Dr. Ethel Goodstein-MurphreeDr. QuinnDr. StephensHUMN 1124 H: The Equilibrium of Cultures, 500-1600 CE

Gothic Architecture: Origin and AlterationBenjamin Emanuelson

Gothic Origins

Gothic architecture was born in the beginning of the second millennium, after religious apocalyptic fear in the year 1000. The study of the gothic is timely, as we have, as a global population now entered a third millennium, rich with unknowns. It is very interesting how the Gothic Cathedral architecture has inspired conflicting and competitive research among historians and technologists since its inception in the early second millennium. This text is merely an overview of Historic origins of Gothic architecture and a display of differing viewpoints throughout Time.

Beginnings of the Middle Ages

In order to begin to understand the logic and extremity of Gothic architecture, It is necessary to consider the social framework responsible for its conception, investigating topics from Roman imperialism, to eventual French and German origins and Romanesque and Gothic beginnings, as well as secular building, and technical bases.

From the Roman period to the late 900’s and BeyondGothic Cathedrals throughout Europe can be traced typologically to Rome, and

Roman building was present all throughout the Empire, including Britain, of course. According to John Henry Parker, the history of Christian church architecture was

begun with the Roman basilica, employing a three-part division of a rectangular plan, later undergoing alterations and additions. It is also important to note the extent of Roman building and techniques in Britain. Here, Roman walls were built in the third century with large stones, & without mortar, however most roman buildings in England were eventually destroyed by barbarian violence. Evidence of Roman building is found at Uriconium, Silchester, and Brixworth. Parker writes that stone church construction (by St. Wilfrid) can be be found at York, Ripon, and Hexham (12). Most of what is now considered to be the middle ages came during and after the fears of religious followers at the end of the first millennium. This ‘negativity’ was most likely to be attributed to the prophecies of John in the Biblical Book of Revelation.

“It is most probable…also that at this period the Christians in England partook of the general belief of Christendom, that the world was to come to an end in the year 1000, and of the lethargy which accompanied that belief.” (18)

John Henry Parker

It is important to note that after the millennium, church building, especially in Italy and France began to see itself in a new light. The beginning of the eleventh century can be thought of as a pre-renaissance. Anglo Saxon building dominated this time period initially, but the Norman Romanesque was introduced gradually. In the twelfth century, a transition from the Norman Romanesque to the Early English Gothic was experienced. In the thirteenth century, there was a transition to the Decorated Style. The Fourteenth century transitioned from the Decorated to the Perpendicular style, according to Parker.

European Revival:Romanesque and Gothic

According to Jotischky and Hull, the term “Romanesque” was formed in the 19th century as defining Norman Artistic and Architectural misinterpretations following the breakdown of the Carolingian empire, and Gothic architecture was begun in the Ile-de-France. Jotischky and Hull explain that Gothic architecture utilized minimal structure and maximum glazing, Rayonnant Parisian Gothic emphasized light and decoration, and the Flamboyant style was most concerned with surface decoration. Finally, the perpendicular style utilized flattened grids of rectilinear tracery (64-65).

Intellect and UniversitiesJotischky and Hull write that secular schools were formed in the last quarter of the

12th century, receiving initial support from secular rulers as way of separating ‘church and state’. Theology was taught in Paris, and Law was taught in Bologna. Curricular models such as the Trivium, consisting of Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic, and the Quadrivium, consisting of Arithmetic, Geometry, Harmonics, and Astronomy were employed increasingly (66). According to a Diagram of Medieval Academic development, Universities were established in Oxford, Cambridge, Lisbon, Coimbra, Seville, Salamanca, Palencia, Lerida, Toulouse, Montpellier, Angers, Paris, Salerno, Naples, Siena, Arezzo, Bologna, Reggio, Piacenza, Vercelli, Vicenza, and Padua prior to 1300 (66-67).

Medieval Economics The Medieval Economy increased steadily in cities throughout Europe. By 1300, many cities with a population over 10,000 existed around Northern France, and Northern Italy. In addition, these zones, as well as the southern Coasts of England were areas of considerable textile manufacturing. Other less populated areas such as northern Poland, Rouen, Eastern Bulgaria, and Palestine were strong in grain production. It is interesting that wine was exported mostly from western France (Bordeaux Proximity), Lyon, and Frankfurt, but not so much from Italy during this time.

Civil / Military ConstructionViollet-Le-Duc writes that ninth, tenth, and eleventh century “conflagrations”

destroying wood towns and villages were some of the main propagators of stone use in “private dwellings as well as churches.” (275) In addition, Viollet-Le-Duc mentions that mortar used by the military was superior to that of the church builders, and that the medieval age generally ignored the use of symmetry, at least with respect to non-religious constructions. Through depiction of images, and drawings, Viollet-Le-Duc clarifies that

non-ecclesiastical medieval building was massive and overtly thick, despite the standardized use of wood. Hans Hofstatter, in referencing medieval defensive secular building, makes an interesting point in writing that the medieval fortresses were intended to defend areas that were normally the most peaceful, not the battlefields, (173) and that fortress building evolved with respect to detail, but not schema.

