-1946 A 1950-1952 study of records showed less than one dozen cases reported fo r the entire country1

IN his field observations Hildrus A Poindexter (MD Ph D MS MP H ScD) professor at Howard University and pioneer of trop ical medicine in the Afrishycan dlaspora Illustrates the Impact of dIsease in West Africa2 commonly referred to as the white mans

grave in the early nineteenth century William H McNeill however may have overstated the historical effect of disease upon Nrican development as a whole He reported that

142

Howard and Meha rry Medical Schools African Physicians 143

Obviously human attempts to shorten the food chain within the toughest and the most variegated of all natural ecosystems of the earth the tropical rain forests and adjacent savanna regions to Africa are still imperfectly successful and continue to involve exceptionally high costs in the form of exposure to disease That more than anything else is why Africa remained backward [sic) in the develo pment of civilizat ion when compared to temperate lands (o r tropical zones like those o f the Americas) where p revailing ecosystems were less elaborated and correspo ndingly less in imical to simpiicatio n by human action

But in contrast to the less disastrous relationship of man and his environshymen t elsewhere in the world humans and parasites in Africa have generally had a primary relationship to each other because humankind originated in Africa man and infectious disease developed in competishytion with each other from the start Through time innovations in Western and African medicine have been significant in the reduction of disease on the African continent and the physician has played no minor role in disease co ntrol In the nineteenth century Sierra Leone was a unique frontier enclave for the development of the pioneer West African physician Trained and certified in Edinburgh and London this elite class of African physicians included John Macaulay (1799) William Ferguson (1814) William Broughton Davies (1858) James Africanus Beale Horton (1859) John Farrell Easmon (1880) and Oguntola Sapara (1895)-to name just a few

Classification of African Physicians

From a global perspective the training of the African physician fa lls into four categories (1) the African MD trained in Western Europe primarily in Britain and France prior to and after World War II (2) the African MD trained in the socialist nations of Eastern Europe after World War Il (3) the African M D trained in the United States the Caribbean and Canada and (4) the most recent development in African medical educa tion the African MD trained wholly or partially in Africa s

This essay foc uses upon a segment of the third category -the African MD trained in the United States at Howard University and Meharry medical scho ols A t these institutions Africans matriculated and fostered links between Afro-Americans and Africa in the development of public health

Colonial Era and African Physicians

Pseudoscientific racism ttiumphed with the onset of colonial rule in Africa about 1900 In West Africa the British reversed an earlier trend of

144 THE AFRICAN DIASPORA

allowing Africans to be trained as medical doctors in Scotland and England Furthermore African physicians were paid lower salaries than their counterparts in the colonial serviceoSince some earlier African proshytonationalists had been physicians the British may have so ught to discourage further nationalist sentiment by reducing the dominance of African doctors7

In regard to public health in Africa these developments occurred at an unfavorable time for colonial rule with its use of labor-intensive projects in the Cameroon as a common example shifted segments of the African population from areas with low malaria prevalence to areas of high prevalence These newly shifted populations had little resistance to malaria and suffered disproportionately from the ravages of that disease Wherever these dislocations occured the newly arrived populations were at greater risk to disease prevalent in the new environment Available evidence shows that these migrations and changes in living conditions in the early years of colonization wrought unprecedented rates of mortality and morbidity 8

Whatever the motive discrimination ultimately reduced the numbers of African doctors to those serving the coastal elites and curtailed the exshytension of scientific public health services to the underprivileged urban and rural population Since the unhealthiest period in all of African history was between 1890 and 1930 the new shift in colonial policy was detrimental to African health and vitality a factor that did no t go unshynoticed by Africans In 1911 the color bar prompted African doctors to send letters and petitions to the British Advisory Medical and Sani tary Committee Some British colonial administrators supported them beshycause as the British medical register showed those African doctors had received degrees from recognized European medical schools1O

Although this political action was to no avail the issue would not disappear In 1920 Dr Herbert Bankole-Bright (MD Edinburgh and the London School of Tropical Medicine) of Freetown Sierra Leone not only used the Accra conference of the National Congress of British West Africa to call for gradual self-government witrtin the British Empire but presented research papers on topics of medical and sanitary problems in the British territories of West Africa In his masters thesis on Dr Bankole-Bright Mohammed Bah reports that

Attacking the colonial administratio n for residential segregation Dr BankoleshyBright called on members to urge the colonial administration to improve the conditions of local doctors Included in his presentation was a direct attack against the British colonial administratio n for treating African doctors in a different manner from European expatriate doctorslJ

Based on these conditions one can understand how and why Howard University and Meharry medical schools made a unique contribution to

Howard and Meharry M edical Schools African Physicians 145

the development of public health on the African continent If Africans with medical aspirations wished to study outside the colonial world these two institutions were their main source o f medical education in the United States

Black Medical Schools

Seven black medical schools were founded during the post-Civil War era Howard University Medical School held its first classroom lecture on November 5 1868 Eight students attended but the class was opened to all persons without regard to sex or race Meharry Medical School of Nashville which opened in 1876 solely for the education of Negro docshytors was initially deSignated as the Medical Department of Central Tenshynessee College (1866) and enrolled eleven students with exslave status To supplement the work of Howard and Meharry five other medical schools were established from 1882 to 1903 In 1882 Leonard Medical School of Shaw University was founded in Raleigh and by 1915 it had graduated over 500 physicians some of whom came from Liberia Trinidad and Jamaica In 1888 the Louisville National Medical College was founded followed the next year by the establishment of the Flint Medical College in New Orleans In the Tennessee mountains Knoxville Medical College began in 1895 with classrooms located over a funeral parlor Strange as it may nOw seem this location was beneficial to the college for embalmed specimens were indispensable to pathologists and to students studying anatomy And finally the least known of all Chatshytanooga (Tennessee) National Medical College came into existence in 1903 However despite the uncertainties surrounding the foundation of these medical schools their emergence represen ted a major transformashytion in black social-medical history In the antebellum period the first black physicians were either self-taught healers such as James Still David Ruggles William Wells Brown or apprentice-trained such as Martin R Delaney James McCune Smith presumably had received the MD degree abroad at the University of Glasgow as early as 1837 By the end of the antebellum era there were only three US educated black physicians with training equivalent to their Sierra Leonean counterparts David J Peck (1847 Rush Medical College) John V Degrasse and Thomas J White (1849 Bowdoin College) The latter institution had a medical school at that time whose objective was to prepare blacks for medical service in Liberia 12

