grammar english 13-24 docx

Grammar. American Language Course Placement Test BK 13-

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Alcpt1Defense Language Institute English Language CenterLockland Air Force

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HANDBOOK

American Language CoursePlacement Test


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Book 13 lesson 1

DO YOU IMAGINE THEY’LL WIN THE GAME? I GUESS SO!

Juimagjinoni se ata do tëfitojnëndeshjen? Unëmendojkështu!

We use so after some some verbs as a substitute for a that-noun clause. The most common verbs followed by so are think, believe, guess, hope, imagine, and suppose.

Will Jack come to the party?I think so. (I think that Jack will’ come.)Has Bill finished his work?I hope so. (I hope that Bill has finished his work.)

_____________________________________________________________________________________

The negative depends on the verb:

I think so. ------------I don’ t think so.Une/nukmendojkeshtuI believe so. ---------- I don’ t believe so.besojI imagine so.----------I don’ t imagine so.imagjinojI suppose so.--------- I don’ t suppose so.supozojI guess so.-------------I guess not. mendojI hope so.--------------I hope not.shpresoj

We use a that-clause after the adjectives certain, sure, and positive to express an opinion about someone or something.I’ am certain that I can go this weekend.He’ s sure that we’ ll pass the test.We’ re positive that we’ ll have enough money for the car.


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The conjunction “that” is many times omitted in conversation.

-ER AND EST FORMS OF ADVERBS

The –er and –est forms are used with one-syllable adverbs.

herët ¤larg

shpejterëndëi lartëvonëulëtpranëngadalëshpejtedrejt

Early¤

Far

Fasthardhighlatelownearslowsoonstraight

Earlier (than)FartherFurtherFasterHarderHigherLaterLowerNearerSlowerSoonerstraighter

The earliestThe farthestThe furthestThe fastestThe hardestThe highestThe latestThe lowestThe nearestThe slowestThe soonestThe straightest

¤early is an exception to the rule.

Could I leave earlytoday ? Yes, you can.Can I borrow your car Friday night? No, you can’t. I need it.

Could I take some leave next week? Yes. You can.Can I go to Sara’s house after school? Yes, you can.May I leave a little early today? No. you can’t.Your shoes might be under the bed. It could be real gold


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Jane may go to college next year. Jimmy can run ten miles.He isn’t able to move that heavy table.Nancy couldn’t read all of book in one night.

REVIEW OF MODALS

NOUN ADJUNCTS


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Could is frequently used to request permission.It is like may and can.Could I borrow your book, please?May I ask you a question?Can I leave early today?Can or can’t are usually used as responses to a request for permission with could.

Could I borrow your book, please?Yes, of course you can.Could I leave early today?I’m sorry. You can’t.We have a meeting at 1500.

May, might, and could are used to express possibility.Where’s Joe?He may be in his office.He might be eating lunch.He could be at home.

Can and is/am/are able to are used to express ability in the present or future.Could and was/were able to are used for the past.

She can speak three languages.They are able to speak French and Spanish.I couldn’t swim when I was young.My grandfather was able to speak Russian.

May, can, and could are used to request permission.May I come in?Can I swim here?Could I use your phone?

Kerkese

Adjectives usually modify or describe nounsA nice dayA cold winter

Nouns can also modify nouns. They are called noun adjuncts.A store that sells shoes is a shoe store.

When a noun modifies. They are called noun adjuncts.A store that sells shoes is a shoe store.

When a noun modifies another noun, the first noun is stressed.

a can openera wedding ringsome paint brushes


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Book 13 lesson 3

Jim is going to hang up his clothes. Jim is going to hang his clothes up. Jim is going to hang his clothes up. Jim is going to hang them up.

What did Captain Rogers tell you?

He told me that he could see me at 1430.

Jack Smith drives a bus. He’s a bus driver.

PHRASAL VERBS


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The term phrasal verbsrefers to a verb and an adverb that are together. This verb and adverb have a special meaning.He put on his hat.She wrote down the telephone number.They threw away the old newspapers.Many times a phrasal verb will have an object. There are two possible for the object.If the object is a noun, it can come before the adverb or after it.

If the object is a noun, it can come before the adverb or after it.He turned on the radioHe turned the radio onShe’ll look up the word in the dictionary.She’ll look the word up in the dictionary.

If the object of a phrasal verb is a pronoun ( me, you, him, her, etc.) the pronoun must be between the verb and the adverb.

I like the hat. Try in on.

I’ll give you the money, but you must pay it back.


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MODALS IN REPORTED SPEECH

SUFFIX –ER AND –OR

The suffix –er and –or can be added to some verbs to make nouns to express the meaning of “one who” He teaches students to read. He’s a teacher.

She collects stamps She’s a stamp collector

Book 13 lesson 4

HOW + ADJECTIVES


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When a modal is used in direct speech, it is frequently changed in reported speech.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH (presenttense) (past tense)

May (mund)mightMight mightCan couldCould couldAm/is/are/able to was/where/able to


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Sasi +mbiemer

The question word how has many uses. It is often used with adjectives to ask questions.How long asks about length.

How high asks about heightHow tall asks about height.How far asks about distance.How wide asks about depth.How old asks about age.

How heavy asks about weightHow hot/cold asks about temperature.A question with what can be used for a question with how.How long is it?What’s its length?Tall is used to refer to someone or something from the ground up; high is used when talking at point above the ground.