Technical Bases of GothicJean Bony, in “French Gothic Architecture of the 12th and 13th Centuries” has noted

that many of the defining characteristics of Gothic architecture were already present to some degree in Romanesque architecture (7) and that the use of the rib vault was present in England and Italy by 1100. This is evidenced by work such as Rivolta D’Adda (1120), Durham Cathedral (1093 AD), and Lessay (1120 AD).At Durham, vertical surface articulation is divided into round arches, where as rib vaulting and spatial verticality dominate (9). Normandy began to see diagonal rib systems around 1125, as proven by Evreux, Lessay, and Jumieges. Bony mentions further that Rib Vaulting does not make a building Gothic, as tenth century Romanesque History has referred to Oriental sources influencing Islamic Spain. Bony also writes that English and Italian Rib Vaulting began shortly after the 1085 capture of Toledo (central Spain) where rib vaulting had been executed in a variety of ways (13). Every historian does not hold this view, however. Bony also states that the pointed arch was known to Romanesque builders, through examples in previously Islamic Sicily, eventually under Norman Conquest. The pointed arch was clearly used at Cluny (1100 AD). In addition, it is necessary to note that the St. Etienne church lantern was the birthplace of the eventually Gothic Triforium, and Norman building prior to 1070 was set on producing an “open skeleton of arches.”

Richard Branner, in “Gothic Architecture,” mentions that by 1400 Gothic had become the “universal” building type in Western Europe, spreading to Scandinavia and later the Americas. Branner notes that eleventh and twelfth century revival of trade brought about “profound social and economic change” in Italy and Flanders (11). In addition, it is important to note that earlier isolationist feudalism gave way to a new cosmopolitanism. Furthermore, it is necessary to reference Branner’s description of “Abbot Suger’s theory of light.” Suger was a profound proponent of stained glass at St. Denis, for stained glass: was able to bear “holy images,” resemble “precious stones,” and glow “without fire” (21). The Pointed Arch: Origins

Viollet-Le-Duc claimed that pointed arches eventually saw widespread use because of the immense outward thrust of bases, and that keystones in semicircular arches were likely to sink at times. Viollet-Le-Duc proposes that the pointed arch was not only present in Greek architecture, (41) but also at the invention of the compass as a drawing tool. He further proceeds to praise the perseverance of building schools in France, Burgundy, Normandy, and Champagne. Viollet-Le-Duc believed that the porch of Vazelay shows best the transition from Romanesque to Gothic.

It was clear that handwork was abundant in the middle ages. Viollet-Le-Duc further makes interesting points regarding the nature of a system:

“Every edifice has its skeleton and its membranes: it is only a structure (of stone), independent of the garment that covers it. This skeleton is rigid or flexible, according to the need and location…Its immobility is obtained by means of the equilibrium of these forces, not passive but acting.” (169)

Viollet-Le-Duc

Viollet-Le-duc mentions that stone was to be acquired locally and in limited amounts, resulting not only in a vernacular materiality, but a structural lightness resulting not from wealth, but poverty, limited supply, and means of transport.

Paul Frankl mentions that Albrecht’s “Castle of the Holy Grail” was written after Reims and Amiens, and does not, in fact correspond to the new Jerusalem as described in chapter 21 of the biblical book of Revelation. Framkl claims that Gothic is based on the Rib, such as that possibly from Genesis. Frankl references Dvorak’s propagation of “Weltanshauung” which places the Gothic as accompanying one particular phase of the Christian Religion.

DevelopmentViollet-Le-Duc goes into detail on the construction of the Notre Dame Cathedral

at Dijon possessing “more than the appearance of a logical system,” and even when the Grecian, Roman, or Romanesque construction are preferred, there is something to gained from the study of these types of buildings. Viollet-Le-Duc often laments in writing, the path taken by society. This is clear by certain instances where he compares 19th century Train technology to Roman Imperialism and criticizes the current use of cast iron as being substandard to that of the stone mastery of the Gothic builders. But this is also related to a personal agenda, namely, that of elevating the uses and workmanship involved with cast iron.

Gothic ScholasticismPaul Frankl goes into immense detail when explaining the coining of the term

“Gothic.” It is ever so slightly obvious that Frankl adamantly opposes the Renaissance treatments and opinions related to the medieval and Gothic buildings of France, Germany, etc. Frankl mentions some early terms that could have preceded the name “Gothic,” such as “fornices arcuatae,” “style ogival,” “Germanic style,” or “francigeno.” Frankl adds that Petrarch began discrediting the accomplishments of the “barbarians,” and this theory of substandard-ness became popular in humanistic circles. Manetti discussed at length the state of architectural “decadence” between the years of the Roman Empire (410 AD) and the renaissance, until in Brunelleschi (1419 AD). Filarete, at some point between 1400 and 1469 labeled Gothic architecture as “cursed…modern” architecture. Filarete absurdly claimed that the pointed arch was the result of tying together tree limbs, as the Germans were supposedly unable to cut down trees (218). Viollet-Le-Duc depicted the roots of all architecture in general with tied together tree limbs as primary shelter. This was possibly a ‘re-evaluation’ of Filarete’s attempts at French and German discreditation. Generally, many Italians were probably still perturbed about the prior destruction of Roman temples and buildings, popularly attributed to the “rough” Goths. Frankl discusses how Romanesque and Gothic connect to non-scholasticism and scholasticism, and therefore exist as polar opposites. Frankl, in addition, states that the Romanesque has been seen to rely on platonic minimal formal

combination, and that Erwin Panofsky has drawn the parallel between Gothic and Scholasticism most succinctly. (262-3) It is understandable that Frankl as well as Greeks could view Roman and Romanesque architecture as a misinterpretation of prior logic.

