grammar book super

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Unit 1 Present

The verb ‘to be’ and contractions

The verb ‘to have’ Present Simple

The negative form – verb ‘to be’, Present

...Simple

Tags- short answers – verb ‘to be’, Present

...Simple

The Present Simple vs. Present Continuous

The Present Continuous

The Affirmative Imperative

The Negative Imperative

Verbs without a continuous form

Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions

‘Always’ + Present Continuous

Unit 2 Present Perfect and Past

Construction and use of the Preterit* (Past

...Simple)

Regular and Irregular Verbs

The Present Perfect

Differences between Present Perfect and

...Preterit* (Past Simple)

The Present Perfect Continuous

‘For’ /‘Since’ / ‘Ago’

'Ever' / 'Never'

Expressions with the Present Perfect

The Preterit Continuous* (Past

...Continuous)

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous

‘Used To’

Unit 3 Future

The Near Future be + -ing* (Present

...Continuous for Future)

The Future – ‘Will’

Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’

The Future – ‘Will’ + ‘To be going to’

Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’

The Future with ‘be’ + Infinitive

Table of

contents

*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.


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Unit 4 Modals

‘Can’ – ability and likelihood

‘Can’ – perception and knowledge

‘Can’, ‘could’, ‘to be able to’

‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: advice

‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability

‘Must’ and ‘have to’

Using ‘must’ for obligation

Strong probability using ‘must’

Absence of necessity

‘May’ and ‘Might’

‘Shall’

‘Would like’: expressing wishes

Modal Auxiliaries

Near certainty in the past:

...‘must have/ can’t have’

Unit 5 Questions

Questions without interrogative words

Interrogative Words

‘How long...’

Past Interrogatives

Question Tags

‘Which’ / ‘What’

‘How long…..(for)’/ ‘Since when'

Short Questions

Unit 6 Articles and Nouns

Definite and Indefinite Articles

The Plural

Names of Countries: Capitals

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Exclamations with ‘what a’

Construction of Compound Nouns

The use and omission of ‘the’

Definite articles with geographical names

Nouns without singular forms

Negation of the indefinite article


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Unit 7 Pronouns and Determiners

Subject Pronouns

Object Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns

‘No’ / ’None’

The Possessive

More uses of the Possessive

The Indefinite Possessive

Use of Pronoun ‘one’

Demonstrative Pronouns

‘Here’/ ‘There’

‘Some’ and ‘Any’

‘How much’ / ‘How many’

‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’

‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural?

‘Either……or’

‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’

‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’

‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’

‘Each other’ / ‘One another’

Different meanings of ‘all’

‘A little’ / ‘A bit’

Use of ‘both’

Unit 8 Relative Clauses andDependent Clauses

Relative Pronouns and Adverbs

‘That’ and Dependent Clauses

When ‘that’ may be left out

‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause

Unit 9 Adjectives and Adverbs

Possessive Adjectives

‘Too’ / ‘Too Much’

Placement of ‘Enough’‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’

Adverbs of Time / Frequency

The Adverb ‘that’

‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’

‘Still’ / ‘Yet’

Compound Adjectives

Adjectives ending in –ing and –edAdjectives ending in –ing

The Past Participle as an adjective

Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs and Adjectives

Uses of ‘so’

The placement of ‘even’

‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’ ‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’


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Unit 10 Comparativesand Superlatives

Comparing equals using ‘as…..as’

Regular and Irregular Comparatives

Regular and Irregular Superlatives

‘The more . . . the more’

A use of the comparative

Unit 11 Prepositions

Prepositions of Time

Prepositions of Place Final Prepositions

Verbs + prepositions

Unit 12 Conjunctions

Conjunctions

Use of ‘so’ to express a goal

‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’

Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’

Unit 13 Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds and Infinitives

Use of ‘be used to’

Use of ‘get used to’

Verbs: Reactions and Preferences

Verb + Infinitive Clause

Verbs expressing a wish to act

Expressions followed by the gerund

Verbs introducing a second action

Unit 14 Conditionals

Present Conditional* and Sequence

...of Tenses with ‘if’* (Zero, First, Second)

The Perfect Conditional* (Third Conditional)

The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’

Unit 15 Subjunctive and Wishes

Present SubjunctivePast Subjunctive

Wishes and Regrets

Unit 16 Passive

The Passive Voice

The Impersonal Structure

Unit 17 Reported speech

The Sequence of Tenses* (Reported

...Speech)



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Unit 20 Other

‘There is/are’

Time

‘Have’ or ‘make’ without ‘to’

‘To let’

‘When’ / ‘while’ + Present

‘How’ + Adjective or Adverb

‘Had better’ / ‘Would rather’

Expressions of Preference

Words ending in ‘ever’

‘Whether’

Emphatic 'do’

Verbs expressing impressions

...and feelings

‘I am told’

Unit 18 Phrasal Verbs

The Main Postpositions* (Common phrasal

...verbs)

Phrasal Verbs

Unit 19 Expressions

‘To get’ + Adjective

‘To look forward to’

‘Kind of’ followed by a noun

‘To be likely’

‘To be left’ / ‘To have left’

‘For the sake of’

Expressions with ‘to have’

Baseball Expressions

‘To be at stake’

Expressions of Increase



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Present The verb ‘to be’ and contractionsThe verb ‘to be’ expresses existence, action, or occurrence.

Conjugation of ‘to be’ Contraction of ‘to be’ Use + examples

( as a stative verb)I am I’m I am a student.

You are You’re I’m a student.

He /She /It is He’s / She’s / It’s

We are We’re He is my brother.

They are They’re He’s my brother.

Negative ‘to be’ Negative contraction ‘to be’ Question

I am not I’m not Am I?

You are not You’re not or You aren’t

He /She /It is not He’s / She’s / It’s not or

He / She / It isn’t Is he/ she/ it?

We are not We’re not or We aren’t

Are we / you / they?

They are not They’re not or They aren’t

The verb ‘to have’The verb ‘to have’ is used to express possession, ownership, qualities or characteristics.

The verb ‘to have’ Negative ‘to have’ Question

I I don’t have Do + I + have…?

You You don’t have you

He /She / It He/ She/ It doesn’t have we

We We don’t have they

They They don’t have Does + he + have?

she

it

Examples Examples Examples

I have 2 brothers. I don’t have 2 brothers. Do you have 2 brothers?

He has 2 brothers. He doesn’t have 2 brothers. Does he have 2 brothers?


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Present simple affirmative Present simple negative Present simple questionI work I don’t work Do + I + work…?

You work You don’t work you

He /She / It works He / She /It doesn’t work we

We work We don’t work they

They work They don’t work Does + he + work?

she

it

Examples Examples Examples

I work everyday. I don’t work everyday. Do you work everyday?He works everyday. He doesn’t work everyday. Does he work everyday?

Third person (He / She / It)You must always add an –s to the verb.

Spelling

Verbs ending in: –s / –sh / –ch pass : passes finish : finishes

add –es

Verbs ending in : –y study : studies try : tries

add –ies

Except when the verb is preceded by a vowel. play : playsAlso do : does go : goes

We use the present simple for:

◌ things that are true in general

◌ things that happen sometimes or all the time

◌ to describe regular actions, events or habits

Present Simple


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The Negative FormThe negative form of the verb to be expresses the nonexistence, nonaction, or non

occurrence of an action.

Structure Examples

The verb ‘to be’

I am not

Add : not or n’t to contractions You are not

He /She /It is not

We are not

They are not

They are not my friends. (aren’t)

He is not my brother. (isn’t)

Present Simple

I don’t work.Add : do not (I, you, we, they) You don’t work.

or don’t He / She /It doesn’t work.

