Grammar and Mechanics Part Two: Phrases and Pronouns

Analytical and Rhetorical WritingMatt Barton

Phrases Unlike a clause, a phrase does not contain a subject and a predicate.

Phrases are used as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. Some types of phrases are

Prepositional Participial Infinitive Gerund Appositive

Prepositional Phrase A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition:

The book on the table was written by a distinguished member of faculty. Of the four choices on the menu, the pelican burger is my personal favorite. Please place the rabid squirrel into this cage.

Participial Phrases Participial phrases begin with a past or present participle and serve as

adjectives. Recommended by four out of five charlatans, Sugar Gum is great for your teeth. Wonder Woman, flying in her invisible jet, spotted her nemesis. Zebras, best known for their unusual stripes, are the subject of today’s lecture.

Infinitive Phrases Infinitive phrases begin with an infinitive (the to form of a verb.)

To act or not to starve, that is the question. My goal has always been to get rich selling solar powered flashlights. She likes to fly in luxury airliners, but her husband prefers to take a bus.

Gerund Phrases A gerund is a noun form of a verb ending in –ing. Gerund phrases are used

as subjects or objects in a sentence: Saltwater fishing off the coast of Mexico is my idea of a good time.

This gerund phrase is the subject. You might enjoy eating at Piccadilly Cafeteria.

This gerund phrase is the object of the verb “eating.”

Appositive Phrases Appositive phrases rename or provide more information about a noun.

Salvador Dali, a truly interesting artist, was known for his unusual subjects. Your computer, a Commodore 64, is still a fine machine. Kraftwerk, a German electronic band, pioneered techno music.

Phrases and Commas Always put a comma after an introductory phrase, no matter how short it is.

Yesterday, my troubles seemed so far away. Everyday, teachers should find new ways to appeal to their students. Determining the exact location of an electron, Dr. Goeberdingle did not notice

Super Snail quietly oozing by.

Phrases and Commas Phrases that require commas are called non-restrictive. Otherwise, they are

called restrictive. If the phase or element is necessary for the reader to distinguish or define the

subject, it is restrictive. If the phrase or element is “extra information” that only describes the subject, it is

non-restrictive.

Restrictive Elements The plays by Shakespeare are the subject of our discussion today.

The phrases define or restrict the meaning of their subjects. We’re not talking about all plays but rather Shakespeare’s plays.

The book that I need for this course was not available in the bookstore. Again, these elements restrict the meaning of their subjects.

Non-RestrictiveMy oldest brother, Luke, entered college this

semester.This element is “extra.” I only have one oldest brother, so the

name is extra information.

The dog, which you may recognize from previous dog shows, may appear on a television commercial.

TipsTo tell if an element needs commas, just ask yourself:

Does it provide extra information about its subject, or does it restrict it?Does it begin with that or which?

That usually indicates a restrictive element (no comma) Which usually indicates a non-restrictive element (commas)

Elements that contradict or negate another element are always non-restrictive: I asked for pancakes, not waffles.

Modifier Placement Ensure that your modifiers (adjectives and adverbs) designate the part of

the sentence you want them to modify. Sometimes writers leave out the words a modifier is supposed to describe. This is

called a dangling modifier. Sometimes writers put a modifier in the wrong place; this is called a misplaced

modifier.

Dangling Modifiers Looking through the binoculars, the duck skated across the lake.

A duck with binoculars?

Looking through the binoculars, I saw the duck skating across the lake.

Misplaced Modifiers Loudly ringing, we didn’t hear the phone.

We didn’t hear the loudly ringing phone.

Sipping margaritas, the ducks swam past us. Sipping margaritas, we watched the ducks swim past us.

Modifier Tips Put modifiers right next to the words they modify.

If a modifier seems confusing, just rewrite the sentence to avoid the problem.

Short adverbs like “only,” “barely,” and “often” are especially troublesome. Make sure they are in front of the words they are supposed to modify.

Pronouns Pronouns require an antecedent.

Antecedents are the word or words the pronoun represents.

The boy likes fish. He especially likes fish sticks.