Gothic Evolution

Early Gothic and Passive Transition:Frankl writes that the Cistercians accepted the early Gothic in Citreaux around

1160. The spreading Gothic style confronted traditions in every locale. Frankl states that the “passive transition” of Gothic in Italy must date true Italian Gothic in the 14th century, and that Spain was last to embrace rib vaulting. This contrasts sharply with the opinion of Jean Bony.

Gothic style from 1194 to 1320:1194-1250French Ideas spread to many other countries mainly through clergies. Master

masons from other countries went to build and study in France. There were many stylistic divisions, such as Cistercian Transitional, the Franciscan, the Mendicant, and the Premonstratensian orders. Frankl writes that the Cathedral at Toledo in central Spain was “begun before 1224,” by an architect known as Martin, and was succeeded by Petrus Petri. Frankl is very critical of Spanish treatment of the Gothic so far as to label the Cathedral at Toledo “French Gothic Style in Spanish territory,” in contrast to the views of Jean Bony (120). Frankl apologetically admits that the overview of Gothic transitions from 1210 to 1240 is “difficult to achieve,” (121) but notes Richard Hamann’s timely presentations of developments as the work of somewhat nomadic masons. With respect to French exportation of the Gothic, Frankl adds that the work and Lodge-book of Villard de Honnecourt was evidence of French exportation of the Gothic to Hungary. However, this architecture no longer exists.

1250-1320Frankl states that churches of the Mendicant orders cannot be considered High

Gothic, only that they were produced in the time period generally associated with the High Gothic. Frankl divides churches of this time period into 1: Hall Church + Gothic Features, 2: French church + lateral chapels, and 3: Italian churches combining Gothic and Classical elements.

Late Gothic The difference between High Gothic and Late Gothic was less obvious in

Germany as it was in England. Transepts and Crossings were seen to have greatly diminished. Attention and care is given to “net vaults” of the Late Gothic in the Schwabisch Gmund Holy Cross-church. Hall churches, such as the Sandkirche in Breslau, depict clearly the late Gothic break with regularity, as vaulting in plan begins to resemble stars and jagged triangulations.

It is necessary to realize that the Italian Late Gothic and the Renaissance were highly different periods. Northern Schools can be seen to have developed the Gothic

further, whereas Italians combined Gothic, Romanesque, and Classical elements seemingly at random, further diminishing the Gothic.

Frankl writes in detail about the life of Gothic architecture through and after the renaissance. Throughout the renaissance, Gothic was, of course, seen as “the style of the uneducated” (215) but was accepted in many Christian circles diametrically opposed to pagan roots of Renaissance, Roman, or Greek architecture. After the renaissance, the Gothic was embraced by the British, and imitated in America. Frankl states that Neo Gothic was the result of historicists believing that any style was “worthy of imitation.” However, Gothic cathedrals initially stood in Gothic towns, later to be further overrun by divergent building typologies. Frankl concludes by writing that the Gothic can finally be admired as “a monument to the generations of suffering, striving, and a blessed age.” (216) Robert Mark mentions that Frankl felt that contemporary critics in 1960 were unable to solve the debates of structural rationalism, and that the issue should be handed over to physicists. However, physicists had left the realm of structural mechanics by the mid 19th century.

England, France, Germany, and Italy

English gothic architecture 1170-1538English Gothic was believed to be most often about contrast, and not harmony.

Most often a Romanesque nave was combined with a Gothic choir. According to Francis Bond, the combination and contrast of styles in English Gothic churches, though wonderful to English people, was not considered to be all that superb to the French. Bond adds that Gothic almost always shows an increase of height compared to earlier Romanesque churches. In addition, it is noted that where horizontality resides in the Romanesque, verticality resides with the Gothic, (62) but Gothic to Bond exhibits a careful balance between Horizontal and Vertical lines nonetheless.

1170-1315 In this time period, the greatest churches were still cruciform in plan, with aisled naves, and many Norman choirs were demolished and replaced with Gothic choirs, for considerations of height and size. Ground story, Triforium arcade, and Clerestory were still in use as the three primary stories. The towered façade was added for effect, mainly, and was done on rare occasions. The “tooth ornament” was considered very stylish, and easy to produce, being derived formalistically from the Norman nail-head.