We don’t work.

does not (he, she, it) They don’t work.

or doesn’t

I don’t play football on the weekends.

He doesn’t go to university.

Tags – short answers

When we answer a question with ‘yes’ or ‘no’, it is usually followed by a tag which isa repetition of the verb ‘to be’ or an auxiliary.

The verb ‘to be´

Am I a teacher? Yes, you are. No, you’re not. / you aren’t.

Are you a teacher? Yes, I am. No, I’m not.

Is he a teacher? Yes, he is. No, he’s not. / he isn’t.

Is she a teacher? Yes, she is. No, she’s not. / she isn’t.

Are we teachers? Yes, we are. No, we’re not. / we aren’t.

Are they teachers? Yes, they are. No, they’re not. / they aren’t.

Present Simple

Do I like football? Yes, you do. No, you don’t.

Do you like football? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.

Does he like football? Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t.

Does she like football? Yes, she does. No, she doesn’t.

Do we like football? Yes, we do. No, we don’t.

Do they like football? Yes, they do. No, they don’t.


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The Present Simple and Present ContinuousThe present simple describes a present condition, regular or general action; the

present continuous describes the action that is currently taking place.

Use Examples

The Present Simple

- Regular actions or events I always eat eggs for breakfast. - When talking in general

- Facts He often has English class.

- Often used with adverbs

of frequency – sometimes, Banks lend money to make profits.

often, always, never etc.


- The action is not happening Catherine wants to work in Italy, so

. at the time of speaking. she is learning Italian. (but

perhaps she isn’t learning exactly

at the time of speaking)

He is having English class at

- Now the moment.

- For temporary situations Banks are lending more money

(these days) to encourage

businesses to expand.

I’m eating.


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Present continuous:

something is happening now / at the moment / currently

Past Now Future

I’m working.

He’s playing football.

They’re watching television.

Structure + Examples

The verb ‘to be’ + verb –ing

I am (not) verb-ing I am working.

He/she/it is (not) verb-ing Chris is writing a letter.

We/you/they are (not) verb-ing We’re having dinner.

Question:

What are you doing now?

What is he doing now?

It is raining.

Spelling

Verbs that end in –e drop the ‘e’ , add –ing

Make – making, write – writing, come – coming, dance – dancing

Verbs that end in –ie change to –ying

Lie – lying, die – dying, tie – tying

I’m eating.

We are

running.


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The Affirmative Imperative

You can use theimperative form to

give an order , a

warning or advice.

Affirmative Imperative Structure Examples

you (singular + plural) Infinitive without ‘to’ Be Quiet!

Walk down the street

I, he, she, we, they Let + object pronoun + Let me check in

infinitive without ‘to’ the dictionary.

Let + noun phrase + Let Mark sit there.

infinitive without ‘to’ Let’s (us) go to the beach.

Let them do what they want.

The Negative ImperativeThe negative imperative form is used to give an order , warning or the advice to NOT

perform a specific action.

Negative Imperative Structure Examples

you (singular + plural) Do not (don’t) Don’t be quiet!

+ Infinitive without ‘to’ Don’t walk down the street

I, he, she, we, they Do not (don’t) let + object Don’t let me fall asleep.

pronoun + infinitive without ‘to

Do not (don’t) let + noun phrase + Don’t let the children fall asleep.

infinitive without ‘to’

Sit down.


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Verbs without a continuous formSome verbs are never or hardly ever used in continuous forms.

Many of these non-continuous verbs refer to states rather than actions.

Mental and emotional states

To believe To doubt

To feel (= have an opinion)

To imagine

To know

To (dis)like

To love

To hate

To prefer

To recognize

To remember To see (= understand)

To suppose

To think (= have an opinion)

To understand

To want

To wish

To realize

Use of the senses

To appear

To hear

To look (=seem)

To see

To seem

To smell

To sound

To taste

Communicating and causing reactions

To agree

To deny

To impress

To please

To satisfy

To mean

To disagree


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Verbs without a continuous form: exceptionsCertain verbs which do not normally take the continuous form may take it in some cases.

Verbs of perceptionWhen they express ‘voluntary actions’ To see

To hear

To feel

To smell

To taste

I’m seeing Lynn tomorrow.

I see what you mean.

NOT I’m seeing what you mean

Stative verbsExpressing notions of belief, To think (to reflect)

preference, feelings or an What are you thinking about?

intellectual activity.

. NOT to think ( have an opinion)What are you thinking of it?

What do you think of it?

‘Always’ + Present Continuous‘Always’ is normally used with the simple present. However, sometimes it is used with the

present continuous in these situations:

Use Example

To express a repeated action which You’re always running late!

has an effect on the speaker.

To talk about unexpected or Compare:

unplanned events. When Alice comes to see me, I always

meet her at the station.

(a regular, planned arrangement)

I’m always meeting Mrs. Jones at the supermarket.

(accidental, unplanned meeting)


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Present Perfect and Past Simple

The Preterit (Past Simple)

USE

To talk about completed actions or finished events that

happened at a specific time (yesterday, last year, etc.)

I watched televisionyesterday.

For regular verbs add –ed For regular verbs ending in –y , drop the –y , add –ied

I watched I didn’t watch Did you watch?

You watched You didn’t watch he/she/it

He/she/it watched He/she/it didn’t watch

We watched We didn’t watch we

They watched They didn’t watch they

ExamplesI watched television last night. I didn’t watch television last night. Did you watch television last night?

Irregular Verbs: There is no rule for the construction of irregular verbs in the past, therefore

you must memorize them.

Here are some important irregular verbs:

begin began fall fell leave left sell sold

break broke find found lose lost sit sat

bring brought fly flew make made sleep sleptbuild built forget forgot meet met speak spoke

buy bought get got pay paid stand stood

catch caught give gave put put take took

come came go went read read(red) tell told

do did have had ring rang think thought

drink drank hear heard say said win won

eat ate know knew see saw write wrote

Regular Verbs:


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Irregular VerbsFor the preterit (past simple) and past participle of regular verbs add -ed

However, for irregular verbs there are no rules. You must memorize them.

Here are some common irregular verbs:

Verb Past Tense Past Participle

be was/were been

begin began begun

catch caught caught

choose chose chosen

do did done

drink drank drunk

eat ate eaten

fall fell fallen

fly flew flown

give gave given

have had had


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The Present PerfectThe Present Perfect is used to indicate actions that happened in a unfinished period of time.

Structure

I/you/we/they have + past participle

He/she/it has + past participle

Have I/you/they/we + past participle….?

Has he/she/it + past participle…?

Past Participles

go gone

have had

take taken

eat eaten

drink drunk

sing sung

Uses Examples

Shows there is a connection with now. -‘Where is your key?’ ‘I don’t know. I have lost it.’

An action in the past has a result now. (I can’t find it now.)

-‘Is Sally here?’ ‘No, she has gone to the mall.’

(She is at the mall now.)

Describes an action that started in the -I have tried to learn French, but haven’t succeeded.

past and continues in the present.

-I have always studied a lot in university.

Shows that an action has -Ouch! I have (just) cut my finger.

recently happened. -The road is closed. There has (just) been an accident.

- (Just is used to show that something -I have (just) finished a great book!

happened recently)

They are at home. They are going out. They have gone out.(=They are not at home now)


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Differences between the Past Simple and the Present Perfect

Uses Examples

Past Simple I saw three movies last week.

When the time period has finished (the action has finished in a specific time

period in the past).

Present Perfect I have seen three movies this week.

When the time period has not finished (the week has not finished, so more actions in

this time period may take place).

Past Simple Martin has crashed his car last year.

To indicate “old” information

Present Perfect Martin crashed his car again.