IF CLAUSESES

Certain if-conditional sentences express something that is true. The simple present tense can be used in the if-clause and the imperative or present tense in the main clause.

IF-CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE(condition) (result)

If the TV doesn’t work, push this button.If I get up at 0600, I get to work on time.If I don/t eat lunch, I become hungry by 2:00 p.m.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

LARGE QUANTITIES

Many is used to refer to count nouns.Much is used to refer tononcount nouns. It’s usually used in negative sentences.A lot is used to refer to both count and noncount nouns._______________________________________________________________________________


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SMALL QUANTITIESA few is used to refer to count nouns.A little is used to refer to noncount nouns._________________________________________________________________________________

GENERAL QUANTITIES

Some, any, and none are used to refer to both count and noncount nouns.Use some in an affirmative statement and questions.Use any in a negative statement and question.Use none in an affirmative statement only.

Book 14 lesson 1


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Count nouns are nouns that may be preceded by a or an the singular.

A book a manAn apple a fish


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Count nouns can be made plural

Regular plurals are formed by addingIrregular plurals have different forms

-es to word ending in these Letters s, z, x ch, and zh

-es, changing the y to i to words ending in a consonant +y

-s to words ending in a vowel +y and other words.

BoxesSandwichesDressesIncheswishes

FamiliesDutiesCitiesLibraries

BooksChairsTablesWordsBoysFacesPages

FishDeerChildrenFeetMenWomenknives

The –esthat is added to count nouns to form the plural has three different pronunciations./iz/BoxesDressesSandwichesDishesPagesQuizzesHorsesChancesClassesservices

/s/BooksSuitsCooksCupsBootsCropsRecruitsRanksbasics

/z/TablesSonsWordsWindowsBoysDutiesJobsTimesCaveseggs


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JUST/SUN

AS……AS COMPARISONS{aq}……….{sa}


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Just andSoon are adverbs of time. Just is used to indicate recent completion in the past.Soon is used to indicate expected completion in the near future.John just arrived from New York.His brother will arrive from Los Angeles soon.

We use an as as construction with adjectives and adverbs to make comparisons.Look at the examples.

1. Jack is twenty years old.Bill is twenty years old.Jack is as old as Bill.[= They are the same age.]

2. Fred is rich.He is richer than his brother John.John isn’t as rich as his brother Fred.[= Fred is richer.]

3. Linda finished her work in two hours.Betty finished in the same time.Betty worked as fast as Linda worked.[=Betty and Linda worked at the same speed.]

4. Bob studies hard every night.Mary sometimes studies.Mary doesn’t study as hard as Bob does.[=Bob studies harder than Mary.]


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FUTURE PROGRESIVE

Book 14 lesson 2

ADVERBS OF DEGREE


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The future in progressive is formed with

Will + be + Verb – ing

It is used to express an action that will be in progress at or up to a particular time in the future.We’ll be leaving at noon on Friday.Tom won’t be leavinguntil midnight tonight.

We can use certain adverbs before adjectives and other adverbs to make the meaning stronger .These adverbs have the general meaning of very. For example:

Extremely cheep {adverb + adjective}Really interesting {adverb + adjective}Rather good {adverb + adjective}Terriblynoisy {adverb + adjective}

Quitefast {adverb + adverb}So well {adverb + adverb}Veryquickly {adverb + adverb}


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ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH WHERE AND WHEN

IF CONDITIONAL


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Where is used in an adjective clause to modify a place.It comes right after the place.

We found a restaurant.The food was good {at the restaurant}We found a restaurant where the food was good.{Whererefers torestaurant, a place}.

When is used in an adjective clause to modify noun of time. It comes right after the noun.

The summer was hot.We went to San Francisco {during that summer}.The summer when we went to San Francisco was hot.

{when refers to summer, a noun of time}.

Certain if conditional sentences express something that is true.The present progressive or the present perfect can be used in the if clause, and the future, a modal, or the imperative can be used in the main clause.IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE{Condition} {Result}Present Progressive Future\Modal\ImperativeIf you’re looking for Bill, you’ll find him in the library.

You can find him in the library.Go to the library.

Present Perfect Future\Modal\ImperativeIf you haven’t been to the park, we’re going to go this Sunday.

You should go this Sunday.Go this Sunday.


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Book 14 lesson 3

GERUNDS AS SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS


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A gerund is the -ing form of a verb. Examples: eating, playing, sleeping.A gerund is used as a noun .The most common noun function of a gerund is the object of a verb.The gerund plus the words that go with it is called a gerund phrase.He enjoys teaching English. We finished working about an hour ago.

A gerund or gerund phrase can also be used as the subject of a sentence.Driving on wet roads can be dangerous.Learning a second language is fun.

A gerund or gerund phrase can be used as the object of a preposition.You can turn off the radio by pushing this button.Are you interested in learning German?He apologized for being late.

The following is a list of common preposition combinations with verbs and adjectives that gerund can follow:verb + preposition

apologize for look forward tobelieve in plan on decide on talk aboutfinish with hank someone for think of

adjective + prepositionafraid of nervous aboutbored with proud ofexcited about scared offond of tired of frightened of worried abouthappy aboutinterested in


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MUST AS PROBABILITY

MAKING DEDUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS


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Must is used with the simple present tense of the present progressive to express probability.Steve is smiling. He must be happy.I smell smoke. Something must be burning.