1300-1350 At this time period, plan organization was retained from the earlier period. Many of the chancels were rebuilt in a broader and loftier fashion. In terms of vaulting, simpler quadripartite vaulting was used in the Beverly Nave, Milton Abbas, Dorset, and the Howden Choir in Guisborough. Skeleton Vaulting was used extensively at Bristol Cathedral. (82)

1330-1538 In this time period, triforium treatment assumes a single organization. The previous tall or short triforium arcade use has been alleviated. Bond notes that in the western facades of these churches, the central door was in competition with the central window. It is important to add that at this time, England’s most superior vaults were built. Fan vaulting, such as that at Gloucester Cloister, Sherborne, and King’s College Chapel became prevalent.

France & Germany

French and German OriginsIn 843 the Carolingian Empire was divided unsuccessfully into the territories of

Charles II “The Bald,” Lothar I, Louis the German, Patrimony of St. Peter, and Tributary areas under the Treaty of Verdun. Following this, The Capetians revived Carolingian traditions, and ruled the territory known as France (until 1328 AD). In the late 800’s, successive weak Carolingian rulers allowed Germany to become divided into various principalities, etc, in conjunction with Viking and Slavic conflicts. In 919, Henry I was elected to the German throne beginning the Ottonian dynasty and paving the way for German Unification. (32-33) After some time, France and Germany were proving grounds for inventions and innovations in Gothic architecture.

FranceFrance was most clearly the ultimate location for Gothic design and building. The

most widely known Gothic Cathedrals, such as Chartres, Notre-Dame, and Bourges are located in France. Obviously from the historical evidence of masons traveling to France, and the exportation of stylistic French Gothic qualities, one can see massive influence. England, Italy, and Germany, throughout history have been hard pressed to develop individual experts on Gothic, which might rival Viollet-Le-Duc, or Villard-de-Honnecourt. Ruskin and Pugin as well as others had their go, to some limited avail. Though the Gothic experienced evolutionary phases in other countries, only in France were the three systems of Gothic adequately nurtured.

According to Jean Bony, France utilized three systems of Gothic architecture. In the First system (1160-1180 AD), the cathedral at Sens was influential for 50 years and more. Many of the first churches favored removal of the transept in plan. The use of alternating supports was a concept that came from Sens. This caused space to be divided into units consisting of double bays. (121) Sometimes a bay might have been divided into three trinitarian parts, requiring the use of an octopartite vault. This school originated in the southern Ile-de-France, and finally became more systematized. Two other schools had formed, the Paris school, and the Northern School. These schools set up a clear datum, as twelfth century Gothic was decidedly more “hunched” than later styles. The earliest system was the general form of the later Gothic churches without flying buttresses or spires, etc. At Laon and Canterbury, it is interesting to note the roof covering of less than correctly placed buttresses.

In the first Gothic system, there was contrast between the “Parisian” group and the “Northern” group. Much of this contrast was evident in terms of Volume, Space, Surface, and Light. The Parisian Group was very fond of compact plans, whereas the Northern group was more into articulated cruciform plans. Plans of the Northern group are related strictly to the Compass directions, combined with some type of tower or elevated intersecting roof condition. Jean Bony adds here that the true Gothic prototype was the Romanesque Saint Lucien at Beauvais (1090 AD), which was later destroyed. Notre Dame in Paris and Laon were of the two different “schools.” Laon shows clearly the elevated portion at the crossing and lantern. At Laon, the Northern sensibility of

“plastic quality of matter” (145) is evident. At Paris in Notre Dame, oculi are used instead of arcaded openings as the Northern school might have done. In general the Parisian school does not utilize a plastic layering of organization as the Northern school would.Bony adds that the Parisian school was less inclined to utilize the picturesque or openness to the outside, whereas the Northern school was open, even to forbidden Romanesque influences. The northerners were noticeably tied to the past in some ways, bringing back mural styles, etc.

In the second system, many new and innovative concepts came about, such as the Flying Buttress. Chartres Cathedral was begun after fires of 1194, and Bourges was apparently begun in 1195. This marked the beginning of the second system, and the widespread use of the flying buttress, likely already known in the preceding twenty years. (195) The thirteenth century was dominated by architectural use of the flying buttress.

Chartres and Bourges contrast sharply with one another, and together even more so with the past. Bourges and Chartres can be seen as analogous to Notre Dame and Laon. In the second system, soaring linearity prevailed, and new structural world was opened for architects everywhere. The flying buttress had now made possible the pursuit of expansive transparency.

In the third Gothic system, also known as the “Rayonnant Style,” giant radiating compositions of stained glass were now widespread. Jean Bony mentions that the beginning of the third system was not a constructional ground breaking, but merely a “change of tone.”(357) In Reims cathedral is Hughes Libergier’s 1263 tomb. Libergier was the architect of St. Nicaise. It is obvious that Libergier, through his style of dress depicted in drawings, was not in the least sense a workman or master Builder. This conflicts with the widely held view of Phillipo Brunelleschi as the first architect, in some ways.