When giving recent news

Past Simple I saw that movie on Thursday. (specific day)

When the time of the action is clear

Present Perfect I have already seen that movie.

When the time of action is not specific (no specific day or date of the action)

Past Simple ‘For’ I lived in Victoria for five years.

‘For’ is used in the past simple

when we want to indicate the period of time thatthe action occurred but has already finished.

Present Perfect I have lived in Victoria for five years.

‘For’ and ‘since’ are used when we want to

indicate the period of time that the action has

been occurring, though the action has

not finished yet.


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The Present Perfect ContinuousWe use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past

and has continued up until this moment in the present.

Uses Examples

Describes an action that has recently -Paul is very tired. He has been working hard.

stopped and has a connection with now. -Why are your clothes so dirty? What have

you been doing?

Describes an action that has been -I have been learning English for three years.

repeated over a certain amount of time. -She has been playing basketball since she

was 6 years old. -They have been traveling to Europe every

summer since 1995.

It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago

and it is still raining.

How long has it been raining?

It has been raining for two hours.

We often use the present perfect continuous in

this way, especially with

How long, for … and since…The activity is stillhappening (as in the example) or has just stopped.

S t r u c t u r e

I/ yo u/ we/ t he y

h a v e bee n +

ve r b – i ng

He/ s he/ i t

h a s bee n +

ve r b – i ng

H a v e I/ yo u/ t h

e y/ we bee n +

ve r b – i ng …. ?

H a s he/ s he/

i t bee n +

ve r b – i ng … ?


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‘For’ / ‘Since’ / ‘Ago’

For, since, ago

=

to say how long something has been happening.

Use Examples

‘For’ = a period of time two hours a week

20 minutes 50 years

five days a long time

six months ages

I have been studying English for 3 years.

‘Since’ = the start of a period 8 o’clock 1977

Monday Christmas

12 May lunchtime

April they were at school

I have been studying English since 2000.

‘Ago’ = expression of time + ago six weeks ago

is usually used with the past tense a long time ago

two days ago

I studied English 5 years ago.


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‘Ever’ – ‘Never’

Structure Examples

Question – ‘Ever’

Used in present simple and present perfect Do you ever play tennis?

Auxiliary + subject + ‘ever’ + main verb Have you ever been to Argentina?

Affirmative – ‘Ever’ She’s the nicest person I’ve ever met.

Used with ‘if’ or superlative (superlative)

Visit the Eiffel Tower if you ever go to

Paris. (if)

Negative – Negative I never drink and drive.

‘Never’ + verb in affirmative I’ve never been to Argentina.

‘Ever’=at some/any time

up to now

‘Never’=

not ever


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Expressions with the Present PerfectThe Present Perfect is used to indicate unfinished past actions, past actions when

the time is not specified, and when a past action is relevant now.

Structure + Use ExamplesWe can use these expressions with the

present perfect:

Today

All day

This week

This year

Already

Just

Yet

Lately

Recently

In the last two months

All my life

So far

Ever

Never

They refer to a period of time that is

not yet over or is recent.

We cannot use these expressions with the

present perfect:

Two months ago

One year agoLast week

Yesterday

When I was a child

They refer to a time in the past that is over.

He’s been in a bad mood all day.

I’ve visited my grandmother 2 times this week.

I’ve just started the class.

I haven’t studied in the last two months.

I haven’t heard about it so far.


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The Preterit Continuous (Past Continuous)

Preterit Continuous =

to say that someone was in the middle of doingsomething at a certain time.

It’s 6 o’clock now. Sarah is at home. She is watching television. At 4 o’clock she wasn’t at home. She was playing tennis.

Sarah

4 O´clock

Sarah

6 O´clock

Positive Negative Question

she/it was + verb –ing I/he/she/it was not (wasn’t) + verb –ing Was I/he/she/it + verb –ing?

We/you/they were + verb -ing We/you/they were not (weren’t) + verb -ing Were we/you/they + verb-ing?

It was raining. It wasn’t raining. Was it raining?


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The Past PerfectFor actions that happened before related past events or times.

Structure

I/we/they/you + had (=I’d etc.) + past participle (gone, seen, finished etc.)

He/she/it + had (= he’d etc.) + past participle

Use Examples

1. To express an action completed I had never seen a movie before then.

before a given time in the past.

2. A state or action beginning in the past They had been friends for ten years when he left.

continuing until some later time in the past.

Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too, but theydidn’t see each other. Paul went home at 10:30 and Sarah arrived at 11o’clock.

So: When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone

home.

Bye

Paul

Hello

Half an hour later

Sarah

12 1

2

3

4

5

9

1011

678

12 1

2

3

4

5

9

1011

678


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The Past Perfect Continuous

StructureI/you/we/they had been + verb –ing (studying, working, listening, etc.)

He/she/it had been + verb –ing

I/you/we/they had not been + verb-ing (sleeping, reading, eating, etc.)

He/she/it had not been + verb-ing

Had I/you/they/we been + verb –ing ….? (helping, playing, talking, etc.)

he/she/it been + verb –ing …?

Uses Examples

To show that something started in the past and Mary had been talking with John for 15

continued up until the moment that something minutes until Lindsey arrived.

else happened.

To show cause and effect. Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

The Past Perfect Continuous is used for actions

that were unfinished when another action

took place.


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‘Used To’

Structure + Use Examples

I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they + ‘to be’ +

used to + verb + ing+ object.

Is used for expressing habits or things I am used to reading before going to sleep.

which you are comfortable with or

accustomed to.

For expressing a point in the process of I have gotten used to walking to work.

becoming accustomed to something.

For expressing actions that were habitual I used to eat seafood, but now I prefer meat.

in the past and implies that the action nolonger takes place. In this sense it is used

as a modal auxiliary.


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3Future The Near Future ‘be’ + –ing / Present Continuous for FutureThe present continuous for future indicates that a specific action will be taking place

at a specific time in the future.

Structure Use Examples

‘To be’ + verb-ing for the future What are you doing

(tomorrow / next week) tomorrow evening?

I am (not) eating for fixed future I am staying at home.

You are (not) eating arrangements

He/she/it is (not) eating

We are (not) eating

They are (not) eating

The Future – ‘Will’We use ‘will’ for the future (tomorrow / next week etc.)

Subject + ‘will’ + infinitive

(without to)

I/we/you/they will (‘ll) be

He/she/it will not (won’t) eat etc.

win

Will I/we/you/they be?

He/she/it win? etc.

eat?

Examples:I will be at home tomorrow.

Will you be at home this evening?

We use ‘will’ when we make a decision in the moment of speaking.

‘It’s cold in here.’ ‘I’ll close the window’

‘What would you like to order?’ ‘I’ll have the beef please.’

I’m playing tennis

tomorrow


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The Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’


‘will’ + ‘be’ + gerund This is used to say you will be in The football games at 7:30 and the middle of doing something. ends at 9:15. At 8:15, Kevin will

be watching the game.

It is used to talk about complete Q: If you see Sally, can you ask her

actions in the future. to call me?

A: Sure, I’ll be seeing her

this evening, so I’ll tell her then.

The Future – ‘Will’ vs. ‘To be going to’


‘Will’ + infinitive Indefinite future predictions Next year I think I will go to New York.

I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + verb

(infinitive without to) When we make a decision in the ‘It’s cold in here’.

I, you etc.+ ‘will not’ (won’t) moment of speaking. ‘I’ll close the window’

+ verb (infinitive without to)

‘To be’ + ‘going to’ + infinitive

‘I am (not) going to’ + verb Future plans and intention I am going to meet Jill for lunch today.

(infinitive without to) (I’ve decided to do something, myintention is to do it) He is not going to finish the project on time.