But despite the mot ivation and intent of the seven black medical schools in the post-Civil War era by the early twentieth century the dispensers of philanthropy phased out all but two of those schools In 1910 the Flexner report on the status of medical education in the United


States and Can~da appeared under the auspices of the Carnegie Foundashytion The report encouraged various foundations to support only apshyproved medical schools and recommended that Meharry at Nashville and Howard at Washington are worth developing-the upbuilding of Howard and Meharry will profit the nation much more than the inadeshyquate maintenance of a large number of schools The Flexner report had a long-lasting impact on the training of black physicians in preshydominantly black institutions For nearly half of the twentieth century Howard and Meharry were the only historically black institutions acshycredited to provide medical education It was not until September 1978 some sixty-eigh t years after the Flexner report that the School of Medicine at Morehouse College in Atlanta enrolled twenty-four students as the third predominantly black medical school 14

Medical School Curriculum

The curriculum of neither Meharry nor Howard showed significant innovation in the nineteenth century That both institutions were conshyceived in an era preceding the pioneer discoveries of the causation of inshyfectious diseases is evident by their earliest views on these diseases In the graduating class at Meharry in 1878 Lorenzo Dow Key reported a comshymon belief in a discussion on malaria that

Malaria was derived from two Latin w o rds which means bad air It is supposshyed that air in certain portions of this and other co untries is filled with germs that are fonned by the deco mpositi on of animal and vegetable matter and it is thought by a large number o f w riters on the subject that persons who inhabit these districts take into their systems during respiratio n these genns which enter the circulation 1S

The medical school at Howard University held classes only in the evening for daytime classes did not begin until 1910 and with only partshytime faculty and without certain basic laboratory facilities or quarters for animal experimentation For the most part patients were treated as their ancestors and relatives had treated th em-without the benefit of anshytibiotics or specific drugs Clinicians instructed the sick to avoid certain types of night ai and either purged them with cathartics 0 induced sweatingl 6 On the other hand the curriculum of Meharry as shown by Falk and Quaynor-Malm used textbooks such as Grays Anatomy Dunglisons M edical Dictionary and Meigs Diseases o f Children without any reference to John Wesleys Primitive Physick In the words of these researchers the Meharry curriculum was a thoroughly Anglo-Saxon white medical one 17

Religion and the religious experience were extremely important fac-

Howard and Metarry Medical Schools African Physicians 147

tors in the daily life of black medical students black physicians and their black patients All Meharry graduates were active Christians and some were part-time ministers But the medical education which those students were being provided bore little relationship to the tradition or the reality of the patients they were expected to treat There was little difference between the Howard curriculum and that of Meharry Both reflected the acculturation process which denied the existence of a rational medical system in ancient Egypt or Africa that was in fact over 3000 years old

However Howard and Meharry started curriculum innovations in the early decades of the twentieth ce ntury in ways more beneficial to the development of medical services in Africa Many of these changes may have had late nineteenth century antecedents Courses in tropical medishycine hygiene dietetics and preventive medicine are found in the Howard catalog as early as 1912 and 1914 And in 1922 if not earlier one finds a department of bacteriology with a course in public health headed by Professo r Algernon Brashear Jackson with Dr Uriah Daniels Mr James Julian Jr and Mr Felix Anderson as supporting faculty 1 9 Although Meharrys catalog showed change it did not show a course listing in tropical medicine or epidemiology until 1922 This is not to say however that earlier students may not have been provided with medical knowledge useful in the management of tropical diseases Further in 1922 a co urse in parasitology and clinical microscopy appeared with the following couse description A brief course in Parasitology is given in conjunction with Bacteriology of the second year of the medical course The students are made acquainted with the methods of identifying malaria plasmodium and other pathogenic parasites lO Although the white administration at Meharry brought significant benefits to medical trainees the real sensitivity to substantive changes came with the inshyauguration of a black administration In 1952 Dr Harold D West (PhD) became the first black president of Meharry And in 1966-1967 Dr Lloyd Elam (M D ) became the new college president continuing the faculty renaissance of his predecessor 21

In 1926 Howard University installed Mo rdecai Wyatt Johnson (5 TM Do) as its first black president During the thirty-four years of his administration Howard University became a center of black scholarshyship a black intellectual oasis In 1929 a dynamic phase of development began in the medical school with the appointment of Dr Numa P G Adams (M D) as its first black dean Dr Adams embarked on a bold program of institutional and faculty development With the preSidents support he recruited a full-time fa culty for the first time Shortly thereafter in 1930 Edwin R Embree executive secretary of the General Education Board (Rockefeller Foundation) provided grants to Howard and Meharry for training beyond the MD degree and Adams insisted


upon such training Hence Howards ou tstanding medical graduates such as M Whart on Young (MD) and W Montague Cobb (M D) went on to obtain the PhD in the basic biomedical sciences Having joined the medical faculty in 1931 with his M D from Harvard Hildrus A Poindexter also obtained the PhD (1932) in microbiology and imshymunology at Columbia University and later co ntinued his studies in tropical medicine at the same universi ty as well as at the University of Puerto Rico

Ernest E Just (PhD University of Chicago 1916) ap parently worked in liaison with the medical school before the medical faculty renaissance era and was probably the first Ph D to teach in the medical school He directed most of his better students to enter medicine rather than graduate study because of the unfav orable job market An outstanding scientist his professional career included appointments at the University of Chicago and from 1930 onward he studied at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Inshystitute fur Biologie at Berlin-Dahlem until Nazi Germany brought this acshytivity to a halt Among numerous other publica tions lust published his seminal work The Biology of the Cell Surface in 1938 Finally Charles R Drew (MD McGill) joined the faculty in 1935 as instructor in the Department of Pathology and in 1938 he was instructor in the Departshyment of Surgery He is best known for his pioneering work in blood plasma 22

