BIOLOGY 2 - BIO 1204PRESENTATION

By

Lim Er Vin

Muhammad Hammad

Sng Kim Sia

Glucose Regulation

INSULIN

AND

GLUCAGON

PART 1

Insulin Glucagon

- Secreted by beta-cells in IL Pancreas

- Secreted by alpha-cells at IL of Pancreas

- Main function : Store excess energy

- Main Function : Cut down macromolecules to produce energy

Insulin and Glucagon

Similarity 1) Hormone2) Polypeptide Protein ( Tertiary structured )3) Involved in the regulation of glucose 4) Secreted at the islets of Langerhans (IL) area of pancreas

Differences

Insulin

Where and how Insulin is secreted ?

- Undergoes the same process as protein synthesis in beta cell of pancreas.

Transcription, translation, synthesis- The first form of insulin is prepro-insulin.

- Then become inactive pro-insulin through endoplasmic reticulum, where sorting occurs and A peptide, B peptide and C peptide are formed.

- Pro-insulin then go through Golgi apparatus undergoes modification, C peptide, B peptide and A peptide are separated.

- Peptide A and B will be linked together and form the insulin.

What is the destiny of insulin ?Production of insulin is stimulated by the high concentration of macromolecule in the bloodstream, might be after meal.

- After insulin is produced, it travel to the bloodstream through pancreatic duct and small intestine.

- The insulin can target several organ, such as liver and skeletal muscle.

- The insulin will bind to the insulin receptor at the plasma membrane of targeted cell.

Insulin receptor consist of Tyroxin Kinase at the intracellular matrix and alpha cell at outside, beta cell which is transmembrane.

- The alpha cell will binds with the insulin.

- Then the tyrosine kinase will phosphorylate or activate the IRS.

What IRS can do ?

IRS could send a variety of signals to stimulate many intracellular activity : - Growth, where gene expression occurs, because of storing

of macromolecules, growth can be promoted.

- Protein synthesis from amino acid, to store excess energy and macromolecules.

- Fat synthesis in liver, when there are excess glucose,

- Promotion of expression of glucose transporter ( GLUT ) protein.

Glucose Transporter

Glucose transporter will promote the uptake of glucose into the cell.

- When there are high concentration of glucose in the bloodstream, insulin is secreted. Insulin will activate the IRS to send signaling protein to signal the production of glucose transporter protein.

- Thus, more glucose can be transported into the cell to store the glucose in various form.

- Glycogenesis : The glucose can be converted to Glucose-6-phosphate and then to glycogen through to be stored in liver or skeletal muscle.

- When there are excess glucose, glucose can be packed into low density lipoprotein in the liver and sent to the adipose tissue to be stored as fat.

- When energy is needed, fat and glycogen can supply energy to the body through gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis respectively,

producing glucose for oxidation.

Store excess energy

Insulin

Protein synthesis

Fat synthesis

Inhibit breaking down

of protein

Inhibit Glycogenolysis

Glycogensynthesis

Inhibit Oxidation

of fat

Signal the expression of GLUT

Where and how glucagon is secreted ?

- Undergoes the same process as protein synthesis in alpha cell of pancreas.

Transcription, translation, synthesis - The first form of glucagon is the preproglucagon. - After going through the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where

sorting occurs and become proglucagon, which has 29 amino acid glucagon, GRPP and major proglucagon fragment.

- After going through Golgi apparatus, three of it separated, where 29 amino acid glucagon will be the glucagon hormone which is important to us.

* The cell of small intestine also has the same gene that produce the glucagon hormone.

Glucagon

What is the destiny of glucagon ?

Glucagon can target liver cell and adipose tissue, but can’t target the muscle cells as muscle cells don’t have glucagon receptor.

- When glucagon is secreted, It travel to the pancreatic duct and enter to the small intestine. After that it diffuse into the bloodstream.

- When there is low concentration of glucose in the bloodstream, the alpha cell of pancreas will be stimulated to produce glucagon and then glucagon will bind to the G-protein complex receptor of for example, liver cell.

- The receptor will undergoes conformational change and then the G protein beside the receptor will move to activate an enzyme at the plasma membrane, Adenylate Cyclase.

- The Adenylate Cyclase will convert ATP to cAMP, an enzyme which will activate the PKA, Protein Kinase A.

What Protein Kinase A (PKA) can do ?

- PKA stimulate many enzymes to promote :

1) Gluconeogenesis

2) Glycogenolysis

3) Decreasing of Glycogenesis

4) Decreasing of Glycolysis

Gluconeogenesis in liverProtein -> Amino Acid ->

Glucose-6-Phospate （G6P ) -> Glucose

Fat -> Glycerol + Fatty AcidGlycerol - > G6P -> GlucoseFatty Acid - > Ketone Bodies

Glycogenolysis , liver and skeletal muscle

Glycogen -> G6P -> Glucose

Decreasing of Glycolysis in liver and skeletal muscle

Decrease the uptake of glucose by cell that will be converted to pyruvate or glycogen by insulin

Decreasing of Glycogenesis by insulin in liver and skeletal muscle

Decrease the making of glycogen

Searching and Breaking down of macromolecule to supply energy

Glucagon

HYPERGLYCEMIA

AND

HYPOGLYCEMIA

PART 2

•Hyperglycemia• What is hyperglycemia?