Must not is used for the negative.John’s lights are off. He must not be at home.Betty isn’t eating. She must not be hungry.

We use the modals must, may, might,and could to make deductions and conclusions from the information that we receive.Must is used when we are very sure of very certain about something.May, might,and could are used when we are less sure or certain.

must very suremaymightcould less sure


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REVIEW OF MODALS

Book 14 lesson 4OUGHT TO AS ADVICE

INDIRECT/REPORTER SPEECH


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Must and have\has to both expressnecessity and obligation.You must have money to buy a car.I can’t go. I have to study for a test.

Must not is used to express prohibition.You must not smoke.in the building. {Don’t smoke in the building.}You must not drive through a red light. {Don’t drive through a red

light.}Not have\has to is used to express lack of necessity.Tomorrow is Saturday. We don’t have to go to class. We have a lot of time.We don’t have to study.

Will and be going to are both used to express future time.Frank will finish packing tonight.He is going to finish packing tonight.

Could and would are used to make requests.Would you close the window, please?Could you please hand me the sugar?

Should and ought toare both used to give advice.You don’t look good. You should see a doctor.You don’t look good. You ought to see a doctor


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IRREGULAR ADVERBS

Book 15 lesson 1


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When a modal is used in direct speech,it is frequently changed in reported speech.

DIRECT SPEECH REPOTED SPEECH{present tense} {past tense}

will wouldpresent-BE going to past-BE going tomust {necessity} had to*have/has to had tonot have to didn’t have tomust not {prohibition} must not

*Notice that had tois used instead of must in past tense repotted speech when must means necessity.

Some adverbs have irregular comparisons .ADVERB COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVEWell better than the bestbadly worse than the worst

The comparative form is used when referring to two people or things.The superlative form is used when referring to three or more people or things


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NEVER EVER SELDOM ALWAYS USUALLY OFTEN FREQUENTLY

Asnjehere, ndonjehere,rralle here, gjithmone, sakonisht, shpesh, vazhdimisht

OCCASIONALLY SOMETIMES

Ndonjehere,

HOW OFTEN . . . ?


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There are some adverbs that are called adverbs of frequency.Notice where they are in the sentences. The most common position is before the verb, but after Be.They can also come at the beginning or end of the sentence._________________________________________________________________________She is seldom on time.Is usually on time?She never comes here.Does she always come here?

Usually frequently seldom Ever never alwaysoccasionally sometimes often

More and most are used with adverbs of 2 or more syllables for the comparative and superlative forms.

ADVERB COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Slowly more slowly than the most slowlyCarefully more carefully than the most carefullyFrequently more frequently than the most frequently


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Book 15 lesson 2

PROMOTE PROMOTIO

WOULD YOU LIKE TO COME TO OUR PARTY.


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These are some examples of adverbs formed by adding – ly to adjectives.*Note the spelling changes.

Correct correctly careful carefully Beautiful beautifully cautious cautiously natural naturally slow slowly soft softly nervous nervouslyquiet quietly quick quickly easy easily angry angrily reasonable reasonably.

The suffix –ion may be added to some verbs to form nouns. Note the spelling changes.

Collect –collection confuse- confusioneducate-education instruct-instruction locate-location select-selectionoperate-operation promote-promotionWe use will and would to say what we want or want to do.

Can I help you please? Yes, I’dlike a cheese sandwich. {=I want a cheese sandwich}

We’re having a party next weekend. Can you come? Yes, I’dlove to. {=Yes, I want to come.}That box looks heavy. I’llhelp you with it. {=I want to help you with it.}


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REVIEW OF MODALS

WHAT CAN WE DO

LET’S GO SOMEWHERE


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Should, ought to, and be supposed tohave the same meaning. They are used to give advice.

You should study more. You ought to do better. We’re supposed to take off our hats inside.Used to is used to express an activity, situation, or a habit that existed in the past but which no longer exists. I used to smoke ten years ago, but I don’t any longer.Would is used to express an action that was repeated regularly in the past.Used to can also be used this way.When I was a boy, my father would play baseball with us.When I was a boy, my father used to play baseball with us.

Can is used to say that something is possible.

We can see the lake from the living room.

You can walk to the pool. It’s very close. Flying in an airplane can be dangerous.

To express an indefinite place or location we use the adverbs somewhere, anywhere, and nowhere.

This is how they are used: somewhere in affirmative question/statements, anywhere in affirmative question/negative statements, nowhere in short answers

Are you going somewhere? Are you going anywhere?

Yes, I’m going somewhere.

No ,I’m not going anywhere.

Where are you going?

Nowhere


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WAS/WHERE GOING TO

ELSE

DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH

Book 15 lesson 4

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS


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Was/where going to is used to say what someone intended to do in the past, but didn’t.John was going to fly to Paris, but he changed his mind. My sister was going to meet me for dinner, but she forgot.

The word else is used with adverb and pronoun compounds of some-, any-, no-, and every-:Someone else/somebody else = some other personAnyone else /anybody else = any other personNo one else/nobody else = no other personEveryone else/everybody else = every other person

something else = some other thing somewhere else = in/at/to some other placeanything else = any other thing anywhere else = in/at/to any other placenothing else = no other thing nowhere else = in/at/to no other placeeverything else = every other thing everywhere else = in/at/to every other


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He looked at himself in the mirror

She injured herself during the game.