Curriculum innovation was a natural outgrowth of the new facu lty The Bulletin of 1931 shows a course listing in vital statistics and epidemishyo logy Newer concepts in microbiology and immunology following the reorganization of the bacteriology department in 1934 were the chief inshynovations along with animal experimentation and darkfield microscopy The revised curriculum in public health was a direct result of innovations in the Department of Bacteriology In 1936 a national survey team rated the medical school at Howard University substantially comparable to six o ther schools in the int egration of microbiology and immunology for medical students23

In the 1930s African medical students at Howard and Meharry could take advantage of the knowledge about o rganisms for the prevent ion and control of diseases For example in the presulfonamide drug period medical treatment was based on trial and error Quinine was given to pashytients with fever digi talis for heart disease opiates or morphine for peoshyple with pain and calomel for bowel disorders as well as other diseases such as syphillis typhoid fever and even headaches But the discovery of penicillin in 1928 and its first use in patient care in 1941 opened a new era yaws which is morphologically indistinguishable from syphillis could now be cured quickly as could pneumonia Sulfonamides were discovshyered as far back as 1901 but their clinical use was delayed until 1933

Ho w ard and M eharry Medical Schools African Physicians 149

Sulfonamides contained thirty-odd chemical properties useful to combat certain illnesses such as syphillis and leprosy With the development of vaccines immunization could eradi cate whooping cough diphtheria smallpox and tetanus Hookwo rms trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) malaria and leprosy could all be prevented or cured wi th proper medical services Howa rd and Meharry now had laboratories where the study of most of these diseases co uld be undertaken African physicians had only to apply what they had learned about vectors transmitting disease from the infected to the noninfected Morbidity and mortality could be greatly reduced

Modalities

In another study Leslie Falk distinguishes two major categories of hea lth systems2S The first is the scientific or Western system the secshyond consists of modalities normally considered beyond the role of acshyceptec1 medical practice Examples of so-called scientific systems include medical group practice free clinics health centers which use physician or nurse practioners physicians assistants and so on In contrast the sysshytem of modalities includes acupuncture trad itional healers yoga transshyactional analysis and biofeedback In retrospec t there is no evidence that either medical school used the modalities category either in its curriculum or as an alternative method of health care It is only within the past five years that serious attempts have been made by institutions of Western medicine Howard and Meharry included to incorporate traditi onal beliefs and practices in the standard medical curriculum

African MD Graduates of Howard and Meharry

The African MD graduates of Howard and Meharry medical schools are identified in Table 1 from the post-Civil War era to 1978 Medical graduates who returned to Africa are of special concern but the list may not be complete because of the preliminary nature of the present study

T ABLE 1 AFRICAN MD GRA DUATES O F ~IOWARD AND MEHARRY MEDICAL SCHOOLS

Howa rd Medical School Count ry

Cro up I (1 868- 1900) PrecoOrlinl Em 1 James R Priest Liberia

1872-74 (no record of graduation)

2 J H Roberts Liberia MD 1876


TABLE 1 Continued

Howard Medical School Country

Group [(1868- J9OO) Precolonial Era-Contiflued

3 T homas O Ca mpbell liberia MD 1890 Prltlcticcu medidn~ in Liberia Died in 1894

4 Paulus Moor liberia

MD 1893 Practiced medicine in Liberia (1)

Group II (1900- 1960) Colonial Era

1 E Mayfie ld Boyle Sr Sierra Leone

M D 1902 Practiced medicine in Wash ingto n DC and Baltimore Maryland Deceased 1936

2 James Christopher Yard Por t Elizabeth

1914-1915 Jun ior Class Soulh Africa (no record o f graduation)

3 Rotol i Xaba Willowale

1927- 1928 Senior Medical Class Sout h Africa

(no record o f graduation) 4 Rob~ rt Benjamin Phillips A ngola

MD 1932 Deceased

5 Malaku E Bayen Addis Ababa

MD 1935 Ethiopia

Deceased 6 James A Peal Liberia

MD 1946 Deceased

David E Boye-Jo hnson Sierra Leone

MD 1942 LMCC LMS (Nova Scotia) 1943 DTM amp H (London) 1950 D OH (London)