We also use ‘to be going to’

when there is evidence in

the present that something

is going to happen in the

future. It is clear now that it

is sure to happen.

Example:

There is a black cloud in the sky.

It’s going to rain.

It’s going

to rain.


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The Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’


‘Will have’ + past participle To indicate that something will occur You will have perfected your

before another action in the future. English by the time you

come back from the USA.

I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + ‘have’ To show that something will By Monday, Susan will have had

+ past participle continue up until another action in my book for a month.

the future.

The Future with ‘be’ + infinitive

Structure

‘To be’ + infinitive with ‘to’

This is used to express the idea of the future in the following situations:

Use Examples

A planned or agreed action

Present: ‘To be’ (present) + infinitive with ‘to’ We’re to see them tomorrow.

Past: ‘To be’ (past) + infinitive with ‘to’ I was to become a priest. (but I didn’t)

(This is a planned or agreed action that was

not done.)

An action which should be done What’s to be done?

An imposed action / a strict order You’re not to read that letter.

Instructions and directions for use The medicine is to be taken twice a day.

‘To be’ + passive infinitive


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4Modals ‘Can’ – ability and likelihood


Use

‘Can’ ability- to be able to do something.

Example:

He can carry the bag.

‘Can’ likelihood / possibility

Example:

Sometimes when the weather is bad it can rain. ( It is possible that this happens.)

It can’t be true. (I certainly is not true, there is no possibil ity that it is true.)

Structure

I / we / you / they + can + verbhe / she / it cannot (can’t)

Question

Can + I / we / you / they + verb

he / she / it

Example: Can you swim?

3 0 K g.


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‘Can’ - perception and knowledge

Use

‘Can’ ability / knowledge

- to know how to do something

Example: I can play the guitar.

‘Can’ perception

- with verbs of perception such as to hear, to see, to feel.

Example: I can see Sarah coming.

Structure

I / we / you / they + can + verb

he / she / it cannot (can’t)

Question

Can + I / we / you / they + verb

he / she / it

Example: Can you swim?

I can play

the piano.


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‘Can’, ‘Could’, ‘To be able to’The modal ‘can’ has the following form

P r e s e n t

C a n

I c a n spe a k 5 l a

ng u age s.

C a n ’ t

He c a n ’ t s i ng ve

r y we l l.

P a s t Co u ld

W he n I w a s a c h i

ld I co u ld p l a y t h

e p i a no.

Co u ld n ’

t

I co u ld n ’ t go to c

l a s s ye s terd a y b

ec a u se I w a s s ic

k.

I n f i n i t i v e

To be a b le to

A s k C a t her i ne a

bo u t yo ur pro b lem. S he

m ig h t be a b le to

he lp yo u.

F u t u r e

W i l l be a b le to

I w i l l be a b le to

mee t w i t h yo u l a

ter.

W i l l no t

( wo n ’ t ) be a b le to

T he y wo

n ’ t be a b le to le a

ve e ar l y bec a u s

e

t he y h a ve to f i n i s

h t he ir home wor

k.


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You shouldn´t

watch TV so much

I, you, we, they + should (not) + infinitive without to

he, she, it

Examples:

It’s a good film. You should go and see it.

Tom shouldn’t go to bed so late.

I, you, we, they + ought (not) to + infinitive without to

he, she, it

Examples:

Carol ought to buy some new clothes.

You ought not to eat so much.

‘should’ or ‘ought to’ + ‘have’ + past participle

=

to express regret or reproach

We should have gone to the mountains.

They ought to have invited her.

‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability

Structure Use Example

‘Should’

subject + ‘should’ + To show something that is The train should arrive soon.

infinitive without ‘to’ desirable or probable

‘Ought to’

subject + ‘ought to’ + Implies an expectation or assumption He is intelligent. He ought to

infinitive without ‘to’ pass the exam.

‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: advice

Use

To give advice

Should / ought to =

It is a good thing to do; it is the right thing to do.

Should not / ought not to =

It is not a good thing to do.


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‘Must’ and ‘Have to’

Must = a need or obligation to do something

Structure Example

I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without to You must wash your hands before eating.

He, she, it + must + infinitive without to

Mustn’t = an obligation to NOT do something. You must not do it.

Must not

Structure Example

I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You mustn’t smoke in the elevator.

He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’’

Have to = a need or obligation to do something.

Structure Example

I, you, we, they + have to + infinitive without to You have to finish the assignment by tomorrow.

Don’t have to = NO obligation to do something. It is optional.Doesn’t have to

Structure Example

I, you, we, they + don’t have to + infinitive You don’t have to do the homework if you don’t

without ‘to’ want to.

He, she, it + doesn’t have to + infinitive ( You can either do it or not; it is optional)

without ‘to

N

O S M O K I N

G


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Using ‘must’ for obligation

Must

=

a need or obligation to do something.

I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without ‘to’ You must wash your hands before eating.

He, she, it + must + infinitive without ‘to’

Mustn’t

=

an obligation NOT to do something.

I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You mustn’t walk on the grass.

He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’

Please keepoff the grass


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Strong probability using ‘must’

Must

=

strong probability or near certainty.

Structure Example

Subject + must + verb (infinitive without ‘to’) You must be Mr. Brown. My sister has told me all about you.

Negative:

Subject + cannot + verb (infinitive without ‘to’) You can’t be Maggie’s mother; you’re not old enough!

Subject + can’t + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)

T he pas t form is:

mus t + ha ve + pas t par ticiple

I t e xpresses near cer t

a in t y in t he pas t.

E xample: He mus t ha v

e gone ou t.


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Absence of necessityTo say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t

have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.

Structure ExamplesSubject + needn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You needn’t bring your bike; it’s not that far.

Subject + don’t / doesn’t need to + infinitive without ‘to’ You don’t need to bring your bike.

This expresses the opinion of the speaker.

Subject + ‘don’t’ / ‘doesn’t have to’ + infinitive without ‘to’ You don’t have to do your homework.

This can imply the speaker’s opinion or not.


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‘May’ and ‘Might’To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t

have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.

Use Examples

May

I, you, etc. + may + verb (infinitive To say that something I may go to the cinema later.

may not without ‘to’) is about 50% possible. He may call her.

Might

I, you, etc. + might + verb (infinitive To say that something He might have a meeting.

might not without to) is less than 50% possible. He might know.

The uses of ‘may’ and ‘might’ above are to talk about the present or future.

These other structures are also possible.

may/might + be + verb –ing to talk about present or future

I may be working at that time.

He might be having lunch.

may/might + have + past participle to talk about uncertain

events in the past

She may have been asleep.

She might have left it in the shop.


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‘Shall’In British English, ‘shall’ can be used for ‘will’ to express the future. In American English, it

is not often used.

Use ‘shall’ with I/ we

I shall be late tomorrow. ( I will be late)

Shall we go to the museum later?

Do NOT use

‘shall’ with you/they/he/she/it

Tom will be late. (not ‘Tom shall be’)

‘Shall’ can express obligation.

This is stronger and more formal than other modals of obligation (‘must’, ‘have to’).

It is used in legal texts and official rules.

Examples:

1. The insurance holder shall pay back the full amount

within three years.

2. Students shall not play loud music after 10PM.

‘Would like’: expressing wishes

‘Would like’ expresses a wish or desire.

‘Would like’ + infinitive

Example: I would like to go to the movies.

‘Would like’ + noun or noun phrase

Example: I would like a drink.

Interrogative ‘would like’ more polite form of (do) wantExample: Would you like a coffee?


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Modal Auxiliaries A modal auxiliary is a verb used with other verbs to express mood or tense. When a

modal is used, the following verb is in the infinitive minus ‘to’ form.

Modal Use Example

Can Ability He can play the piano.