The children went to the movies by themselves.

Sometimes reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis.

LINKING VERBS


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When a modal is used in direct speech. Notice will/would.

DIRECT SPEECH {present tense} REPORTED SPEECH {past tense}

Ought to {advice} ought toShould {advice} shouldUsed to/would {past routine} used to/wouldUsed to {discontinued past habit} used toMust {deduction} mustMust not {deduction} must notWas/where going to was/where going toWould like to {desire} would like toWill*/would {willingness} would

The following words are reflexive pronouns: Myself ourselvesyourself yourselveshimself themselves.herselfitself

A reflexive pronoun is used as an object and refers to the subject of the sentence or clause.


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SUFFIX -LY


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We use adjectives after certain verbs called linking verbs. When an adjective is used after a linking verb, the adjective modifies the subject of the sentence. The most common linking verbs are:Appear, get smellBe keep soundbecome remain stayfeel seem taste.

Example: Your friend is very nice. The coffee tastes strong.Tom appeared calm during the storm.The food will remain cold on the ice. Bill seems nervous about his operation.

The suffix -LY can be added to nouns of time to make adjectives and adverbs. The most common nouns are:

Day + -LY dailyHour + -LY hourlyMonth + -LY monthlyNight + -LY nightlyWeek + - LY weeklyYear + -LY yearly

The - LY words above can be used as both adjectives and adverbs.


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Book 16 Lesson 1

IT’S SAFER TO JOG DURING THE DAY

A good plan to savemoney every month.It’s expensive to take a taxi.Not healthy to skip meals.Fun to swim

YOU BETTER PAY THE RENT.

pay the rent today.

You had better get to class on time.

‘d better stop at the red light.

forget to pay the rent.

You had better not be late for class.

‘d better not run the red light.

YOU SHOULD GET MORE REST.=WHY DON’T YOU GET MORE REST?

=WHY NOT GET MORE REST?

Use the infinitive of the verb [without to] after ‘’why don’t you’’ and ‘’why not’’.


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I ask for a drink?whyDon’t you call him?

We watch the news?Not start jogging ?

Open it now?

AFTER THEY HAD CLEANED THE APARTMENT, MUVED INTO IT.

The past perfect tense expresses an activity that was completed before another activity occurred in the past. Hi started the car after they’d fastened their seat belts. I hadn’t met him before he came to our class. She had gone inside by the time he thought to ask her.The past perfect tense is formed by using had with the past participle of the verb. It is used when you are talking about two things that have already happened.

Had –asked, caused, dropped, hoped, lived, moved, bought, eaten, heard, seen, thought.

I had = I’dYou had = You’dWe had = We’dThey had = They’dHe had = He’dShe had = She’dHad + not = Hadn’t

Book 16 Lesson 2

PASSIVE VOICE: BE-PASSIVE

SUBJECT VERB OBJECT AGENT

ATIVE VOICE: The secretary types the letters.


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PASSIVE VOICE: The letters are typed{by the secretary}.

To form the Be-Passive:

Add be + -ed {past participle} to the verb. Move the object of the sentence to the subject position.Add by to the original subject and move it to the agent position. The agent may be omitted.

DAN HAD BEEN DRIVING FOR 10 YEARS BEFORE HE GOT A TICKET.

The soldiers had been marching for hours before dinner.The tourists napping during the rain storm.Ted and Bob hadn’t been watching TV while I was shoping.

Book 16 Lesson3WHICH DO YOU PREFER?

I meat to chicken.YouHe boating to skiing.She prefer{s}We tea rather than coffee.They to ride rather than walk.

THE ROADS WERE DANGEROUS TO DRIVE ON.

He was easy to understand.It’s impossible {for me} to eat ice cream on cold days.I am difficult to be with when I’m mad!

IS IT SAFETO DRINK WATER FROM THIS LAKE?


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Be easy to walkIs safe to speakWas difficult to carryWere impossible to finish

Book 16 Lesson 4

WE WERE UNABLE TO FIX.

I am, wasSue, he is wasunable to fix it.You Bill and I, They are were

Isn’t able toSue is unable to install the battery.can’twasn’t able to Frank is unable to be here last night.can’t

HE’S OLD ENOUGHTO DRIVE A CAR.

I’m dirty enoughto take a shower.Jim couldn’t jogfast enoughto catch Bill.Do you swim regularly enoughto keep fit?


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HE WATCHES TOO MANY MOVIES ON TV.

Count nouns are things that can be counted.

No count nouns are things that can’t be counted.

LessonsShowersDollarsSpoonsCupsGlassesMinutespeople

InformationRainMoneySugarCoffeeWaterTimeNews

Too many is used to express ‘’more than enough’’.Use too many with count nouns.

Too much also means ‘’more than enough’’.Use too much with nocount nouns.

I IMAGINE WRITERS HAVE GOOD IMAGINATIONS.

Apply

Cancel

Continue

Examine

Imagine

invite

recommend

+ action

application

cancellation

continuation

examination

imagination

invitation

recommendation


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Book 17 Lesson 1

The linking verbs in the list are used to express a state or condition. They also reflect a point of view.

John is

{ to me*} like

his father.