8 Edwin M Barclay Liberia

MD 1951 9 Latunde E Odeku N igeria

M D 1954 Deceased

10 Aderohun rnu O Laia Nigeria

MD 1955 11 Badejo O Adebonojo Nigeria

MD 1955 12 A gomuo K Ijomah Nigeria

MD 1956 13 Adeleke Adeyemo Nigeri a

MD 1958 Ibadan

Ho ward and Meharry Medical Schools African Physicians 151

TABLE 1 Continued

Howard Medical School Cou ntry

Group 1I (19OO-196OJ Colonial Era-Continued

14 Esenowo J Esenowo Nigtria

MD 1958 Deceased

IS S Adeniyi Sofala Nigeria

MD 1958 Yaba Lagos

16 Titu s M A poeso Nigeria

MI) 1958 Deceased

17 10hn S BHson Ghana MD 1959 Kumasi

Group 1lI 0960-1975) Postindependeflce Era

1 Adebayo M Ashi ru Nigeria MD 1961

2 lau nila A Kagwa Uga nda MD 1961 Kampala

3 Feslus O Adebonojo Nigeria

MD 1962 4 Charles 8 Hutchinson Ghana

MD 1962

Deceased 5 Jude E Aidoo G hana

MD 1963 Accra

6 Eugene EmemboJu Nigeria MD 1969

7 lkechuku A Obulor Nigeria

M D 1970

8 Cornelius O Agori-iwe Nigeria MD 1971 Obstetrics Gynecology (1)

9 Edward Adedeji Nigeria MD 1971

10 Taievo Egbedina Nigeria MD 1973

11 Herbert Emejulu Nigeria

MD 1973 12 Helenak K Ewenike Nigeria

MD 1974 Lagos

13 Emmanuel K Acq uaye G ha na M D 1974

14 Efiong O Andem Nigeria

MD 1974

152 THE AFRI CAN DIASPORA

TABLE I Continued

Howard Medical School

Group III (1960-1975) Post independence Erashy

15 Robert J Boakai MD 1974

16 Maubra y P Hagan MD 1974 Accra

17 Phinehas O Makoyo M D 1974

Musoma 18 Ngozichukw uka 1 Nwaneri

MD 1974 10 OJugbenga S O redein

MD 1974 Orolu middotRemo

20 En yeribe R Nwokekeh MD 1075 Obstetrician (7)

21 Okenwa R Nwosu MD 197S

22 Bamisegum 01owofoyeku MD 1975

23 Emmanuel (offi e O tchere--Agyei MD 107S

(A pproximate total 40 M D graduatesJ20

Meharry Med ical Sc hoo

Croup I (1860-1900) Precolollial Eru

1 John H Jones MD 1804 Cape Pa lmas

G ro up 11 (1900- 1960) C rJ ia Era

1 H Gabashane 1901 Freshman Class (no record of gradua tion) Buffelsdoorn Transvaal

2 B W Payne 1901 Freshman Class (no record of graduat io n) Monrovia

3 T M Kakaza Cil 1902-] 903 Fleshman Class (no record of grad uation) Po rt Elizabeth Cape Colo ny

Country

Continued

Liberia

Ghana

Tanzania

Nigeria

N igeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

G ha na

Country

Liberia

South Africa

Liberia

South Africa

H oward and Me harry M edical Schools African Physicians 153

TABLE I Continued

Meharry Medical School Country

Group 1 (1900- 1960) Colonial Era- Continued

4 N D Merriam liberia MD 1904 Cape PaJmas

5 Suluka C Youngblood Congo Frtt ca 1907- 1908 Sophomore Class State (Zaire) (no record of grad uatio n)

6 S F Clark Liberia ca 1914-1915 Junio r Class (no record of graduat io n) Monrovia

7 R M Sisusa So uth A frica ca J914-1915 Ju nio r Class MD 1917 Transkei Cape

8 John Zeo Bargy h Liberia ca 1914- 1915 Jun io r Class (no record o f graduatio n) Cape Pa lmas

9 Oa niel Sharpe Malekebu Ma lawi ca 1914-1915 Junior Class MD 1017

10 Kalo us T T ho mpso n Sou th Africa 1914- ]915 Junio r Class M D 1918 Preto ria

II Estelle O liv ia Brown Liberia 1914- 1915 Freshman Class (no record of graduatio n) Mo nrov ia

12 Ha rry Timo thy Moponyane Sou th Africa 1920- ]921 Sophomo re Class MD 1923

IJ T heodore M Bli Liberia 1920-1921 Freshman Class (no record of gradua tion )

14 Samuel W NyaHor Lberia 1920- 1921 Freshman Class (deceased Sophomore year)

IS Wea h L Sherrill Liberia 1920-1921 Freshman Class MD 1024

16 H R Maponya ne South Africa 1924- 1925 Junior Class (no record uf graduation)

17 Hast ings Kam uzu Banda Nyasala nd 1933 Freshman Class Ma law i)

154 THE AFRICAN DIASPORA Howard and Meharry Medical Schools African Physicians 155

TABLE 1 Continued


Group II (1900-1960) Colonial Era- Continued

MD 1937 Kagtungu

18 George B Kebe Gui nea 1937 Junior Class MD 1938 Kankan

19 Joseph Nagbe Togba liberia 1937 Junio r Class

MD 1944 Monrov ia

zo Henry Nehemiah Cooper liberia MD 1954

Group 11l (1960-1978) Postidependence Era

1 Samuel Sunday Ezenwa Nige ria 1961 Junior Class (no record of graduation ) Lagos

2 Adebayo Abiodun Samuel Nige ria 1961 Junior Class (no record of graduation) Lagos

3 Edwin Akuete Adorn G ha na MD 1968 Accra

4 Francis Felix Kayira Mala wi MD 1970 Karonga

5 Emmuel Bamidele Aderinto Nigeria MD 1971 Ogbomosho

6 Gideon Sunday Adebise Adegile Niseria MD 1971 [badan

7 Emmanuel Robin Mofu Zambia M D 1973 Lua nsh ya

8 Alphonse Tichaurawa Pasipanodya Rhodesia MD 1974 (Zimbabwe) Daramomhe

9 Halifax Chagtes Ga mb ia M D 1974 Banjul

10 Immanuel Eugene Magomolla Tanzania MD 1974 Kiomboi

11 CromwelJ P Msuku Malaw i MD 1975

TABLE 1 Continued

Meharry Medical School Cou ntry

Group JIJ (1960-1978) Postindependence Era- Contiflued

12 James Denson Charasika Zimbabwe MD 1976

Umtali 13 Ignatius E Akpele Nigeria

MD 1977 Ishan

14 In no Ugwoji Obasi Nigeri a M D 1976-19n Ahiara Owerri

15 Francesa Chinwe Oseqbue O basi Nigeria MD 1978 Onitsha

16 Patrick Kola Fadahunsi Nigeria MD 1978 Akure

Approximate to tal 25 M D gradua tes (Ot hers ident ified as no record of graduation may have done so which would increase nu mber to 37)27

Distribution Model Table 2 indicates the number of MD graduates of Howard and

Meharry medical schools by African country of origin

TABLE 2 M D GRADUATES FROM AFRICAN COUNTRIES

Country MD Graduates

Nigeria 29 Liberia 10

Ghana 7 Malawi 4

So uth Africa 3 Sierra Leone 2 Zimbabwe 2 Angola 1 Ethiopia 1 Ga mbia G uinea 1 Tanzania 1 Uganda Zaire Zambia

T o ta l l S Total 65


Some of the African grad uates from Howard and Meharry medical schools made significant contributions in th e transfer of medical technology to their respective countries J H Roberts an AmericoshyLiberian was the first Howard MD graduate from West Africa in 1876 he entered private practice in Liberia and is believed to be the so n of the first Liberian President J H Roberts (1848-18561872-1876)28 Howard produced two other graduates during the latter part of the nineteenth cen tury but little is known abo ut them

The records from 1900 to 1960 are more detailed In 1935 Howard University graduated Dr Malaku E Bayan who became Emperor Haile Selassies personal physician in the 1930s in 1942 Dr David E BoyeshyJohnson graduated and became the chief medical officer of Sierra Leone in 1944 and served in other public health capacities In 1955 Dr Aderohunmu O Laja graduated and was posted in the pathology departshyment of the Federal Ministry of Health in Lagos Nigeria Dr Badejo O Adebonojo also was a 1955 Howard graduate and served as the chief medical officer of the Lagos State Government of Nigeria And there were other outstanding MD African graduates of the 1950s