Other Gothic architects were Robert de Luzarches, Thomas de Cormont, Renaud de Cormont, Jean de Chelles, and Pierre de Montreuil. Bony adds that many of the others are still anonymous. Much of Rayonnant philosophy is evident at St. Denis produced between 1231 and 1235. St. Denis is almost on the verge of becoming curtain wall and column. Troyes cathedral has many striking characteristics as well. Jean Bony adds, that,

“if (Troyes) preceded St. Denis by a few years, the choir of Troyes may have been the first building in which the triforium became absorbed into the clerestory…” (373)

-Jean Bony

Other cathedrals, such as St. Germain en Laye (1238), Reims, (1231), Tournai (1243), Sainte Chapelle (Paris, 1248), Amiens (1250-1269), and Wells (1225) all exhibit Rayonnant characteristics.

This brings the discussion to the topic of Gothic Grids. Jean Bony writes extensively on repetitive systems of rhythm, and interconnection of Gothic Grid utilizations. (79) These grid systems begin to become superimposed and flattened phenomenally in the later Rayonnant style. The system of repetitious bays in Gothic architecture can be traced to northern Europe, and Roman examples in Africa and Syria. In Gothic architecture, there can be seen as well a system of numerical ordering, in plan defining organization in the side aisles, nave, etc., and in the interior and exterior vertical surfaces. It is important to recognize the presence of grid systems and numerical devices

in almost every type of Gothic building. These ideas can be traced back for centuries, but in the Gothic, there begins a deep respect for repetition and uniformity of similarities. This permeates every level of Gothic Architectural manifestation.

With all of this in mind, the three systems, utilizing to different degrees the ordering of grids and other elements, the topic of discussion now brings us to stained glass.

Stained Glass: With respect to Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres, Henry Adams wrote extensively on French Glass work. It is clear that Abbe Suger worked with glass at Saint Denis in 1140-52. Viollet-Le-Duc chose the tree of Jesse for “his lecture on Glass in general.” Further, it is important to consider the colors involved with this type of masterful work.(130) Blue is important to understand at first. Red is often secondary. Further, it was important to use a strong yellow and a weak yellow, a strong purple and a weak purple, and a strong green and a weak green. It was important for Gothic imagery to be flat, and non similar to “holes.” Adams further explains the supremacy of French glasswork to the Byzantine art, and argues that the glass in Chartres cathedral is more French than the architecture itself. Adams questions as to why the glass is set in lead as opposed to gold, since stained glass must have cost so dearly. Adams sites M. Paul Durand as describing the original 12th century glass as superior to 13th and 14th century work. This perhaps recalls Viollet-Le-Duc’s claim that new civilizations build “more durably” than do more established ones. This is also concurrent with popular opinion that renaissance concrete work was not up to the level of the original Roman concrete work. Finally Adams further discusses the Virgin Mary as the inspiring “Queen” enthroned and responsible for Stained Glass. (148)

France is obviously deserving of credit and praise for the development of Gothic architecture and peripherally related qualities. However, Germany and Eastern Europe were also locales befitting innovation and invention pertaining to Gothic building and design.

Germany & Eastern EuropeLouis Grodecki writes in detail about Gothic in Germany and Eastern Europe.

Historically, Hohenstaufen rule helped the Pfafengasse region to produce great works. It is widely accepted that as early as 1230, Eastern Europe was noted as being un-interested in imitation of Western Europe. However, at Sankt Gereon, Aposteln, and Kunibert, are distinct evidences of Gothic influence. In the twelfth century, Cistercian architecture was produced in 1122 at Altenkamp, in 1127 at Walkenried, Harz, and Ebrach in Franconia, in 1131 at Rhengau, in 1135 at Amelungborn, in 1136 at Heiligenkreuz, and in 1138 at Maulbronn. Between 1202 and 1237, groin vaulting was utilized in the Heisterbach nave. Clearly, the Gothic was becoming more prevalent in the end of the twelfth century, as evidenced by churches in Bronnbach, Heisterbach, Bebbenhausen, and Arnsburg. The churches of Lilienfeld, Zwettl, and Heiligenkreuz in Austria showed further evidence of eastward expansion. Worms, Limburg an der Lahn, Lausanne, Cologne, Freiburg im Breisgau, Aachen, and Vienna, exist as stunning examples of further Eastward expansion of the Gothic. (251-311)

Sicily and Italian Gothic

Italian Domestic Gothic in Italy, Sicily, and Southern ItalyIt is very likely and probable that Sir Thomas Graham Jackson (ca 1915) has a

much more forgiving definition of “Italian Gothic” than might Paul Frankl or Other ardent students of the Gothic. Some of the examples shown seem to share characteristics of Islamic/Romanesque instead of Gothic.

Medieval Secular building was apparently of a much greater percentage in Italy than in other European countries. In Siena, there were 25 small towers standing in the 17th

century. In San Gimignano there are 13 towers, one of which is 175 ft. tall. The Palazzo Vecchio in Florence reaches a height of 308 ft. Jackson, when discussing the domestic buildings of Siena, mentions the palazzo Communale with a tower built between 1325 ad 1345, (233) and the Palazzo Publico being constructed almost entirely of brick with stone only in select areas. Consequently, Jackson then goes on to discuss Venice where maritime supremacy and adjacency to the Adriatic allowed for reduction of massive fortification and openness under the will of ”Secret Government.” The Ducal palace, Palazzo Cicogna, and Pallazzo Sagredo display Gothic characteristics. Clearly The Gothic can be seen as influencing Florence as well.