It

TastesSoundsLooksSmellsFeelsSeemsappears

the cake we had in Paris.a good idea.a nice place to stay.smoke in this room.another cold evening.the right thing to do.

*This can also be placed at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.

To be often follows the verbs appear and seem in this pattern:

He

seems

appears { to me*}

To be

angry.

a nice person.

in a hurry.

interested in books.

*This is sometimes placed at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.


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INDIRECT SPEECH: YES/NO QUESTIONS

Direct Speech

Indirect Speech

Direct Speech

Indirect Speech

Note that the present tense verbs change to past tense, the order of the verb and the subject changes, and the pronouns and possessive adjectives change from one person to another.

DecideDestroyDivideIntendIntroducePrescribeReducesolve

DecisionDestructionDivisionIntentionIntroductionPrescriptionReductionsolution

Book 17 Lesson 2

EMBEDDED YES/NO QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSES{Statements}

Is it supposed to rain?

I don’t knowI wonderI can’t rememberI’ve forgottenI’m not sureI have no idea

If whether

It’s supposed to rain {or not}.

When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, whether or if is used to


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John : Can we go fishing?

John asked {Sam}

whether if

they could

go fishing.

Jack: Do you want

to go to Europe?

Jack asked {me}

Whether if

I wanted to go to Europe.


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introduce the clause.

EMBEDDED YES/NO QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSES{questions}

Is Major Simms in?

Do you knowCan you tell meCould you tell meCould you please tell meDo you have any ideaDo you by any chance know

Ifwhether Major Simms is in {or

not}?

EMBEDDED QUESTION-WORD QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSES {statements}

Where When Who

is the library?will he leave?can help me?

I wonderI don’t knowI can’t rememberI’ve forgottenI’m not sureI have no idea

where when who

the library is.he will leave.can help me.

JANET PREFERS HER HAIR LONG

SUBJECT VERB DIRECT OBJECT

ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS


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I prefer like

my coffee Hot. Black. Strong.

Note that in this type of sentence, the noun or pronoun comes before the adjective.

EMBEDDED QUESTION-WORD QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSES{questions}

Whenwhat

does the library open?time is it?

Do you knowCan you tell meCould you tell meCould you please tell meDo you have any ideaDo you by any chance know

whenwhat

the library opens?time is it?

When a question-word question is changed to a noun clause, the same question work is used to introduce the clause.

Book 17 Lesson 3


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PASSIVE VOICE WITH MODALS

ACTIVE

VOICE

PASSIVE

VOICE

RELATIVE PRONOUNS/ADJ/ADV + INFINITIVES


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SUBJECT VERB OBJECT

They

willmustought toshouldcanmaymightcouldhave todon’t have to

put onwearremovetake off

shoes.hats.gloves.

SUBJECT VERB AGENT

ShoesHatsGloves

willmustought toshouldcanmaymightcouldhave todon’t have to

be

put onwearremovetake off

{by them}.

I didn’t

decidefind outforgetknowlearnremember

when to leave.which to buy.how to cook.who to ask.where to go.what to do.show

tellteachask

{her}{him}{them}{you}


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MANY PEOPLE DRIVE 65 MPH EVEN THOUGH THE SPEED LIMIT IS 55.

Al though my apartment is quite small, I like it a lot.I like my apartment a lot al though it is quite small.

Though that restaurant is very expensive, it’s always full.That restaurant is always full though it is very expensive.

Even though the parade was long, many people stayed.Many people stayed even though the parade was long.

Book 17 Lesson 4HIS DEATH SADDENED THEM ALL.

The fireIYou

softweakblackharddark

-en{s}

-ened

the pots.the dishes.

WeThe workersBill

shortwidedeep

the pool.the lake.

tightsharploose

the screw.

The death sad the children.

WE HAVE TO READ THESE DIALOGS, DON’T WE?


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TAG QUESTIONS

He

doesn’t study every day, does

he?hasn’t written his family, has

isn’t leaving tomorrow, is

You

should do your homework, shouldn’t

you?

have a large family, don’t

are a student here, aren’t


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HE LOVES THIS BOOK, AND SO DO I.

He went downtown I went downtown

He went downtown, and

I did too.so did I.


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She doesn’t like fish.

They don’t like fish.

She doesn’t like fish, and

Neither do they.They don’t either.


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Book 18 Lesson 1 PAST PASIVE VOICE WITH BE


AGENT

Lt Hill flew The plane.

The plane was flown _____________ By Lt Hill.

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to join nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, phrases, and clauses.

Both…and{ dhe…dhe} and not only…but also{jo vetem…por dhe} indicate addition.Either…or{ose…ose} indicates choice/alternative.Neither…nor {as…as} indicates negative choice/addition.

Each conjunction should be placed immediately in front of the word, phrases, or clause it connects.

EXSAMPLES: Both Janet and her sister arrived last night. You can either go with me or stay here. He’s not only intelligent but also wealthy. Roy drives neither carelessly nor fast.

When the compound subjects of a sentence are joined by either…or/neither…nor, the general rule is that the number of the verb is determined by the number of the noun phrase closest to it.

EXSAMPLES: Either Mr. Reynolds or his sons always attend the company’s annual meeting. Neither the passengers nor the bus driver was injured in the accident.


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INDIRECT SPEECH

When a question is reported in indirect speech, the question word or words remain the same. However, some of the other words in the original question do not.