But the decades most outstanding Howard University MD grad uate was the late Dr Latunde E Odeku of Nigeria (It is said that he and Anshydrew Young the former US ambassador to the United Nations were dormitory roommates at Howard) Odeku was also a poet and in 1950 some four years before his graduation he expressed his apprecia tion in a poem to Howard University

Alma Mater Our strength w ith thee forever rests OUf usefulness OUf pride OUf struggles in the years to come Shall beam our deeds and crowns to thee In lasting thought of gratitude 29

Odeku returned to Nigeria established the first neurosurgical unit at the University of Ibadan and became its first head He performed a wide range of neurosurgical operations with modest facilities

Meharry produced its share of African medical graduates as well ironically Meharrys initial contribution in the transfer of medical techn ology in the nineteenth century came not from a gradua te of the African continent but from the United States Dr Georgia E L Patton an Afro-American was the first woman graduate of Meharry in 1893 The difficulty women gradua tes had in obtaining ce rtification from medical associations during this era may account for Dr Pattons going to Liberia to practice medicine from 1893 to 1895 Illness may have been her nemesis because sho rtly after 1895 she returned to the United States

Howard and Meharry Medical Schools African Physicians 157

and settled ir Memphis where she died in 1900 JO Dr Poindexter whose remarks on di sease control in Liberia prefaced this essay reports that Dr Patton is still remembered among the elders in Liberia

On the o ther hand Meharry had only one graduate of the African continent before 1900-John H Jones of Liberia Meharry had a more successful record of producing African graduates between 1900-1960 Paradoxically two of Meharry s best-known gradu ates prior to 1940 have made little or no contribution in the realm of public health Daniel Sharpe Malekebu of Malawi arrived in the United States in 1908 with the support of black Baptists in New York and Ohio He studied in North Carolina and at Selma College in Alabama in 1917 he gradua ted as a surgeon from Meh arry All total Malekebu spen t four teen years in the United States and established links with the medical staff at Meharry the YMCA the Baptist leaders and with Dr Whittier H Wright of Meharry Further he married Flora Ethelwyn an Afro-American Back in Malawi in 1926 Malekebu succeeded John Chilembwe (a Yao trained in Virginia by Baptists) as head of the Independent Providence Industrial Mission in Southern Malawi 31

Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda is now life president of the Republic of Malawi The African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church of Johannesshyburg sponsored Bandas first trip to the United States in 1925 He earned a high school diploma at Wilberforce University st udied at Indiana University and received the bachelor of philosophy degree from the University of Chicago His benefactors were black professionals and real estate owners in Ohio and Indi ana Banda was also able to exchange views in the United States with J R Rathebe of South Africa and with Dr A B Yuma who became leader of the African National Congress of South Africa in the late 1920s and early 1930s32 After graduating from Meharry in 1936 Banda left the United States but was present to give the commencement address at Meharry in 1977

Meharry graduated a number of other outstanding African physicians but insufficient data preclude description of their contribution to the transfer of technology Two other figures however must not go unmenshytioned Joseph Nagbe Togba of Liberia gradua ted from Meha rry in 1944 and became an important figure in the World Heal th Organization and second Henry Nehemiah Cooper also of Liberia received the MD degree in 1954 and heads the John F Kennedy Hospital in Monrovia

Some general conclusions can be drawn from this explora tory distribution model First the fact that Liberia provided the earl iest medical graduates attes ts to the Americo-Liberians long-standing links with the Afro-American community in the United States some Liberians even attended the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University before it went out of existence in 1915 Second Nigeria has the largest pipeline


of graduates that began in the last decade of the colonial period all of them came from southern Nigeria for northern Nlgena as a regiOn did not graduate its first MD until 1973-1974 at Ahmadu Bello University Medical School Zaria Third none of the influential Malawian graduates attended Howard Dr Malekebu having b~~n the fi~st Malashywian graduate from Meharry in 1917 controlled the plpellne and inshyfluenced subsequent Malawians such as Dr Banda and others to attend Meharry

The AME Church sponsored more students at Meharry than at Howard which had a predominantly Congregationalist orientation in the nineteenth century The AME Church had a long history of involveshyment in South Africa which may account for the greater number of South Africans at Meharry (six) than at Howard (two) Ghanaian students in any significant numbers did not attend either of these institushytions until the 1950s it is likely that Kwame Nkrumah (Lincoln Universishyty Pennsylvania) who became Ghanas first president in the post independence era accelerated this trend

During the colonial period (1900-1960) the African MD graduates appear at staggered intervals in the catalogs This pattern developed partly because as Donald Segal reports the colonial governments discriminated against African physicians trained in the United States 33

Howard University and other US institutions provided premedical ungraduate training for many Africans who then continued their medical studies at either McGill University in Canada or In Europe because of the exclusionist policy of the colonial era T Bello Osagie a Nigerian graduate of Howard in the early 1950s obtained his MD at McGill because he feared that American credentials would exclude him from certification in Nigeria The post-independence era marks a deparshyture from this trend and apparently lifted the colonial ban of discriminashytion against African physicians trained in the United States

Summary

Howard University and Meharry medical schools have contributed significantly in the training of African physicians since they were founded in the nineteenth century Howard University Medical School founded in 1868 and Meharry established in 1876 were two of seven black medical institutions to emerge in that period But the Flexner report of 1910 phased ou t all but Howard and Meharry which continued to receive philanthropiC support Both institutions appeared at a propitious time when pseudoscientific racism triumphed with the onset of colomal rule in Africa At the same time in West Africa the British reversed an earlier trend allowing Africans to be trained as physicians at Edinburgh

Howard and Meharry Medical Schook African Physicians 159

and London and began to discriminate against African medical doctors trained in the United States

A factor other than pseudoscientific racism may have been at stake in regard to the new colonial policy Some earlier nationalists had been physicians and the British may have sought to diminish the domino effect of nationalist sentiment by reducing the number of African doctors since they represented the dominant elite in the new class formation The policy change however tended to confine the distribution of African doctors to the coastal settlements and restricted the expansion of scienshytific public health services fo r the mass of the population living predominantly in the rural and peri-urban areas