Negative: cannot / can’t

Past: could

Future: will be able to

Permission Can I leave the room?

Could Possible actions now or in the future. When you go to New York you could

(to make suggestions) stay with Jane.

Permission Could I open the window?

May To say that something is about I may go to the cinema later.

50% possible.

Permission May I open the window?

Might To say that something is less He might have a meeting.

than 50% possible.

Must Obligation You must go to the bank

Negative: mustn’t You mustn’t go to the bank.

You’ve been travelling all day,

Deduction you must be tired.

Negative: can’t You’ve been sleeping all day,

you can’t be tired.

Could + have + past participle Possibility in the past. I could have studied Architecture

Something you could have in university.

done but did not do / did

not attempt to do.

May + have + past participle To say that it is possible that Polly’s very late. She may

something happened or have missed her train.was true in the past.

Might + have + past participle To say that it is possible that You were stupid to try climbing

something happened or was up there. You might have

true in the past. killed yourself.

BUT did not happen.


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Near certainty in the past: ‘must have’ / ‘can’t have’When we are unsure of occurrences in the past, we can use these expressions to

indicate an assumption of the event that probably took place in a past moment.

Structure Use

subject + must have + past participle Deduction

Near certainty in the past

Example:

John wasn’t in class yesterday. He must have been sick.

Structure Use

subject + can’t have + past participle A deduction about something that

didn’t happen in the past.

Example:

I saw John in the pub. He can’t have been sick.


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5Questions Examples

The Verb ‘to be’

‘To be’ + subject Are you married?

Is John a policeman?

Am I?

Are you?

Is he / she / it?

Are we?Are they?

Present Simple

Do + subject + verb Does he study English?

Does Do they have television?

Do you / we / they?

Does he / she / it?

Questions without interrogative words


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Interrogative WordsInterrogative words are used to ask very specific questions related to the person, place,

reason, etc. that an action occurs.

In terroga ti ve word Use

E xample

Who re fers to people

Who is he?

Who do you kno w?

Which re fers to people or th

ings Which do you pre fer tea or co f fee?

when there is a choi

ce

Wha t re fers to things

Wha t spor t do you pla y?

Ho w re fers to manner or m

eans Ho w do you spell your

name? (manner )

Ho w do you go to work? (means )

Wh y asks abou t reason

Wh y don’ t you like her?

Where re fers to loca tion

Where is the museum?

When re fers to time or da te

When does the s tore

open?

When do you lea ve?

Whose re fers to possession

Whose pen is this?


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‘How long’

‘How long’is used to ask

questions about

duration.

Structure Example

‘How long’ + ‘to be’ ‘How long’ + ‘is’/’are’ + noun How long is your vacation?

How long are the books?

‘How long’ + present simple ‘How long’ + ‘do’/’does’ + How long do you take to

subject + verb eat breakfast?

How long does it take to get to work?

Beginner level should only study the two structures above.

Below are some examples of ‘how long’ with other tenses.

Structure Example

‘How long’ + preterit (past simple) ‘How long + ‘did’ + subject + verb How long did you spend in Italy?

‘How long’ + present perfect ‘How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you had that car?

subject + past participle

‘How long’ + present perfect How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you beencontinuous subject + ‘been’+ gerund studying English?

‘


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Past Interrogatives

The verb ‘ to be’

‘ Was’ / ‘ were’ + sub jec t

was I? Where was Ann yes ter

da y?

he? Was the wea ther good

?

she?

i t?

were we? Were the y e xpensive?

you?

the y?

The Pre teri t (Pas t Simple)

‘Did’ + sub jec t + verb

I

you Wha t did you do yes ter

da y?

he Where did he go on ho

lida y?

Did she wa tch? Did i t rain on Sa turda y?

i t

we

the y


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Questions – TagsQuestion tags are ‘mini-questions’ placed at the end of a sentence.

A positive sentence A negative question tag

A negative sentence A positive question tag

Examples

The verb ‘to be’

You’re a doctor, aren’t you?

He is not here today, is he?

Present Simple

They work together, don’t they?

She doesn’t eat meat, does she?

Present Continuous

He is studying English, isn’t he?

You’re not meeting Jim, are you?

Preterit/ Past Simple

He went on vacation, didn’t he?

They didn’t work yesterday, did they?

Question tags can be formed for all tenses. Your teacher will give

you examples for the tenses you have learned so far.

Goes down

Goes up

You aren’t really asking a question; you are only

inviting the listener to agree with you.

Example: It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it?

Yes, lovely.

You are asking a real question.

Example: You didn’t see Mary, did you?

No, I’m afraid not.

The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it.

If your voice -

It’s a beautiful

day, isn’t it?

Yes, lovely.


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‘Which’ / ‘What’

‘How long…..(for)’ / ‘Since when’

Structure Examples

‘How long’ + ‘have’/’has’ + subject + Q: ‘How long have you been waiting for?’

‘been’ + verb -ing + ‘for’? A: ‘I have been waiting for over an hour’.

We use ‘for’ when we say a period of time.

(two hours, a week, 20 minutes, six months etc.)

‘Since when’ + ‘have’/‘has’ + subject + Q: ‘Since when has it been snowing?’

‘been’+ verb –ing A: ‘It has been snowing since yesterday’.

We use ‘since when’ we say the start of a period of time.

(8 o’clock, Monday, 12 May, 1990, lunchtime etc.)

Which, What

=

both are used for choices. They are often used

interchangeably.

What - a choice between or among things. What books do you prefer?

(usually objects) What kind of services do you want?

Which – a choice between or among a Which do you prefer: romance novels or

limited number of things/possibilities science fiction?

(usually objects and people) Which of these shirts is yours?


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Short QuestionsIn informal everyday and professional situations, you may use short questions.

Here are some examples:

Short Questions Possible complete form

Any thoughts? Do you have any thoughts on what I just said?Suggestions? Do you have any suggestions?

Ideas? Can you give me some ideas?

Any problems? Have you been having any problems?

Objections? Does anyone have any objections to my proposal?

Anything serious? Are the problems serious?

Louder, please? Could you speak a bit louder, please?

Sorry? Sorry? I didn’t hear what you said.

These are questions

formed with

incomplete sentences.

You can only use

them when the

context has been

clearly established.

They ask for feedback,

check understanding, ask

for clarification, ask for

advice / suggestions, make

requests and verify

agreement.


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6 Articles and Nouns Definite and Indefinite ArticlesAn article is a word that is combined with a noun to indicate the type of reference being

made by the noun.

A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one. An indefinite article indicatesthat its noun is not yet a particular one.

Language Use Example

The indefinite article - one thing or person. He is a teacher.

A - a noun in a general context.

The definite article - a noun in a specific context. He is the teacher.

The

Language Use Example

The indefinite article is used before words that begin I am a man.

A with consonants.

The indefinite article is used before words that begin This is an orange.

An with vowels (a,e,i,o,u)

or vowels sounds It’s an honor.

Exceptions: an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our)

a university (pronounced yuniversity)

a European country (pronounced yeuropean)


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The Plural

Plural rules Examples

To make a noun plural add

– s a flower two flowers

a book two books

For nouns ending in: –s / –sh / –ch / –x – es bus : buses dish : dishes

box : boxes church : churches

Also: potato : potatoes

tomato: tomatoes

For nouns ending in:

–y – ies baby : babies party : parties

but –ay / –ey / –oy – ys day : days monkey: monkeys

For nouns ending in:

–f / –fe – ves shelf : shelves wife: wives

Some nouns have irregular endings man men

woman women

foot feet

child children

person people


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Names of Countries: Capitalsa university (pronounced yuniversity)

a European country (pronounced yeuropean)

Names of

countries havecapital letters.