• Causes

• Solution

1

•Hypoglycemia• What is hypoglycemia?

• Causes

• Solution

2

Hyperglycemia and Hypoglycemia

What is Hyperglycemia?

• Biological term for high glucose level or blood sugar.

Symptoms

• Frequent urination.

• High level of sugar in urine.

• Thirsty feeling frequently.

• High blood glucose.

Causes

• Happens when the body has less insulin or the insulin is not being used properly.

• Less consumption of insulin.

• Over eating.

• Lack of exercise.

• Stress from an illness.

• Stress over personal problems.

Solution

• Exercise frequently.

• Cut down the amount of food you eat.

• Take insulin as prescribed by the doctor.

• Check your blood glucose more often.

What is Hypoglycemia?

• Term given to low glucose level or blood sugar. (less than 70 mg/dl)

Symptoms

• Sweating.• Shakiness.• Fast heartbeat.• Dizziness.• Anxiety.• Nausea and hunger.• Frequent headaches.• Fatigue.• Anger.• Unconsciousness.

Causes

• Happens when body produces too much insulin, also known as insulin shock.

Solution

• Recheck your blood glucose regularly

• Consume about 20 grams of glucose.

• You can use glucose tablets, gumdrops or hard candies.

• Injectable glucagon kits for severe cases. (Releases a hormone glucagon that passes stored glucose from the liver to bloodstreams.)

• Maintain your diet accordingly.

DIABETES

PART 3

• What is Diabetes?1

• Types of Diabetes

• Type 1

• Type 2

• Gestational Diabetes

2

Diabetes

What is DIABETES???

Diabetes

A disorder of metabolism

INSULIN

Normal Condition

LITTLEor

NOINSULIN

Diabetic Patient Condition

OR CELLS DOES NOT RESPOND APPROPRAITELYTO THE INSULIN PRODUCED

Types of Diabetes

Type 1

Type 2

Gestational Diabetes

Percentage of Patient having Diabetes Type 1 or 2

Type 110%

Type 290%

Diabetes Type 1

• Can be known as:

1. Juvenile onset diabetes

2. Childhood diabetes

3. Insulin-dependent diabetes

• Normally diagnosed in children/adolescent

• Usually sudden/clear cut

Symptoms

Increased urination

Thirst/dry mouth

Hunger

Weight lost despite

normal or increased

eating

Blurred vision

Frequent or continuous infections

Tingling or pain in the hands, feet

or both

Causes

• This type of diabetes occurs because no production of insulin in the body.

• This is because the individual is suffering from autoimmune disease.

– Which means the body is destroying the insulin producing beta-cells in the pancreas.

– Own body destroy good stuff in your body

Solution

• Solution is to take insulin regularly either via injections or through insulin pump, in order to stay alive

• Insulin, nutrition and exercise need to be kept in balance

More details about Diabetes Type 1

• Type 1 is not preventable as it has no relationship with the person’s physical body, example, fat or thin, fit or unfit.

• Type 1 cannot be revert and prevent because the beta cells that produces insulin is already being destroyed.

Diabetes Type 2

• Can be known as

1. Adult onset diabetes

2. Non-insulin dependent diabetes

• Appears late in life/adulthood

• Most of the patient are overweight/unfit

Symptoms

Increased urination

Thirst/dry mouth

Hunger

Weight lost despite

normal or increased

eating

Blurred vision

Frequent or continuous infections

Tingling or pain in the hands, feet

or both

Causes

•Cells are not responding properly to insulin/resist effect of insulin

•Not enough insulin is being produced

OR

Occurs because of

insulin resistance

Cells build up insulin

resistance

Lots of food trigger more

insulin production

Too much insulin is toxic

for cells

Frequent high insulin speeds up

the process

Pancreas puts out more

insulin

Insulin Resistance

Insulin resistance will reach a point

where insulin produced is not enough to make

up for cells

The solution is to take

more insulin

Solution

• Healthy diet and exercise

• Oral/injectable medication (serious)

Gestational Diabetes

• A temporary condition which sugar level is high during pregnancy

• 2 to 4% of pregnancy is affected by this disease

Causes

• Cause by increased production of hormones that make the body less able to use insulin as well as it should

Solution

• Will goes away after birth but has higher risk to obtain type 2 than others

• RISKS

– Effects are increased risks of developing diabetes for both mother and child

• Healthy diet and doing exercise decreases the risk of diabetes type 2 in the future

THE END

Thank you for your time