Ho ward University Medical School and Meharry Medical College made a unique contribution to the advancement of scientific medicine on the African continent by adding to the pool of British-trained physicians in West Africa who had come initially from Sierra Leone By the second decade of the twentieth century these medical schools began to incorshyporate into their curriculum such innovative courses as tropical medicine bacterioloy microbiology animal experimentation statistical epidemiolshyogy and the like African medical doctors had only to apply these inshynovations to the development of medical services in their respective countries of origin

Howard University and Meharry medical schools have had more African MD graduates-approximately forty-one-in the past eighteen years (1960-1978) than they had in the sixty years preceding the inshydependence era Names of African medical graduates appear in the respective catalogs and alumni directories almost every year during the eighteen-year span

N O TES

1 Oral interview with Hildrus A Poindexter and h IS book My World of Reality Autobiography (De troit Balamp Publishers 1973)

2 The research fo r this paper was fu nded by the Department of History Howard University Washington DC I extend a special thanks to HiJdru s A Poindexter MD and Calvin H Sinnette MD bo th of th e Howa rd University Medica l School who rendered in valuable assistance with revisio ns and sources The fo llowing persons served as consuhants 10 this project Joseph E Harris (De partment o f History Howard University) Dean Marion Mann MD and Eleano r I Franklin Ph D both of the Howard Universit y Medical Schoo) Dean Ralph J CazorL MD and Leslie A Falk MD PhD both 01 Meharry Medical School Michael Winsto n and the Moorland-Springa m Research Center Staff (especiall y BeUy M Culpepper) Howard Un iversit y Adelola Adeloye MD Ibadan University Medical School Nigeria Edward B Cross MD FACC FAC P Dallas Sleven Feiennan and Jan Va nsina both of the Uni versity o f Wisconsin Madison and William A Dixon Kentuck y State Uni versi ty

3 William H McNeill Plagues ad Peoples (Garden City N Y A nchor Press 1976) see also


Gerld W Hart wig and K David Patterson eds Disease in Arican History Anlnlroducshytory Sunley GIld Case Studies (Durham NC Duke Uni v Press 1978) Philip D Curtin Epidemio logy and the Slave Trade PoliticaJ Science Quarterly 83 no 2 Oune 1968) 190- 217 Philip D Curt in The W hile Mans Gra ve Image a nd Reality 1780-1850 Jourshylal 0 British Studies 1 (1961) 94-] ]0 (or yellow (ever and cho lera in the sixteenth centuries see Sekene-Mody Cissoko Famines et ep idemies atombouctou et dans la boucle du niger du XV II au XVIlI~ siede Bulletin de IFAN 30 ser B no 3 (1968) 806-21 Henry E Sigeri~t Civilizat io n and Disease (Ithaca N Y Cornell Univ Press 1943) and Steven Feierman Healrh and So6ety in Africa A W o rking Bibliography (Waltham Mass Crossroads Press 1979)

4 Adelola Adeloye Nigerian Pioneers of M odern Medicine Obadan Ibadan Unlv Press ] 977) MCF Easmon Sierra Leone Doctors Sierra Leone St udies ns no 6 (1956)

81 -96 5 Dr Calvin H Sinnette oral interview on August 15 1979 at Howard University Medical

School see also Paul E Steiner Medical Educatio n in Trans-Saharan Africa Journal of Mp~ical Education 34 no 2 (1959) 95-106

6 E N O Sodeinde to Patton July 23 1979 Raymond E Dumett The Campa ign against Mala ria and the Expansion of Scien tif iC Medical and Sanitary Services in British West Af rica 1898-]9]0 African Historical Studies 1 no 2 (]968) ]91- 94 and K David Pattershyson Disease and Medicine in Africa n History A Bib liographical Essay History i Africa 1 11974) 147

7 Eliot Freidson Professiod Dominace Tile Social Structllr( of Medical Care (New York Atherton Press ]970) p xi

8 Marke W Delancey Health and Disease on the Plantations of Cameroon 1884-1939 in Hartwig and Patterson eds Disease in African History p 153

9 Hartwig and Patterson eds Diseuse in African Histo ry p 4 10 Dumett The Campaign aga inst Malaria pp 192-93 11 Mohammed Alpha Bah Dr Herbert C Bankole-Bright and His Impact on the Crowth of

Constitutional Government and the Development of Political Parties in Sierra Leone 1924-]957 (MA thesis Department ofmiddotHistory Howa rd University 1977) pp 16-17

12 Herbert M Morais The History of th e Negro in Medicine (Washington DC Association fo r the Study of Negro Life and History 1967) pp 21-25 26-27 44 60 64 66-69 Abraham Flexner Medical Education in th e United States and Canada A Report to tile Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (Merry mount Press Boston 1910) pl80 and L A Falk and N A Quaynor-Malm Early Afro-American Medical Education in the United States The Origins of Meharry Medical College in the Nineteenth Century in Proceedings of fhe XXlIJ Congress of tile Histo ry of Medicine (London Oxford Univ Press September 2-9 1972) p 347 James L Curtis Black Medical Schools and Society (Ann Arbor Uni versit y of Michigan Press 1971) pp 9-10 13 Dietric h C Reitzes Negroes and Medicine (Cambridge Harvard Univ Press 1958) Judit h Wa lzer Leav itt and Ronald L Numbers eds Sickness and HealtlT in Amenca Readings in the History of Heallli in America (Madison Universit y of Wisconsi n Press 1980) a nd Cary King The Supply and Distribution of Black Physicians in the United States 1900- 1970 Western Journal of Black Studies (1980) 21-28

13 Flexner Medical Education in the United States and Canada p 181 14 Morehouse College Bulletin (Winter 1979) ibid 20 (Fall 1979) 13 15 Falk and Quaynor-Malm Early Afro-America n Medical Education p 350 16 Dr Hildrus A Poindexter oral int erview on March 23 1978 at Howa rd University Medical

School tape 1 side A see also Todd L Savitt Medicine and Slave ry (Champaign Univershysity of Illinois Press 1979)

17 Falk and Quaynor-Malm Early Afro-America n Medica l Educa tion p 350


18 Henry E Sigerist A History of Medicine (New York Oxford Uni v Press 1961) pp 310-11 19 Howard University Record Howard Un iversity ScllOol of Medicine 13 no 4 (J une 1918)