He’s a friend from France.

They live in Spain.

I am from the United States!


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Countable and Uncountable Nouns a university (pronounced yuniversity)

A noun can be

or countable uncountable

Countable nouns

You can use one/two/three etc. + (a) car

countable nouns. (you can count them) (a) man

(a) house

Countable nouns can be singular or plural. (an) idea

Examples I have a car.

I have two cars.

Uncountable nouns

You cannot say one/two/three etc. water

rice

Uncountable nouns only have one form. money

You cannot use ‘a’/ ‘an’ + uncountable nouns. salt

music

Uncountable nouns are always singular.

Examples I have money.

I have some money.

Exclamations with ‘what a’

‘What a /an’ (+adjective) + singular countable noun What a rude man!

What a nice dress!

‘What’ (+ adjective) + uncountable / plural noun What beautiful weather!

What lovely flowers!


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Construction of Compound Nouns

A compound noun

=two nouns joined together.

One noun modifies the other.

Example:

tooth, paste: toothpaste

Compound nouns can be written in these ways:

There are not many rules for joining compound nouns. You must

check a dictionary for the correct form.

1. The two words are joined together.

Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom

2. They are joined using a hyphen.

Example: check-in

3. They appear as two separate words.

Example: full moon

Other Examples:

ski boots, alarm clock , housework, great-grandfather


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The use and omission of ‘the’

Use Examples

The We use ‘the’ before plural nouns or Tom sat down on a chair.

uncountable nouns when we are (perhaps one of many chairs)

thinking of one particular thing. Tom sat on the chair nearest the door.

(a particular chair)

No ‘the’ When we are talking about things or I’m afraid of dogs. (not the dogs)

people in general, we do not use ‘the’. Children learn a lot from playing.

(children in general)

No ‘the’ We do not use ‘the’ with names of people, I visited Europe last year.

countries, continents, states, regions, (not the Europe)

islands, cities, mountains.

The But we do use ‘the’ in names with I live in the USA.

‘Republic’, ‘Kingdom’, ‘States’, oceans, She is from the Republic of Ireland.seas, rivers and canals. The Atlantic Ocean is very big.


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Definite articles with geographical names

Use Examples

No ‘the’ Singular name of a country, continent or region. France, Great Britain, Spain

Exceptions: the Sahara, the Congo, the South Pole.

The Plural name of a country. The British Isles, the West Indies,

the Philippines

The But we do use ‘the’ in names with ‘Republic’, The United States, The Republic

‘Kingdom’, ‘States’. of Ireland, The United Kingdom

The Abbreviations of countries, continents and regions. The UK, the USA, the EU

No ‘the’ The names of streets, squares, monuments Carnaby Street, Hyde Park,

and parks. ( generally) Wesminister Abbey


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Nouns without singular formsSome plural nouns have no singular forms.

Nouns referring to objects composed of Scissors, glasses, trousers, jeans, shorts,

2 symmetrical parts tights, pyjamas

When used as a countable noun, use

‘pair of’

Some collective nouns Clothes, goods, people, cattle, police, savings

Negation of the indefinite articleThe negative form of the indefinite article is expressed like this:

Structure ExamplesWith a singular countable noun: I haven’t got a pen./ I don’t have a pen.

‘Not………..a’

With plural countable nouns and There aren’t any buses here.

uncountable nouns It doesn’t require any equipment.

‘Not………………any’


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Subject Pronouns

7Pronouns and DeterminersSub ject Pr o

nouns

I

You (s ingu lar )

He

S he

I t

We

You (p lura l )

T he y

Object Pronouns

Object Pronouns Examples Use

(subject (object

pronoun) pronoun)I me Ann knows me. We use:

You you Ann knows you. a verb +

He him Ann knows him. object pronoun

She her Ann knows her.

It it Ann knows it.

We us Ann knows us.

They them Ann knows them.

It’s nice.

I Iike it.

They’re nice.

I like them.


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Possessive Pronouns

(possessive

pronoun)

I my mine

you your yourshe his his

she her hers

we our ours

they their theirs

We use my/your etc. + a noun

My hands are cold.

We use mine/yours etc. without a noun Is this book mine or yours?

Possessive pronouns show possession and answer

the question ‘whose’.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns Use Examples

I myself

You yourself I talk to myself when I am nervous.

He himself We use reflexive pronouns

She herself when the subject and object of a We blame ourselves for the results

It itself sentence are the same person of the test.

We ourselves or non-person.

You yourselves It saw itself in the mirror.

They themselves

Mine Ours Yours His Hers Theirs


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‘No’ / ‘None’

No Use Examples

‘No’ + noun When we want to - We have no bread.

exclude all possibilities. - There were no problems.

None Use Examples

‘None’ When no part of - Do you have any more pie?

something is left. No, sorry, I have none.

When none exists, not even - When she returned to the

a group of people or a small amount office, none of us

of something. recognized her with her new haircut.

The Possessive

To show possession for people, countries, groups and institutions we use –’s

Examples:

It is John’s birthday. (not the birthday of John)

It’s my mother’s umbrella.

Chile’s economy is doing well.

friend’s and friends’

My friend’s house = one friend

(=his house or her house)

(singular)

My friends’ house = 2 or more friends

(= their house)

(plural)

My house Our house


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More uses of the Possessive

T he po s se s s i ve – ’

s ca n a l so

be u sed w i t h da te

s, d u ra t io n s

a nd d i s ta nce

s.

We add ’ s to a s i n

g u la r no u n

a nd a n a po s t ro p h

e ( ’ ) to a

p l u ra l no u n, fo r e xa

m p le:

Dates Sunday’s weather

Tomorrow’s flight

Next year’s budget

Durations Three weeks’ vacation

Distances A hundred miles’ drive

The Indefinite Possessive

Use Structure Examples

I met a friend of Lucy’s.

We can’t usually put a possessive determiner + noun + of Have you heard this new

before another determiner and a noun. + possessive idea of your boss’s?

We can say ‘my friend’ but not (’s)

‘a my friend’. So we use these ( a, this = determiners)

structures.

determiner + noun + of How’s that brother of yours?

+ possessive (mine, yours, his, hers, Peter is a cousin of mine.

ours, theirs)

( a, that = determiners)


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Use of the pronoun ‘one’

The pronoun ‘one’ or ‘ones ‘ is used after an adjective to replace:

•a countable noun already expressed

•a noun that hasn’t been expressed

Would you like one? =

Would you like a chocolate?

One = a /an (a chocolate / an apple etc.)

One (singular)

Which one? = which hat?

Ones (plural)

Which ones? = which

flowers?

These

chocolates are nice

Would you like one?

This oneWhich one

do you want?

Which one

do you want?

The white

ones


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Demonstrative Pronouns: ‘This’, ‘That’, ‘These’, ‘Those’

The demonstratives this, that, these, those show where an object or person is in relation

to the speaker.

This (singular) Refers to an object or person near the speaker

These (plural) Examples:

Is this John’s house?

This is a nice surprise!

That (singular) Refers to an object or person further away

Those (plural) Examples:

Who owns that house?

That’s nothing to do with me.

Position Examples:

a) Before a noun. This car looks cleaner than that car.

b) Before the word one. This one is more expensive.

c) Before an adjective + noun. Do you remember that wonderful day in June?

d) Alone when the noun is understood. I’ll never forget this.

‘Here’ / ‘There’

‘Here’ is used for something that is near to us. Here is the money (in my hand).

‘There’ is used for something that is far from us. There is the bank, about 2 blocks away.

this that these those


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‘Some’ / ‘Any’

Use ‘some’ / ‘any’ to describe an undetermined quantity.