The students have finished their assignment. They will now begin the next chapter.

Pronoun Agreement An error in pronoun agreement can cause confusion for the reader.

The pronoun must agree with the antecedent in number, case, and gender.

Since subject/verb agreement is usually connected to errors in pronoun agreement, we’ll cover that, too!

Pronoun Agreement Pronouns must agree in number.

The four boys have left their snacks behind. The boy has left his popcorn in the microwave. The mutant camel is spitting its radioactive acid at the space marine.

Note how the verbs also agree with their subjects.

Pronoun Agreement Pronouns must agree in case.

The two cases are subjective and objective. Subjective means that the pronoun is serving as the subject of a verb. Objective means that the pronoun is serving as the object of a verb.

Subjective Case They demonstrated the concept.

They is the subject of the verb demonstrated.

Who left this wiener on the counter? Who is the subject of the verb left.

My friend and I enjoy playing Donkey Kong Country. If you have trouble choosing between I and me in this example, take out “my

friend.” Would you say “Me enjoy playing?”

Objective CaseThe reporter watched them closely.

What was being watched? Them.

To whom was your comment directed, sir? Whom is the object of the preposition to.

I enjoy playing videogames with him and her. Again, we have objects of a pronoun.

I saw my friend and her crossing the plateau. Her is an object of the verb saw.

Pronoun Agreement: Caveats If a sentence has the word or, the pronoun should agree with the closest

antecedent:

The geese or the duck has left its travel plans here on the desk.

If the word and is used instead, the pronoun must be plural.

The duck and the geese have left their travel plans here on the desk.

Caveats with Case If the verb in the sentence is a copula (being verb), all pronouns should be in

the subjective case. It is I. This is he.

Also, be on the lookout for “elliptical” or omitted elements. You are taller than I. (am) You speak more loudly than he. (does)

Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns are words like somebody, anybody, someone,

everything, and so on. Memorize the indefinite pronouns that require singular or plural forms. Some

change depending on the context. Indefinite pronouns can be very tricky!

Indefinite PronounsIf the word ends in –one, -body ,or –thing, it is singular.

Each and none are also singular.Everybody is bringing his or her Spock ears to the convention.Each of the iPods comes with its own selection of opera selections.

Think—would you say “Everybody are coming to town?” No way! So why do you say their? Use his or her and avoid this problem!

Indefinite Pronouns Both, few, many, others, several are always plural:

Several of the Slinkies were left in their original packaging. Well, I’m out, but the others still want to present their papers at the conference.

Would you say “Both people is here!” No, way! So, don’t say his or her or its with both!

Indefinite Pronouns All, any, more, most, none, some can be singular OR plural depending on

how they’re used: All of the Twinkies are past their expiration date. All of the Twinkie has been eaten; it was yummy!

Its/It’s Its (no apostrophe) is a possessive pronoun:

Smoking cigars has lost its charm for me.

It’s (apostrophe) is a contraction meaning it is. It’s amazing that you didn’t learn this already.

Pronoun Agreement Errors Here are some errors from actual papers:

Any good student makes time for the things they want to do aside from the things they have to do.

This should read: Any good student makes time for the things he or she wants to do aside from the

things he or she has to do.

Pronoun Errors Incorrect!

When one is taking this class, they will be required to learn how to read notes, keep a beat, or maybe do both at the same time.

Ah, much better: When one is taking this class, he or she will be required to learn how to read

notes, keep a beat, or maybe do both at the same time.

He or She The construction “He or she,” while more politically sensitive than just “he,”

may get tiring after awhile. Rewrite sentences so you can properly use “they” and avoid the problem:

In every class he or she takes, the good student brings his or her textbook and always does his or her homework.

In every class they take, good students bring their textbooks and always do their homework.

Wrap UpIn these two lectures, you have learned about

Comma Splices Sentence Fragments Run-on or Fused Sentences Commas with Compound Sentences Phrases Restrictive/Non-restrictive Elements Modifier Placement Pronoun Agreement Subject/Verb Agreement

Congratulations! You’re now well on your way to becoming a grammarian!