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7/21/2019 Grammar Resources

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PARTS OF SPEECH

There are eight parts of speech in Latin, as in English:noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, preposition, interjection.

1. A NOUN is a word used to express the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

regina queen charta paper, map insula islandfabula story Europa Europe sapientia wisdom

Nouns have gender: Masculine, Feminine, or Neuternumber: Singular or Plural

case: Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Ablative

2. A PRONOUN is a word used in the place of a noun.

is he tu you (sing.) The personal pronoun is not ex-

ea she ego I pressed if it is clear from the

id it vos you (pl.) context who is the subject of theeam her nos we verb, since the verb ending indicates

eum him ei they the subject.

3. An ADJECTIVE is a word used to describe a noun.

amicus bonus puella pulchra magnum templuma good friend a beautiful girl a large temple

4. A VERB is a word used to express action or state of being.

amant they love, they are loving, they do love

sunt they arevocamus we call, we are calling, we do call

5. An ADVERB is a word used to describe a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

ita thus satis enough primum firstceleriter quickly plus more tum then

6. A PREPOSITION introduces a phrase which consists of the preposition and itsobject.

in silva in the forest in caelum into the sky cum amicis with friends

7. A CONJUNCTION is a connecting word used to join words, phrases, clauses orsentences.

A conjunction can connect equal ideas (coordinate):pueri et puellae boys and girls

A conjunction can connect unequal parts (subordinate):Dum lacrimat , Troia ardet, While she weeps, Troy burns.

8. An INTERJECTION is a word showing strong feeling or emotion. o! oh eheu! alas mehercule! by Hercules



PARTS OF SPEECH

Latin, as English, has eight parts of speech:

. NOUN

. PRONOUN

. ADJECTIVE

. VERB

. ADVERB

. CONJUNCTION

. PREPOSITION

. INTERJECTION

Noun - the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.. Gender: In English gender has faded for most nouns, except for special uses

(e.g., ships). Latin retains gender distinctions for all nouns, some natural (e.g.,

puella) and some grammatical (terra).. Nouns are sometimes called substantives because they were once thought to

denote the substantia (essential nature) of a person or thing.

Pronoun - a word used in place of a noun.. Personal pronoun - I, you, he, she, it, they, etc.. Reflexive pronoun - refers to subject of sentence (He saw himself ).. Interrogative pronoun - Who, whom, whose, what?. Demonstrative pronoun - This, that, these, those.. Relative pronoun - Who, etc. (in subordinate clauses).. Possessive pronoun - My, your, his, etc.

. Indefinite pronoun - Some(one), some(thing).Adjective - a word that describes a noun or pronoun.

. Descriptive - terra pulchra (a beautiful land).

. Possessive - mater tua ( your mother).

. Interrogative - quae dea . . . ? (what goddess . . . ?)

. Demonstrative - hoc consilium (this plan).

. Indefinite - aliqua spes (some hope).

Verb - a word that expresses an action or condition.. Transitive verb - takes a direct object to complete its meaning. It necessarily

affects some person or thing or produces some result. Thus, the statements

interficio (I kill) or aedificio (I build) are not complete until it is clear whom I kill orwhat I build.. The person or thing affected or effected by the action of the verb is the

direct object and is always in the accusative case.

. Intransitive verb - does not require a direct object to complete its meaning. Theaction of the verb does not "pass over" (transire) to another person or thing.



Thus, sum (I am), sto (I stand), curro (I run), cado (I am falling), sol lucet (the sunis shining) would all be nonsensical if given a direct object.

. But many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive: I run/I run therace. I can stand/ I can stand it no longer. As is clear in the last example,this change from intransitive to transitive often is accomplished by a

change in basic meaning (stand vs. endure, bear) that seldom correspondsto the Latin usage. Thus, sto means only "I stand" in Latin and is onlyintransitive.

. Many verbs which are transitive in English were considered by theRomans to be intransitive in force. Thus, "I spare" is considered by ustransitive and to require a direct object: "I spare my enemies". To theRomans, however, the idea was intransitive and the person affected musttake an indirect object in the dative case: parco meis inimicis ("I am sparingto my enemies").

Adverbs - a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.He fights well.

The fight was very long.He lost too easily.

Conjunction - a word that joins words, phrases, or clauses.. Coordinate - connects equal words, phrases, and clauses:

Over land and seaGood or evilI see but I don't understand.

. Subordinate - joins dependent clauses to the main idea of a sentence:Although the night was dark, we found our way.We found our way until the sun set.