1. Present tense verbs change to the past tense.2. Pronouns and possessive adjectives change from first or second person to

third person {unless someone is reporting his own words}.

Book 18 Lesson

2

ANTICIPATORY IT

In some sentences the pronoun it comes before, or anticipates, the subject of a sentence. It does not refer to a particular person or thing ; it only takes the position before the verb usually filled by the subject. An anticipatory it is often used in the pattern below.

IT BE-VERB

ADJECTIVES THAT NOUN CLAUSE

IT

is possible

{that}

Someone made a mistake.

was

clear The party was over.


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DIRECT SPEECH{present tense}

Ann: What is the matter, Tom?

Why are you so late?

INDIRECT SPEECH

Ann asked {Tom} What the matter was. Why he was so late.


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IF - CLAUSES

{UNREAL PRESENT CONDITIONAL}

If – clauses that refer to an unreal, or hypothetical, situation*in the present use verbs in the subjunctive mood. Their forms are the same as those of the past tense, except for the verb be. Were, not was, is used with singular nouns and I, he, she, and it.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSE {CAUSE}

MAIN CLAUSE {EFFECT}

If he exercised regularly,If you called Steve now ,If we left earlier,If I were you,

he would probably feel better.you might be able to reach him.we could get home before dark.I’d follow the doctor’s advice.

The if-clause can also follow the main clause. In this pattern there is no comma between the clauses.

MAIN CLAUSE {EFFECT} CONDITIONAL CLAUSE {CAUSE}

Sam wouldn’t get so confusedYou could get your money backI might understand her betterThis would be a better movie

if he followed instructions.if you had your sales slip.if she spoke more slowly.if it weren’t so long.

WISH + THAT NOUN CLAUSE {PRESENT UNREAL SITUATIONS}

When we’d like to be able to change the present situation, we often use the pattern below to express the way that we feel. Since the situation presented in the noun clause is not real, past subjunctive verb forms are used in it.

WISH THAT NOUN CLAUSE

The students wish they graduated sooner.


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My instructor wishesCaptain Wilson wishesThe trainees often wishJim often wishes

[that} she could retire next year.he were a four-star general.they weren’t in the service.he were living in Europe.

BE USED TO / ACCOSTUMED TO VERSUS USED TO

Used to can indicate a discontinued past habit—something that was once done regularly but is not anymore. When it is used in this way, it is followed by an infinitive without to {the simple form of the verb}.

USED TO INFINITIVE WITHAUT TO

HarryJanet used toThey

work teach ride

in an office downtown.classes at the university.to work together every day.

Used to can also express the same meaning as accustomed to. Then, like accustomed to, it is followed by a noun or a gerund.

BE USED TO / BE ACCOSTUMED TO

NOUN / GERUND

They are used toJean isn’t used toWe were accustomed toI wasn’t accustomed to

beef and potatoes for dinner.eating supper at six o’clock.dry weather in Arizona.carrying an umbrella everywhere.

Book 18 Lesson 3


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VERB + DIRECT OBJECT + TO – INFINITIVE

These are some of the verbs which can appear in this pattern :

Ask instruct teachAdvise invite tellAllow need wantcause order warnconvince permit would likeexpect requirehelp select

NEGATIVE QUESTIONS

Negative question are formed by adding the word after the verb or modal.EXAMPLE: Were you not at the meeting? Did the secretary not notify you? Why was everyone not told about it?However, a contraction of not and the verb or modal is almost always used in informal speech and writing. EXAMPLE: Weren’t you at the meeting? Didn’t the secretary notify you? Why wasn’t everyone told about it?

The use of a negative yes-no question indicates that the speaker things he already knows the answer. He hopes for or expects an affirmative response from the listener, even though he does not always receive one.

EXAMPLE: Wasn’t the game postponed? Yes, it was put off until next weekend.

Haven’t we meet somewhere before? No, I don’t believe so.


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TO - INFINITIVE

IWeThey

adviceexpectrequire

youeveryonetheir customers

to make a reservation.to leave the meeting.to pay in advance.


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A negative question that begins with a question – word is simply a request for information.EXAMPLE: Why wasn’t the game held today? The coach had to be out of town.

Who hasn’t met the new commander yet? No one in our office has.

TAG QUESTION

STATEMENT

TAG

You’re a pilot,They study a lot,We can leave now,

aren’t you? don’t they? can’t we?

He’s not a pilot,They don’t study a lot,We can’t leave now,

is he? do they? can we?

Tag questions are statements with a short question attached. The short question, or tag, asks the listener to agree with or confirm the speaker’s statement.

If the verb in the statement is affirmative, the verb in the tag is negative.EXAMPLE: You were there, weren’t you?

If the verb in the statement is negative, the verb in the tag is affirmative.EXAMPLE: The captain wasn’t there, was she?

The contracted forms of negative verbs are almost always used in both the statement and the tag.

CAN’T /COULDN’T AS LOGICAL IMPOSSIBILITY

Can’t and couldn’t are often used to mean ‘’it’s not possible that’’ or ‘’it’s impossible that……..’’


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EXAMPLE: It’s not possible for the car to be out of gas. It’s impossible for the car to be out of gas.

The car can’t/couldn’t be out of gas.