Southern Italian architecture has been thoroughly influenced and altered by Byzantine, Lombard, Norman, Hohenstaufen, and Angevin aspect and rule, as well as Sicilian Orientalism. In Sicily, it is obvious that numerous revolutions have occurred. After the Latins Sicani and Siculi, Greek colonization led to Carthaginian occupation. There were rumored to be 300 mosques in Palermo as of 962, none of which still exist. The Tower of La Martorana is a striking example of some quasi-Gothic characteristics. Monreale, built by King Roger in 1172 (283) has amazing views of Palermo and surrounding Sicily. The Cathedral has a very Byzantine nature, and the exterior (east end) is highly contrasted as a spotted and overlapping surface. The cloister however, has many Gothic features. It seems generally obvious that Italian architecture has rested at the edges between Western-ward Islamic advances and Eastern-ward French and English advances, all the while returning to Roman massing and platonic spatial composition.

Thoughts and Contributions of and about Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-Le-Duc

Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-Le-Duc was a historical and characteristic figure during the 19th century, and his writings and accounts of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, etc. still inspire architects today. Jean Jacques Aillagon goes into detail on the Ecole De Beaux Arts, begun around 1819, teaching methods of drawing as are pertinent to Architecture, Painting, Sculpture, and Engraving. He highlights various quotes criticizing the Ecole for not teaching architecture, only drawing beautifully. As the Ecole became more solidified in the argument over aesthetics instead of materials, Viollet Le Duc instigated a reform in 1863, which helped the institution last well into the early 20th century. Viollet was later victimized by his reformation, however. (28) The Ecole was most likely less concerned with building education, for prior reasons, such as a “Napoleonic Code” (26) seeing the profession of Architecture as near the same level as

Contracting and Shop keeping. Viollet Le Duc was an important figure in the midst of all of these occurrences.

“Whether he turned his attention to architecture, to decoration, to mountaineering, to ethnography, to the conditions of women, to Jesuits or to strikes, Viollet-Le-Duc was a man of his century; he inherited the 18th century’s hunger for universal knowledge and carried within him the hopes and contradictions of the 20th.” (29)

Jean Jacques Aillagon

Sir Nikolaus Pevsner wrote on the symbiosis between Viollet-Le-Duc and John Ruskin. Pevsner makes an interesting point that two were both as interested in devotion to the Alps (through climbing or study) as they were interested in the High Gothic stonework. It is added that though Ruskin was highly religious, Viollet-Le-Duc was agnostic. Pevsner also adds that after 1857 most of Ruskin’s architectural writing was “largely bitter social criticism.” (51) Pevsner discovers an analogy, between Ruskin the bitter theorist and Viollet-Le-Duc the ‘mountaineer agnostic’ in their opinions of materials and building. Viollet-Le-Duc is noted as advocating exposed iron and displaying iron costs in order to convince readers of the beneficial qualities of metals, where Ruskin was opposed to riding on trains, viewing Gold ornamentation, or visiting train stations. Ruskin seemed to not fit in with the 19th century, and it would be severly more difficult for him to fit into the 20th or the 21st.

“The moment that iron in the least degree takes the place of stone…the building ceases…to be true architecture.” ( 51)

-John Ruskin

Pevsner accuses Ruskin as being wholly backward looking, and praises Viollet-Le-Duc as being wholly forward looking, advocating iron use in every part of a building much to Ruskin’s dismay. One could adamantly argue that if the Gothic master builders had adopted the mentality of Ruskin, the High and Late Gothic would never even have been achieved. Gothic would have merely been a piteous adherence to increasingly hunched Romanesque revivals. The position of Viollet-Le-Duc as restorer of Gothic seems to put non-experimentation in an a-historical light. Furthermore, Pevsner uses this contrast as a tongue-in-cheek indicator of English versus French mentality.

Catherine Cooke writes on Russian perspectives of Viollet-Le-Duc, as noted from the “L’Arte russe” impact on 1877 Russian society. Cooke explains further how Viollet-Le-Duc’s written concepts influenced 19th century Russian architecture and Later highly machinic Constructivism. (60)

M.F. Hearn, in his writing on Viollet-Le-Duc discusses an “anticipation of Modernism”, the achievement of “style,” and the application of “new architectural principles.” Hearn adds that Viollet-Le-Duc wrote on and was interested in the preparation as well as the delivery of materials to any site, therefore foreseeing Prefabrication and Quality Control. Hearn interestingly displays Viollet-Le-Duc’s drawings of “Bat Details,” advocating the study of pre-existing organic functions. Hearn writes more about the advocating of new materials and industrial processes, such as those related to “Locomotives” and “Steam ships,” seemingly hated by John Ruskin. Hearn also mentions that Le Corbusier later adopted this philosophy, “half a century later.”