We found our way because there was a full moon.Preposition - a word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and

another word in the sentence (in, on, towards, with, by, etc.).. In Latin, as in English, prepositions are almost always placed before ( praeposita)

the words they define.. Many prepositions have become pre-fixed to verbs and modify their original

meaning: trans (across) + portare (to carry) = transportare (to carry across).• Often the preposition is modified for ease of pronunciation, as in in +

portare = importare = to carry in. This is known as assimilation.

Interjection - an expression of emotion, thrown in (interiecta) among, butgrammatically independent of, the other words of the sentence.

Alas , poor Yorick, I knew him.

Of the eight parts of speech in Latin, 5 are inflected (noun, pronoun, adjective, verb,adverb); the other 3 (conjunction, preposition, and interjection) are invariable.



THE USE OF CASES

Cases in Latin have specific grammatical functions, which must belearned in order to properly understand Latin sentences (which are not

dependent, as English sentences are, on word order). The following caseuses are fundamental:

Nominative:

• Subject of a sentence.Iuppiter circumspectat : Jupiter looks around.

Iuppiter is the subject (i.e., the actor) of this simple sentence and is in thenominative.

• Predicate nominative (with linking verb “to be” “to seem” “toappear,” etc.).

Iuppiter est deus : Jupiter is a god.The predicate noun deus further defines the subject and is in the nominative.Iuppiter erat benignus : Jupiter was kind.

The predicate adjective benignus further describes the subject and is in thenominative.

Genitive:

• Genitive of possession: expresses simple possession.Regia reginae magna erat : The palace of the queen was large.

• Genitive of description: attributes a quality to a noun.Diana dea magnae sapientiae est : Diana is a goddess of great wisdom.

This genitive is normally accompanied by an adjective.• Genitive with certain adjectives:

dignus, -a, -um + gen. = worthy (of)Delectamenta sunt pretiosa sed digna pretii : The delights are costly but worththe price.

N.B. dignus may also govern the ablative case. plenus, -a, -um + gen. = full (of)

Oppidum olim plenum virorum erat : The town was once full of men. peritus, -a, -um + gen. = skilled (in), expert (in)

Vir peritus sagittarum est : The man is skilled with arrows.N.B.: peritus may also govern the accusative and ablative case.

• Partitive Genitive (Genitive of the Whole)A genitive is used to denote the whole to which a part belongs.

Deis partem cibi dederunt : They gave part of the food to the gods.

Dative:

• Dative of indirect object.Dei dona viris dederunt : The gods gave gifts to the men.

• Dative of possession:Nomen mihi Marcus est : My name is Mark.



Unus filius Latonae erat : Latona had one son.• Dative with certain adjectives:

benignus, -a, -um + dat. = kind (to)Iuppiter erat filio benignus : Jupiter was kind to his son.

carus, -a, -um + dat. = dear (to)Terra deo cara erat : The land was dear to the god. gratus, -a, -um + dat. = pleasing (to)

Nymphae deis gratae sunt : Nymphs are pleasing to the gods.idoneus, -a, -um + dat. = suitable (for)

Tempus idoneum poenis exspectavit : She awaited a suitable time forpunishment.

• Dative with certain verbs: praesto , -are, -stiti, -stitum + dat. = to surpass

Cur Latona mihi praestat : Why does Latona surpass me?impero, -are + dat. = to command, order

Accusative:

• Direct Object:Poeta fabulas narravit : The poet told stories.

• Accusative with prepositions:ad + acc. = to, toward, near

per + acc. = through prope + acc. = near, close totrans. + acc. = across propter + acc. = on account of, because of

post + acc. = afterinter + acc. = between, amongin + acc. = into

• Subject Accusative in Indirect Speech (with Infinitive):Minerva monstrat se deam esse : Minerva shows that she is agoddess.Deos appropinquare video : I see that the gods are approaching.

Ablative:

• Ablative of Means:

Phoebus liberos eius sagittis necavit :

Phoebus killed her children with(by means of) arrows.• Ablative with prepositions:

cum + abl. = withsine + abl. = withoutde + abl. = about, concerninga (ab) + abl. = from, away from, by

pro + abl. = in front of, beforein + abl. = in, on



SUMMARY OF CASE USES

Nominative

1.Subject of a verb

Puerï currunt. The boys are running.

2. Predicate Nominative or Subjective Complement

Caesar erat consul. Caesar was consul.

Puer appellätur Märcus. The boy is called Marcus.

Vocative

1. For direct address

Venï , Lücï , ad villam. Come to the farmhouse, Lucius.