Book 18 Lesson 4

HAVE, MAKE, AND GET

Have, make, and get are often used to indicate that one person has the power to force another to do something.EXAMPLE: If the major can’t attend the meeting, he’ll have the captain go instead. When the Jacksons work in their house or yard, they make their children help. I’ve been calling the store for an hour, but I can’t get anyone there to answer the phone.Get is followed by a noun or pronoun and a to-infinitive. Have and make are followed by a noun or pronoun and an infinitive without to.

He had made the

mechanic fix the car

got to fix

PERFECT MODALS

Modals in the perfect tense have the following meanings: May have, might have, and could have express possibility about a past action or condition.

EXAMPLE: The secretary may have gone to lunch. They might have taken a different flight. You could have cashed a check at the BX.

Must have indicates that a deduction is being made about a past action or condition.


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EXAMPLE: They’re not hungry. They must have already eaten.

Should have and ought to have indicate that a past obligation wasn’t fulfilled. They also express the idea that a sensible action was not taken.

EXAMPLE: We should have asked Ted to eat dinner with us. I ought to have studied more for the test.

Should not have is used to indicate that a past action or condition was not wise.

EXAMPLE: He shouldn’t have changed lanes without signaling.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Adjective clauses, like adjectives, describe nouns, pronouns, or words serving as nouns. They are often introduced by the relative pronouns who or whom, which, and that. When these pronouns are the objects of verbs or prepositions, they can be omitted.EXAMPLES: The book which I wanted was not available. --- The book I wanted was not available. That is the man whom*I was talking about. --- That is the man I was talking about. There is the car that I want to buy. --- There is the car I want to buy.


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MAIN CLAUSE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

She’s a personIs that the bookHere’s the money

{whom}{which}{that}

I’d like to meet. the teacher gave you? I borrowed from you.


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THE SUFFIX -MENT

VERB SUFIX NOUNadvertiseagreeappoint

+ -ment =

AdvertisementAgreementappointment

The suffix –ment can be added to certain verbs to form a noun that means ‘’the act or result of’’ something. EXAMPLES: retirement = the act or result of retiring enlistment = the act or result enlisting government = the act or result governing

Book 19 Lesson 1

POSSESSIVE NOUNS

To show that people own or posses something, we add an apostrophe and –s {‘s} to a singular noun or irregular plural noun. The pronunciation is the same as with plural nouns.

When the final sound is voiced { words that and with the letters m, n, b, v, l, r, g, or a vowel} , we pronounce ‘s as /z/.

EXAMPLES: Sally rents this apartment. This is Sally’s apartment.


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The women own that car. That’s the women’s car.

The restroom for men is next to the elevator. The men’s restroom is next to the elevator.

When the final sound is voiceless { words that and with the letters s, t, p, f, k }, we pronounce ‘s as /s/. EXAMPLES: The report the lieutenant made was long. The lieutenant’s report was long.

When the final sound ends in the letters s, sh, ch, ge, x, or z, we pronounce ‘s as /ez/.

EXAMPLE: This book belongs to Les. This is Les’s book.

When we have a plural noun, we add only the apostrophe {‘}after the final –s. The pronunciation doesn’t change.

Example: The students have books. Those are the student’s books. The lunchroom for the employees is closed. The employees’ lunchroom is closed.

SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS

SUBJECT PRONOUNSOBJECTPRONOUNS

POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS


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I you He she it we they

me you him her it us them


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POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES POSSESIVE PRONOUNS

my your his her its our their

mine yours his hers Its* ours theirs

Possessive adjectives are used before nouns.

This is my pen. That’s your book. These are her papers.

Possessive pronouns are used alone without nouns.

This pen is mine. That book is yours. These papers are hers.

*The pronoun its is not commonly used.

Whose book is this?It’s my book.This book is mine. or It’s mine.

I own this notebook.This notebook belongs to me.This is my notebook.This is mine.

INSEPARABLE PHRASAL VERBS AND PHRASAL PREPOSITIONAL VERBS

Many phrasal verbs and phrasal prepositional verbs are


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inseparable. That is, they cannot be separated by an object. Some, however, can be either separable or inseparable—they often have an meaning when they are separable and a different one when they are inseparable. These verbs are included in the list and are marked with an asterisk {*}.Be back = to returnBe up for = to be eligible forBlow out* = to burst or explodeCheck in = to register; to report your arrivalCheck out* = to leave; to report your departureClear up* = to become clear, speaking of the weatherCome back = to returnCome in = to arrive as expectedCome over = to make a short informal visitCut down on = to reduce in quantity or amountDrop by = to visit unexpectedly or informallyDrop in = to pay a visit informallyDrop off* = to fall asleepDrop over = to visit unexpectedly or informallyEnd up = to finish in a certain place/wayFall in = to line up in informationGet along with = to be in agreementGet in = to arriveGet off = to leave a vehicle; to leave workGet on = to enter a vehicleGet rid of = to free oneself from; to throw away; to give away somethingGet up* = to rise from a sitting or lying position Go back = to returnGo out = to leave the house, especially for fun; to stop burning/shiningGo over = to review; to make a short, informal visitHold on = to wait; to wait on the phoneLook forward to = to anticipate pleasurablyLook out {for} = to take care/be careful ofPut up with = to tolerate without complainingRun into = to encounter; collide withRun out of = to use the entire supplySign in/out* = to write one’s name on roll for recordkeeping purposesSit down = to take a seat/occupy a chairStand up* = to rise to upright position on your feetTake care of = to assume responsibility for


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Take part in = to participate in Take off* = to departWatch out for = to take care/be careful ofWork on = to repairWork out = to exercise

Book 19 Lesson 2

COULDN’T HAVE

We use couldn’t have + past participle to express logical impossibility about a past action.EXAMPLES: Mark couldn’t have quit the job. I saw him at work just this morning.