Also displayed by Viollet-Le-Duc is a human skeleton set against a chimpanzee skeleton, possibly comparing the Gothic to the Romanesque. Hearn also adds that Viollet-Le-Duc was by no means the first Architect to advocate the use of iron in buildings or bridges. Viollet Le Duc seemed to greatly admire the buildings that were over looked by critics as being “utilitarian” and overtly “straightforward.” (235) Hearn was the only writer read which drew an analogy between Viollet-Le-Duc and Le Corbusier, as I am sure that there are many more. Robert Mark also adds that Viollet-Le-Duc was in charge of restorations of Amiens, Chartres, Reims, and Notre Dame. Mark also credits Viollet-Le-Duc with the belief that truthful response to Structural Mechanics is the only way to “create true style.” (11)

Contemporary Experiments and Contributions of Robert Mark and Colleagues

The research of Robert Mark serves as a contemporary link between the late 20th Century and the age of Gothic architecture. Beginning around 1967, Robert Mark and other investigators studied and learned many interesting facts related to Gothic design, proving the ingenuity required to design in such an aspiring manner with only compressive resistance, and not tension.

In “Wind Loading on Gothic Structure,” Mark produces charts showing wind loading of St. Ouen as well as Amiens Cathedrals, derived from climatic information, as well as displayed deflection of plastic sections. In “Chartres Cathedral: A Reinterpretation of Its Structure,” many very interesting points are made. Mark sets out to determine when the flyers were made, and what they do specifically. It is mentioned that in the Early Gothic churches, “buttressing” under roofs was normally “too low to be effective.” Mark finally decides that at Chartres, being the “first true skeleton structure,” large windows were not made possible by the large windows, in fact the large windows made the “buttresses essential.” (5) Mark also adds that Bourges was “more advanced…than Chartres,” and that “Chartres…was far less revolutionary than some have claimed.” (6) In other articles, Mark displays the evolutionary iterative process involved with the first flying buttresses at Notre Dame, which have existed in three distinct phases, and mentions that water and ice are frequent reasons for the structural failures of many masonry structures, as well as foundation settlement.

With respect to the “Gothic Enigma,” Mark mentions that the Gothic was built by arguably the first unionized labor, as a product of medieval trade and circulation of liquid Capital. Mark makes a connection between the High Gothic as a product of Urbanization similar to that of “Chicago and New York… seven centuries later.” (3) From viewing photographs of various cathedrals in the books researched for this paper, it is often very difficult to see exactly the difference in scale that different churches possess. However, on page 5, Mark shows sections of Sainte-Foy at Conques (ca 1050), Laon (ca 1160), and Reims (1211). It is amazing how the side aisle of Reims is almost as large as the nave of St. Foy. Mark further adds that in the Middle Ages, Sandstone, Limestone (2-28,000psi compression capacity), and Granite were used to an immense degree. Mark goes into photoelastic modeling, which is a method discovered during WWII by engineers desiring more efficient aircraft and nuclear power related components. The photoelastic method allows for a sheet of plastic modeled after the transverse section of a gothic cathedral to experience tensile deflection and display areas of increased tensile and compressive

stresses, at normal or elevated temperatures. The photo elastic method places a translucent sheet of plastic between two layers of parallel lined surfaces. The lines of the near sheet are perpendicular to the lines of the far sheet. The entire assembly is placed between the viewer and the light source. The movement of the plastic sheet displays deformations. Mark also produced experiments similar to those of Antonio Gaudi, who, by testing compressive forces, inverted them to tensile forces, by hanging the plastic section upside down, and connecting weighted strings to stress points. The weighted strings were also used to simulate wind forces horizontally, by attaching weighted strings to certain points and again, elevating the temperature of the plastic section. Mark displays color photographs of photoelastic plastic sections of the cathedrals of Bourges, Amiens, Chartres, Beauvais, and Palma, Majorca. Some of the photographs display effects of wind loading, some display dead loading. What is amazing is how the disruptions appear vigorous at the narrow portions, yet smooth and calm in the massive sections. (52-55)These images are similar in appearance to the color coding of 3d models tested and displayed in engineering software like CATIA, or PROENGINEER.

In conclusion, it was determined that the points of most Gothic cathedrals that are most likely to fail are at six different types of regions. Those regions are at “Pier Extensions, Pier Extension-Flying Buttress Junction, Pier Buttresses, Flying Buttresses, Passage Openings, Intersection of Pier and Pier Extension.”(119-122) Mark finishes with a discussion on Structural Rationalism in Modern architecture. Ideas from Pugin’s “True Principles,” related to “Convenience, Construction, and Propriety.” Pierre Luigi Nervi derived many concepts from Viollet-Le-Duc

ConclusionAWN Pugin, in “Contrasts” discusses in chapter five the state of religious

buildings in 1836. Pugin laments the “general change and destruction” experienced by the religious buildings of his day. He explains how in the earlier times, the church doors were open all the time, to let anyone enter, because the people of that time were prepared to respect the architecture, unlike a normal contemporary tourist. Pugin claims that churches have closed doors most times of the day, because visitors would most likely vandalize them. Pugin also criticizes the current building methods of the time, saying that Architects and artists have a minimal role in the design of buildings based solely on “allowing a trifling sum to the room occupied for each sitting.” (49) Pugin condemns society for its neglect of buildings in an age of luxury and spending.