Howard University Bu lletin 11 no 7 (August 1930) 52- 53 20 Meharry Catalogue fo r the years 1876-1921 1922 and 1924- 1925 21 Leslie A Falk A Centu ry of Service Meharry Med ica l College Southem Exposure 6

(1978) 17 22 Poindexter My World of Realily p 99 Michael Winston oral interview on May 21 1979

at the Moorland-Spingam Research Center Howard University W Montague Cobb Hildrus Augustus Poindexter MD MS PH Ph D D Sc 1901- Journal of tile Nashytional Medical Association 65 no 3 (May 1973) 243- 247 and Ernest Everett Just TIl e Biology of the Cell Surace (Philadelphia P Blakiston Son and Co 1939) Mrs Yvonne Brown supplied useful data on Charles R Drew

23 Howard University Bulletin School of Medicine 11 no 3 (Oc tober 1931) Poindexter My World of Reality pp 116-19 Poindexter o ral interview tape 1 side A

24 Louis S Goodman and Alfred Gilman eds The Pilaymacological Basis of TIlerapeutics (New York Macmillan 1975) pp 1113 1130 Poindexter oral interview tape 1 side A and B Judith S Mausner and Anita K Bahn Epidemiology An Introductory Text (Philadelphia W A Saunders Co 1974) Hartwig and Patte rson Disease in African History

25 Lesl ie A Falk Alternate Health Ca re Does Medicine Ca re abo ut it1 The Guthrie Bullet in Vol 48 Fall 1968 Available from au thor

26 For references to these Howard Uni verSit y African MD graduates see the following Direcshytory of Graduates Howard University - 1870- 196J HU Publications Wash DC Jul y 1 1965 Howard University Directory of Graduates 1870- 1976 White Plains NY Bernard C Harris Pub Co 1977 Daniel Smith Lamb Howard University Medical Department A Hisoncal Biographical and Statistical Sou ve rr (Freeport N Y Books for Libraries Press 197]) pp 143 154 211 258 Howard Ullit)(gtrsity Buliltin 9 no 3 (1914) ibid 10 no 4 (]9]5) ibid 7 no 7 (June 1928) ibid 12 (February 1933) ibid 15 (February 1935) ibid ]8 no 7 (January 15 1939) Buiietin College of Medicire 1959- 1960 Bullein of Howard Un iversity - Collegl of Medicine 1974- 1975 (See Bulletin for other years not cited) Howa rd Univers ity Medical Alumni Association Directory Easmon Sierra Leone Doctors pp 81 - 93 and Penelope Campbell Maryland in Africa The Maryland State Colonization Society 1831-1857 (Urbana University of []inois Press 1971) for medical objectives of the Methodist Episcopal Church at Cape Palmas See also the official histories of Howard Universi ty Walter Dyson Howard University The Capstone of Negro Education 1867- 1940 (Washington DC Howard Universit y 1941) Rayford W Logan Howard University The First One Hu ndred Years 1867- 1967 (New York New York Universit y Press 1969)

27 For o ther references to Meharry African MD grad uates see the following Mellarry - Medical Dental and PhamIQceut ical Departments-Caalogue of 1894-1895 (Nashville T N Meha rry College 1895) a lso Catalogues of 1900-1901 1902- 1903 1903-1904 1905 (missi ng) 1907-1908 1914-1915 1920-1921 1923-1924 1924-1925 1936 Bulletjn of Meharry Medical College 1937 ibid J938 Meharry Medical College Bulletin 38 no I-A (July 1941) ibid SO no 4 (1954) Meharry Medical College The Centennial Issue (1876-1976) Nashville TN 1976 and African Alumni - Meharry Medical College unshypublished report prepared for the author by the Meharry Alumni Office and Campbell Maryland in Africa

28 See Tom W Shick Behold the Promised Land A History of Afro-American Settler Society in Nineteenth Century Liberia (Baltimore Johns Hopkins Univ Press 1980)

29 E Latunde Odeku Twilight Out of the Night Obadan University of Ibadan 1964) p 71 I thank Dr Calvin H Sinnette for bringing this source to my a ttention


30 Falk and Quaynor-Malm Early Afro-American Medical Education in the United States p352

31 Kings Mbacazwa Phiri Afro-American InOuence in Colonial Malawi to about 1940 (Paper presented at the Diaspora Studies Institute Howard University Washington DC August 26- 31 1979) pp 1-33

32 Phiri Afro-American Influence in Colonial Malawi and Richard O Ralst on American Episodes in the Making of an African Leader A Case Study of Alfred B Xuma (1893- 1962) International Joumal of Afdcan Historical Studies 6 no 1 (1973) 72-93

33 Donald Segal African Profiles (Baltimore Penguin 1962gt p 89

Copyright copy 1982 by Howard University Press

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without permission in writing from the publisher Inquiries should be adshydressed to Howard University Press 2900 Van Ness Street NW Washington Oc 20008

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publicalion Oata Main entry under title

Global dimensions of the African diaspora

Essays of the First African Oiaspora Studies Institute (FAOS) which in 1979 assembled at Howard University -Pref

Bibliography p Includes index 1 Africa-Civilization-Congresses 2 Africansshy

Foreign countries-History-Congresses 3 SlaveryshyAfrica-History-Congresses 4 Blacks-Cultural assimilation-Congresses 5 Blacks-Race identityshyCongresses 6 Afro-Americans-Africa-History-Conshygresses I Harris Joseph E 1929- II African Oiaspora Studies Institute (1st 1979 Howard University) 0T14 GS6 1982 900 0496 82-23261 ISBN 0-88258-022-1

Contents

Preface ix

Introduction JOSEPH E HARRIS

3

Conceptual and Meth od ological Issues

The Oialectic between Oiasporas and Homelands ELLIOTT P SKINNER

17

African Oiaspora Concept and Conlext GEORGE SH EPPERSON

46

African Oiaspora Conceptual Framework Problems and Methodological Approaches

ORUNO O LARA

54

Conceptualizing Afro-American African Relations Implications for African Oiaspora Studies

OKON EOET UYA

69

The Relationship between African and African-American Literature as Utilitarian Art A Theoretical Fonmulation

85

MI CERE M ClTHAE- MUCO

Concepts of O jaspora and Alienation as Priveleged Themes in Negritude Literature