Lt Rice couldn’t have been promoted jet. He only recently became a lieutenant.

George couldn’t have been in school the 25th. It was a Sunday.

COULD HAVEWe use could have + past participle to express past unfulfilled ability. EXAMPLES: Curtis could have gone to college. He decided to get a job instead.

Molly could have been a supervisor, but she turned down the offer.

FEW/LITTLE VS. A FEW/A LITTLE

Few/a few and little/a little can be used as adjectives and as pronouns. When we use them as adjectives, we use a few/few with count nouns and a little/little with non count nouns. EXAMPLES: Michelle has a few friends. Michelle has few friends. {Friends can be counted.}


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Jan likes a little sugar in her coffee. Jan likes little sugar in her coffee. {Sugar cannot be counted.}A few and a little express, in a positive way, the presence of something even though in a small quantity.EXAMPLES: A few people attended the concert. {Several people were there.} John knows a little about computers. {He knows something.}Few and little express, in a negative way, the absence of nearly all quantity.EXAMPLES: Few people attended the meeting . {Not many people went.}

Larry knows little about physics. {He knows almost nothing about it.}

Book 19 Lesson 3

CONDITIOAL SENTENCES: PAST UNREAL CONDITION OR SITUATION

Conditional sentences have two parts: the if-clause and the main clause. One type of conditional sentence is used to show a past unreal condition or situation. It tells what could, would, or might have happened in the past if a certain condition or situation had been true. The if-clause has the past perfect tense, and the main clause uses could have/might have/would have + a past participle. Note that the if-clause may come before or after the main clause.

IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

MAINE CLAUSE IF CLAUSE

Ed

CouldMight have If he had studied harder.


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If we had left earlier,

weCouldMightwould

have been on time.


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would

passed

IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

If you had had more money,

what

couldmightwould

you have done?

MAIN CLAUSE IF CLAUSE

CouldMightWould

You have gone

If you had finished your work?

SUFIXES: -ABLE/ -IBLE


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Book 19

Lesson 4

WISH: PAST UNREAL SITUSTIONS


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The suffixes –able and –ible are added to certain nouns and verbs to make adjectives. These adjectives have the meaning of ‘’capable of’’ or ‘’showing/having’’ .

EXAMPLES: We can refund your money. Your money is refundable.

Smoking isn’t permitted here. It’s not permissible here.

Here is a partial list of some nouns and verbs to which –able and ible can be added:

accept/acceptable love/lovableadjust/adjustable manage/manageableadvise/advisable measure/measurableafford/affordable mistake/mistakableagree/agreeable move/movable/moveablebelieve/believable notice/noticeablebreak/breakable obtain/obtainablechange/changeable permit/permissiblecollect/collectible/collectable prefer/preferablecomfort/comfortable prevent/preventablecompare/comparable profit/profitablecontrol/controllable question/questionabledepend/dependable reason/reasonabledisagree/disagreeable refund/refundableenjoy/enjoyable rely/reliablehonor/honorable respect/respectableinflate/inflatable sense/sensibleknowledge/knowledgeable tax/taxablelike/likable wash/washable


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TOO AND VERY

Very is used to express ‘’to a great degree.’’ It means a lot or much.

EXAMPLES: This box is very heavy, but Ray can pick it up. My coffee’s very hot –just the way I like it.

Too is used to express excessiveness; it means more than enough. The use of too implies a negative result.

EXAMPLES: This box is too heavy. Ray can’t pick it up. My coffee’s too hot to drink. I’ll wait until it cools off.

Both too and very are placed before adjectives or adverbs.

PASSIVE TO-INFINITIVE AS DIRECT OBJECT


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We use wish + THAT noun clause {containing a past perfect verb}to express regret about a past situation. The word ‘’that ‘’ is optional.EXAMPLES: I wish {that}I had become a doctor instead of a teacher. Amy wishes {that}she hadn’t bought that dress last week because it’s on

sale now.

Do you wish {that} you had gone to college instead of getting married?


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A passive to-infinitive {to + be +past participle} can be used as a direct object of certain verbs such as expect, hope, like, need, prefer, and want.

EXAMPLE: Mike expects to be observed on his job today. Lt Wyn hopes to be considered for that assignment. The general would like to be served immediately. The colonel needs to be answered honestly. Mr. Smith prefers not to be disturbed before 9:00. The women want to be given respect.

INDIRECT SPEECH: REPORTED PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

A present progressive tense in direct speech should be changed to the past progressive in indirect speech.DIRECT SPEECH

ANN: I’m going to the coast this weekend.

INDIRECT SPEECH

Ann said that she was going to the coast this weekend.

DIRECT SPEECH

Ed: Al, are you taking the bus to work tomorrow?

INDIRECT SPEECH

Ed asked me if/whether I was taking the bus to work tomorrow.

DIRECT SPEECH

LEE: Sid, when are you planning to go hunting?

INDIRECT SPEECH

Lee asked Sid when he was planning to go hunting.


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