Hans Hofstatter in “Living Architecture” explains how at the end of the middle ages Islamic forces had moved out of Spain. Hofstatter explains that Cistercian, Carthusian, and Premonstratensian monastic orders re-converted Spain and Portugal to Christianity. The cathedrals of Toledo, Palma Majorca, and Batalha all exhibited Gothic characteristics, sometimes mixed with Islamic and Indian traits, resulting in an “Emmanueline” style, (138) referencing King Emmanuel I. (ruling 1495-1521)

In retrospect, it is obvious that Gothic architecture has inspired varied responses form different intellects in Europe and abroad. It has been made clear by all authors mentioned that Gothic was clearly the harmonious new version of all things Romanesque. It could be argued as well, that, in addition to influencing the research of Robert Mark and architecture of Pierre Luigi Nervi and Minoru Yamasaki and countless Neo-Gothicists, the Gothic can also be seen as influencing greatly the work of Antonio Gaudi

and Santiago Calatrava. What is so impressive about the Gothic, as has hopefully been displayed by this text, is that not only did the Gothic prove once and for all the possibilities of merely compressive stone masonry, but also the ability and propensity for architecture to achieve an unprecedented lightness and translucency.

Bibliography

Books

Adams, Henry. Mont-Saint-Michel and ChartresBoston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Co. 1905

Bond, Francis. Gothic Architecture in England.London, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1906

Bony, Jean. French Gothic Architecture of the 12 th & 13 th Centuries. Berkely, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1983

Branner, Robert. Gothic Architecture.New York: George Braziller, 1961

Fitchen, John. The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals.Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1961

Frankl, Paul. Gothic Architecture. Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin Books, 1962

Grodecki, Lewis. Gothic Architecture.New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1976

Hearn, M.F. (editor) The Architectural Theory of Viollet-Le-Duc: Readings and Commentary. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1990

Hofstatter, Hans H. Living Architecture: Gothic.New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1970

Huss, George Martin. M. Eugene-Emmanuel Viollet-Le-Duc:Rational Building. New York / London, Macmillan & Co. 1895

Jackson, Sir Thomas Graham. Gothic Architecture in France, England, and Italy,

Volume 2. New York: Hacker Art Books, 1975

Jantzen, Hanz. High Gothic; The Classic Cathedrals of Chartres, Reims, & Amiens,(translated from the German by James Palmes). Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag GMBH, 1957

Jotischky & Hull. The Penguin Historical Atlas of The Medieval World.London: Penguin Press, 2005

Mark, Robert. Experiments in Gothic Structure.Cambridge/London: MIT Press, 1982

Parker, John Henry. An Introduction to the Study of Gothic Architecture. West Yorkshire, England: EP Publishing Ltd, 1978

Pugin, A.W.N. Contrasts.New York: Humanities Press, 1969

(Various) Architectural Design Profile. Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-Le-Duc, 1814-1819. London: Academy Editions, 1980

Journal Articles

Borg, Alan & Mark, Robert. “Chartres Cathedral: A Reinterpretation of its Structure.”The Art Bulletin, Vol. 55, No. 3. (Sep., 1973), pp 367-372.

Clark, William W. & Mark, Robert. “The First Flying Buttresses: A New Reconstruction of the Nave of Notre-Dame de Paris.”The Art Bulletin, Vol. 66, No. 1. (Mar., 1984), pp. 47-65.

Huang, Yun Sheng, & Mark, Robert, & Wellman, Avery M. “Westminster Hall’sHammer-Beam Roof: A Technological Reconstruction.” APT Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 1. (1988), pp. 8-16.

Mark, Robert, & Jonash, Ronald S. “Wind Loading on Gothic Structure.”The Journal of Architectural Historians, Vol. 29, No. 3. (Oct., 1970), pp. 222-230.

Mark, Robert & Prentke, Richard Alan. “Model Analysis of Gothic Structure.”The Journal of Architectural Historians, Vol. 27, No. 1. (Mar., 1968), pp. 44-48.

Rauch, Thomas M. Jr., & Mark, Robert. “Model Study of Buttressing the Piers in Chartres Cathedral.”Gesta, Vol. 6. (Jan., 1967), pp. 21-24.

Taylor, William, & Mark, Robert. “The Technology of Transition: Sexpartite to Quadripartite Vaulting in High Gothic Architecture.”The Art Bulletin, Vol. 64, No. 4. (Dec., 1982), pp. 579-587.

Wolfe, Maury I., & Mark, Robert. “The Collapse of the Vaults of Beauvias Cathedral in 1284.” Speculum, Vol. 51, No. 3. (Jul., 1976), pp. 462-476.