Use with both countable and uncountable nouns.

‘Some’: in positive sentences,

offers and requests.

I have got some money.

Would you like some water? (offer)

Can I have some bread? (request)

‘Any’: in negative sentences

and questions

I haven’t got any money.

Do you have any information?

‘Any’: to express total

permission, possibility,

or restriction.

‘Any’: to express possibility or indifference.

Feel free to ask questions at any time.

Any of these designs are fine.

$ I have

some money.

I don’t have

any money.


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‘A lot of’, ‘Much’ / ‘Many’

Use ‘a lot of’ with mass and count nouns in Ann has a lot of meetings.

positive sentences, negative sentences

and questions. I have a lot of work to do.

Use ‘much’ with mass nouns in negative Ann doesn’t have much time to see New York.

sentences and in questions.

How much coffee did you drink?

Use ‘many’ with count nouns in negative I don’t have many classes today.

sentences, positive sentences and in questions.

Did many people come to the party?


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‘How much’ / ‘How many’

‘How much/many’ = to ask questions about quantity

‘How much’ + uncountable nouns How much money do you want?

How much time do you have?

‘How many’ + plural countable nouns How many friends do you have?

How many books are there?

‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’

To compare two things that are the same.

‘as much as’ Use with: Examples:

singular, uncountable nouns You have as much money as I do.

(= the same amount)

‘not as much as’ You don’t have as much money as I do.

‘as many as’ plural, countable nouns There are as many parks in Santiago

as there are in Buenos Aires.‘not as many as’ There aren’t as many parks in Santiago

as there are in Buenos Aires.

We can use ‘as much as’ + ‘as many as’ without a noun also.

Here the comparative refers to the previous clause or an implied or previously stated noun.

It’s twice as much as the rent.

(=It’s twice as much money as the rent)


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‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural?

‘Some’, ‘any’, ‘none’, ‘all’, ‘most’ Examples:

When they refer to a singular noun, Some of the meal was really good.

the verb is singular. None of the presentation is interesting.

When they refer to a plural noun, the Some of the books are quite funny.

verb is plural. None of the stories are interesting.

‘Either…or’

A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. So, we use ‘either’ after a negative verb.

‘Either’ is always placed at the end of a clause. It means ‘too’ / ‘as well’

I’m not happy.

I’m not happy either. (not ‘I’m not …too’)

I can’t cook.

I can’t cook either. (not ‘I can’t …too’)

I’m not

happy either.

I’m not

happy.


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‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’

Use Example

‘Either…….or’ A choice between 2 things I want either fruit juice or coffee.

Either you come to class or you do the

work at home.

‘Neither……..nor’ To exclude 2 things I can neither read nor write French.

She’s neither nice nor helpful.

‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’

‘Everybody’ (everyone) singular Everybody needs friends.

(all the people) All the people need fr iends.

‘Nobody’ (no one) singular Nobody is here.

(no people) No people are here.

neither

(not + either)

Either ? or ?


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‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’ with question tags

E ver ybod y, somebod y

, nobod y are follo wed

b y singular verbs.

Ho we ver, i f the y are fo

llo wed b y a ques tion ta

g, the tag is in the plu

ral.

E ver y bod y (e ver yone )

singular

E ver ybod y needs

friends, don ’ t the y ?

(all the people )

Some bod y (someone )

singular

Somebod y has to go

shopping, don ’ t the y ?

( a person bu t we don ’ t

kno w who )

No bod y (no one )

singular Nobod y rea

ll y kno ws, do

the y ?

(no people )

Nobod y + verb in the

pos i t i ve form. E xamp

le: Nobod y l i kes Mike.


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‘Each other’ / ‘One another’

‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used interchangeably.

They show a reciprocal relationship between the subjects in the sentence.

‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used in the possessive.

They took each other’s hands.We often meet at one another’s places.

John and Paul looked at each other.

(= John looked at Paul / Paul looked at John)

Formerly, it was said that ‘each other’ was used for a relationship

between two subjects whereas one another was used for a

relationship between more than two subjects. Today, however,

most do not observe this distinction.

Maria and Jorge love each other. (Two subjects)The children are sitting opposite one another.

(More than two subjects)


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Different meanings of ‘all

‘All’ = all ofsomething limited.

It is used with uncountable or

plural countable nouns.

‘All’ + noun All cities have the same problem.

‘All (of)’ + the All the children at this school are tall.

this/that/these/those (demonstrative) All these books are mine.

my/your etc. (possessive adjective) I have spent all my money.

Personal Pronouns

personal pronoun + ‘all’ Have you read these books?

I’ve read them all.

‘all of’ + personal pronoun I’ve read all of them.

with Subject Pronouns

Subject (pronoun) + ‘all’ + simple verb The girls all left.

Subject (pronoun) + modal auxiliary / ‘to be’ + ‘all’ We will all have some juice.

They are all ready to go.

With a singular countable noun = ‘every’

Every student in the class passed the exam.

Every country has a national flag.


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‘A little’ / ‘A bit’‘A little’ / ‘A bit’ = a small quantity


‘A little’ Use with uncountable nouns. We want a little fresh air.

It can also replace the noun to ‘Do you want some coffee?’

avoid repetition. ‘A little, please.’

‘A bit of’ Use with uncountable nouns. We want a bit of fresh air.

‘A little’ Adverb of degree. We’re a little busy today.

‘A little’ + adjective This tooth aches a little.

Verb + ‘a little’

Little Use with countable nouns. I have little time to finish the report.

(negative connotation)

‘A bit’ Often replaces ‘ a little’ as an adverb. Can you drive a bit slower?

‘A few’ Use with countable nouns. I have a few books I can lend you.

It can also replace the noun to avoid ‘How many science fiction novels

repetition. do you have?’

‘Few’ ‘A few.’

(negative connotation) Use with countable nouns. I am lonely. I have few friends.


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Use of ‘both’

‘Both’ = two elements

With nouns I want both books.

Both shirts are good.

With determiners

Before a noun with a determiner (the, this, I want both (of) those books.

my, your, those etc.) ‘both’ and ‘both Both (of) the books.

of’ are possible.

With object pronouns

(me, you, him, her, it, us, them) Both of them are my sisters.

Use ‘both of’ before the pronoun. She has invited both of us.

‘Both’ can be put after object pronouns. She has invited us both.

With verbs

Both goes after auxiliaries and before We have both gone to the beach.

other verbs. We both want to go.


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8Relative Clauses andDependent Clauses Relative Pronouns and AdverbsRelative pronouns are used in relative clauses. A ‘clause’ is part of a sentence. A

‘relative clause’ tells us which person or thing the speaker means.

The woman who lives next door is a doctor.

relative clause

A relative clause joins two sentences:

I met a woman. She speaks two languages.

she who

I met a woman who speaks two languages.

WHO people

I know a lot of people who live in London.

THAT things or people

The man that lives next door is very friendly.

Barbara works for a company that makes computers.

WHICH things

Emma lives in a house which is 500 years old.

WHOSE possession (instead of his/her/their etc.)

A widow is a woman whose husband is dead.

WHERE a place

That is the hotel where Tom got married.

WHOM people (but when it is the object of the verbin the relative clause)

The woman whom I wanted to see was away on holiday.

( I wanted to see her)


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There are two types of

relative clauses.

Defining Relative Clauses

The woman who lives next door is a doctor.

The relative clause tells you which person or thing

the speaker means.

We do NOT use commas.

Non- defining Relative Clauses

My brother Jim, who lives in London, is a doctor.

The relative clause does not tell you which person

or thing the speaker means. (We already know

which thing or person is meant.)

This is extra information about the person or thing.

We use commas.


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‘That’ and Dependent Clauses A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is usually attached to an

independent clause.