DANIEL L RACINE

94

African Oral Traditions and Afro-American Cultural Traditions as a Mea~s of Understanding Black Culture

106

DJIBRIL TAMSIR NIANE

A Comparative Approach to the Study of the African Diaspora

JOSEPH E HARRI S

112

v

vi CONTENTS



127


136


ADELL PATrON JR

142


GUERIN c MONTILUS

163


170

FOtARIN SHYLLON


IBRAHIMA B KAKf

195


210



219

The Return


243


KINGS M PHIRI

250


KIMPIANGA MAHANIAH

268


283



AKINTOLA J G WYSE

Toward a Synthesis


Contributors

Index

CONTENTS vii

291

309

341

405

409



Adell Patton Jr




142







































Modalities










TABLE 1 Continued














MD 1932 Deceased


MD 1935 Ethiopia


MD 1946 Deceased





M D 1954 Deceased





MD 1958 Ibadan


TABLE 1 Continued




MD 1958 Deceased


MD 1958 Yaba Lagos


MI) 1958 Deceased







MD 1962


MD 1963 Accra



M D 1970






MD 1974 Lagos



MD 1974


TABLE I Continued

















G ro up 11 (1900- 1960) C rJ ia Era




Country

Continued

Liberia

Ghana

Tanzania

Nigeria

N igeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

G ha na

Country

Liberia

South Africa

Liberia

South Africa


TABLE I Continued


















TABLE 1 Continued



MD 1937 Kagtungu



MD 1944 Monrov ia














TABLE 1 Continued





MD 1977 Ishan










Ghana 7 Malawi 4





















Summary







N O TES



































vi CONTENTS



127


136


ADELL PATrON JR

142


GUERIN c MONTILUS

163


170

FOtARIN SHYLLON


IBRAHIMA B KAKf

195


210



219

The Return


243


KINGS M PHIRI

250


KIMPIANGA MAHANIAH

268


283



AKINTOLA J G WYSE

Toward a Synthesis


Contributors

Index

CONTENTS vii

291

309

341

405

409



Adell Patton Jr




142







































Modalities










TABLE 1 Continued














MD 1932 Deceased


MD 1935 Ethiopia


MD 1946 Deceased





M D 1954 Deceased





MD 1958 Ibadan


TABLE 1 Continued




MD 1958 Deceased


MD 1958 Yaba Lagos


MI) 1958 Deceased







MD 1962


MD 1963 Accra



M D 1970






MD 1974 Lagos



MD 1974


TABLE I Continued

















G ro up 11 (1900- 1960) C rJ ia Era




Country

Continued

Liberia

Ghana

Tanzania

Nigeria

N igeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

G ha na

Country

Liberia

South Africa

Liberia

South Africa


TABLE I Continued


















TABLE 1 Continued



MD 1937 Kagtungu



MD 1944 Monrov ia














TABLE 1 Continued





MD 1977 Ishan










Ghana 7 Malawi 4





















Summary







N O TES





































Adell Patton Jr




142







































Modalities










TABLE 1 Continued














MD 1932 Deceased


MD 1935 Ethiopia


MD 1946 Deceased





M D 1954 Deceased





MD 1958 Ibadan


TABLE 1 Continued




MD 1958 Deceased


MD 1958 Yaba Lagos


MI) 1958 Deceased







MD 1962


MD 1963 Accra



M D 1970






MD 1974 Lagos



MD 1974


TABLE I Continued

















G ro up 11 (1900- 1960) C rJ ia Era




Country

Continued

Liberia

Ghana

Tanzania

Nigeria

N igeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

G ha na

Country

Liberia

South Africa

Liberia

South Africa


TABLE I Continued


















TABLE 1 Continued



MD 1937 Kagtungu



MD 1944 Monrov ia














TABLE 1 Continued





MD 1977 Ishan










Ghana 7 Malawi 4





















Summary







N O TES

































































Modalities










TABLE 1 Continued














MD 1932 Deceased


MD 1935 Ethiopia


MD 1946 Deceased





M D 1954 Deceased





MD 1958 Ibadan


TABLE 1 Continued




MD 1958 Deceased


MD 1958 Yaba Lagos


MI) 1958 Deceased







MD 1962


MD 1963 Accra



M D 1970






MD 1974 Lagos



MD 1974


TABLE I Continued

















G ro up 11 (1900- 1960) C rJ ia Era




Country

Continued

Liberia

Ghana

Tanzania

Nigeria

N igeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

G ha na

Country

Liberia

South Africa

Liberia

South Africa


TABLE I Continued


















TABLE 1 Continued



MD 1937 Kagtungu



MD 1944 Monrov ia














TABLE 1 Continued





MD 1977 Ishan










Ghana 7 Malawi 4





















Summary







N O TES




































TABLE 1 Continued














MD 1932 Deceased


MD 1935 Ethiopia


MD 1946 Deceased





M D 1954 Deceased





MD 1958 Ibadan


TABLE 1 Continued




MD 1958 Deceased


MD 1958 Yaba Lagos


MI) 1958 Deceased







MD 1962


MD 1963 Accra



M D 1970






MD 1974 Lagos



MD 1974


TABLE I Continued

















G ro up 11 (1900- 1960) C rJ ia Era




Country

Continued

Liberia

Ghana

Tanzania

Nigeria

N igeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

G ha na

Country

Liberia

South Africa

Liberia

South Africa


TABLE I Continued


















TABLE 1 Continued



MD 1937 Kagtungu



MD 1944 Monrov ia














TABLE 1 Continued





MD 1977 Ishan










Ghana 7 Malawi 4





















Summary







N O TES




































TABLE I Continued

















G ro up 11 (1900- 1960) C rJ ia Era




Country

Continued

Liberia

Ghana

Tanzania

Nigeria

N igeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

Nigeria

G ha na

Country

Liberia

South Africa

Liberia

South Africa


TABLE I Continued


















TABLE 1 Continued



MD 1937 Kagtungu



MD 1944 Monrov ia














TABLE 1 Continued





MD 1977 Ishan










Ghana 7 Malawi 4





















Summary







N O TES




































TABLE 1 Continued



MD 1937 Kagtungu



MD 1944 Monrov ia














TABLE 1 Continued





MD 1977 Ishan










Ghana 7 Malawi 4





















Summary







N O TES





















































Summary







N O TES



































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