When the main clause is in the preterit, the dependent clause (introduced by ‘that’ or

a relative pronoun) is also in the preterit. If it is in the present, then the dependent

clause is in the present also.

Reported Speech

When ‘that’ is used in reported speech, the dependent clause should follow the rule of agreement. (see

reported speech)

Relative Clauses – (Omission of ‘that’)

‘That’ is used as a relative pronoun in relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is an object pronoun it

can be omitted in a defining relative clause*.

*see ‘relative pronouns and adverbs’ for an explanation on the difference between a defining

and non-defining clauses.

Subject or Object Pronoun?

Subject Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a verb.

the apple that is laying on the table

Object Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun.

the apple (that) George laid on the table

Examples of when ‘that’ can/ cannot be omitted.

We stayed at the hotel (that) Ann recommended.

‘that’ + noun (Ann) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.

This morning I met somebody (that) I hadn’t met for ages.

‘that’ + pronoun (I) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.

Barbara works for a company that makes washing machines.

‘that’ + verb (makes) = subject pronoun.


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When ‘that’ may be left out‘That’ may be left out in the following situations:.

Reported speech After many reporting verbs ‘that’ can be James said (that) he was

left out. feeling better.

Examples: said, thought, suggested

However, ‘that’ cannot be dropped after James replied that he was

certain verbs feeling better.

Examples: replied, shouted, disagreed

After adjectives In ‘that’ clauses after some adjectives, I’m glad (that) you’re all right.

‘that’ can be left out.

Conjunctions ‘That’ can be left out in an informal style Come in quietly so (that)

in some common two-word she doesn’t hear you.

conjunctions such as:

I was having such a nice

‘so that’ time (that) I didn’t want to

‘such…that’ leave.

‘now that’

‘providing that’ ‘provided that’

‘supposing that’

‘considering that’

‘assuming that’

Relative structures Leave out the relative pronoun ‘that’ Look! There are the

when it is the object in a relative clause. people (that) we met in

*See ‘that + dependent clauses’ Brighton


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‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause

S truc turee E xamples

‘ To hope’ + fu ture

She hopes he’ll come.

I hope you won’ t ha ve an y pro

blems ge t ting home.

‘ To hope’ + presen t simple

He hopes the tra f fic is all righ

t.

(re fers to the fu ture )

I hope the wa ter is no t too cold

.


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Adjectives and Adverbs

Possessive Adjectives A possessive adjective is used with a noun to indicate possession, ownership or close

relationship.

Possessive adjectives Examples Use

(subject pronoun) We use:

I my I like my job. possessive adjective + a noun

You your You like your job. to show possession

He his He likes his job

She her She likes her job.

It its It likes its food. (The dog)

We our We like our jobs.

They their They like their jobs.

my hat our hats your hat

her hat their hats


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‘Too’ / ‘Too much’/ ‘Too many’

‘Too’ / ‘too much’ / ‘too many’

=

More than you want, more than is good.

This is a negative concept.

Structure Examples

‘Too’ + adjective/adverb The music is too loud.

‘Too much’ + uncountable nouns There is too much sugar in my tea.

‘Too many’ + plural countable nouns She has too many books.


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Placement of Enough

He can’t reach the shelf.

He’s not tall enough.

‘Enough’

=

sufficient, adequate

Structure Examples

After adjectives and adverbs I’m not tall enough.

You drive fast enough.

Before nouns and noun phrases There isn’t enough time.

After verbs (including past participles) He doesn’t work enough.

I’ve eaten enough.

‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’

Also As well Too

Before a verb and after ‘to be’ At the end of a sentence At the end of a clause or for

emphasis (with commas)

I also have a dog. I have a dog as well. I have a dog too.

I, too, have a dog.

She also studies English. She studies English as well. She studies English too.

She, too, studies English.

She is also tall. She is tall as well. She is tall too.

She, too, is tall.

We are also Chinese. We are Chinese as well. We are Chinese too.

We, too, are Chinese.


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Adverbs of Time / Frequency Adverbs of time or frequency are adverbs that tell us ‘how often’ we do something.

How often do you go to the mall?I sometimes go to the mall.

Adverb placement Examples

Before a verb I never go to the mall.

I always play basketball on the weekends.

She often practices English.

After verb ‘to be’ I am always tired.

She is usually late for English class.

never

seldom/rarely

sometimes*

often

usually

aways

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Adverbs An adverb modifies a verb. It helps to tell ‘how’, ‘when’ or ‘where’ the action took place.

To make an adverb: Adjective + –ly

Examples:

Accidently Quickly

Angrily Safely

Badly

Exceptions and Irregular adverbs:

These are some words that are adjectives and adverbs: hard, fast, late, early

Good (adjective) well (adverb)

Your English is very good.

You speak English very well.

Spelling Rules -If the adjective ends in /y/ add –ily

Easy Easily, Heavy Heavily

-If the adjective ends in /e/, we keep /e/ before the /ly/

Polite Politely, Extreme Extremely

-If the adjective end in /le/, we do not keep the /e/ before the /ly/

Simply Simply, Terrible Terribly

*Sometimes can also go before the subject.


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The Adverb ‘that’

Structure Use Example

‘That’ + adjective/ adverb To intensify the meaning Are you that afraid?

of the adjective/ adverb I had no idea I was that far from home.

‘that’ as an adverb

Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens or how somebody does something.

They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object.

Examples:

The train stopped suddenly.

I opened the door slowly.

Be careful with the differences between adjectives and adverbs:

Adjective Adverb

-Sue is very quiet. -Sue speaks very quietly. (Not speaks very quiet)

-It was a bad game. (Describes the game -Our team played badly. (Describes how the team played)

which is a noun)

-I am nervous. -I waited nervously.


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‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’

‘Yet’ = until now

Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.

Bill hasn’t come yet.

Use Examples

Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?

She isn’t here yet.

‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet? No, not yet..

Bill will be

here soon.

Where’s Bill?

He’s very late.


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‘Still’ / ‘Yet’Still

=

something is the same as before

An hour ago it was raining. It is still raining now.

Example: I had a lot to eat but I’m still hungry. (= I was hungry before and I’m hungry now)

Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.

Bill hasn’t come yet.

Yet

=

until now

THE RAIN HASN´T STOPPED

Bill will be

here soon.

Where’s Bill.

He’s very late.

Use Examples

Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?

She isn’t here yet.

‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet?

Not yet.


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Compound Adjectives

A compound adjective is formed when two or

more adjectives work together to modify

the same noun.

The second part of the compound adjective may be:

An adjective ice-cold

A present participle heartbreaking

A past participle well-deserved

A noun + ed old-fashioned

Irregular

(Do not follow the second-hand

structures above)

HEART BREAKING


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Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed

Ending in –ing Use Examples

Subject + verb ‘to be’ + When the adjective ends I hate snakes. They’re terrifying.

adjective + –ing in –ing, it means that the

particular person or thing

causes a particular effect.

Ending in –ed Use Examples

Subject + verb ‘to be’ + When the adjective ends in Snakes terrify me. I am always

adjective + –ed –ed, it means that the terrified when I see one.

particular person or thing

experiences a particular effect.

Adjectives ending in –ingSome adjectives are made by adding –ing to the verb.

Adjectives ending in –ing

Tells you about the situation

Examples:

My job is boring.

The news was shocking.

It was surprising that he passed the

exam.

Adjectives ending in –ed

Tells you how somebody feels.

Examples:

I’m bored with my job.

We were shocked when we heard the news.

Everyone was surprised that he passed the

exam.

Examples:

Disgust disgusting

Bore boring

Interest interesting

Depress depressing

Surprise surprising


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The past p

grammar book super

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