Genitive

1. Of possession

Mätrës puellärum adsunt. The girls' mothers are here.

2. Objective

Noster timor bellï est magnus. Our fear of the war is great.

3. Partitive

Pars urbis est pulchra. Part of the city is beautiful.

Dative

1. Of the indirect objectEquitibus equös dat. He is giving horses to the horsemen.

Accusative

1. Of the direct object

Exercitum videö. I see an army.

2. Of place to which

Ad oppidum veniunt. They are coming to the town.

3. Predicate Accusative (Objective Complement)

Fïlium meum vocävï Lucium. I have called my son Lucius.

4. Of extent of space

Tria mïlia passuum cucurrï . I ran three miles.

5. Of duration of time

Duäs horäs mänsit. He waited two hours.



Ablative

Showing separation:

1. Of place from which

Ab ïnsulä navigämus. We are sailing from the island.

2. Of separation

Cïvës timöre liberävit. He freed the citizens from fear.

3. Of personal agent

Hoc factum est ä Caesare. This was done by Caesar.

Showing location

1. Of place where

In urbe manet. He is staying in the city.

2. Of time when

Tertiä hörä discessërunt. They left at the third hour.

3. Of time within whichTribus diëbus discëdëmus. We shall leave within three days.

Showing instrument or circumstances

1. Of means or instrument

Tëlö vulnerätus est. He was wounded by a weapon.

2. Of accompaniment

Vënï cum meïs amïcïs. I came with my friends.

3. Of manner

Dönum magnö gaudiö accëpit. He received the gift with great joy.



DECLENSION OF NOUNS

In English, the relationship between words in a sentence depends primarily on wordorder. The difference between the god desires the girl and the girl desires the god isimmediately apparent to us. Latin does not depend on word order for basic meaning, but on inflections (changes in the endings of words) to indicate the function of words

within a sentence.Thus the god desires the girl can be expressed in Latin deus puellam desiderat, puellam deusdesiderat, or desiderat puellam deus without any change in basic meaning. The accusativeending of puellam shows that the girl is being acted upon (i.e., is the object of the verb) andis not the actor (i.e., the subject of the verb). Similarly, the nominative form of deus showsthat the god is the actor (agent) in the sentence, not the object of the verb.

The inflection of nouns is called declension. The individual declensions are called cases ,and together they form the case system. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives and participlesare declined in six Cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, and vocative andtwo Numbers (singular and plural). (The locative , an archaic case, existed in the classicalperiod only for a few words).

. Nominative Indicates the subject of a sentence. (The boy loves the book).

. Genitive Indicates possession. (The boy loves the girl’s book).

. Dative Indicates indirect object. (The boy gave the book to the girl).

. Accusative Indicates direct object. (The boy loves the book).

. Ablative Answers the questions from where? by what means? how? from whatcause? in what manner? when? or where?

The ablative is used to show separation (from), instrumentality ormeans (by, with), accompaniment (with), or locality (at). It is oftenused with a preposition: The boy went to the store with the girl.

. Vocative Used for direct address: Son , pick up the book.

. Locative Also answers the question where? in what place?In classical Latin the locative was nearly obsolete, replaced by theablative of location, and was confined to cities, small islands, and afew others words (Romae , at Rome; domi , at home; ruri , in the country;humi , on the ground).

Because the possible relationships between words far exceed six or seven cases, Latinuses other devices to vary meaning:

. Prepositions are common with the accusative and ablative cases, with specialmeanings (trans flumen, across the river; coram populo, in the presence of thepeople).

.The cases themselves serve different functions, the genitive, dative, and ablative being particularly rich in meaning.For example, even in English the phrase "man of steel" does not imply literalpossession (i.e., it doesn't mean "the steel's man"), but is a genitive of description.Similarly puella magnae sapientiae ("a girl of great wisdom") is a genitive of description,not of possession.

. Verbs sometimes "govern" or require the use of a particular case, often withidiomatic meaning. These must be learned as they are encountered.



FIRST DECLENSION NOUNS

(-a)

Formation: Nouns of the First Declension are declined thus:

Singular Plural

Nom. -a -ae

Gen. -ae -!rum

Dat. -ae - " s

Acc. -am -!s Abl. -! - " s

N.B.: The long -! of the ablative singular distinguishes it from the nominative

singular, which has a short -a.

Example:

Nom. silva (the forest) silvae (the forests)Gen. silvae (of the forest) silv!rum (of the forests)

Dat. silvae (to the forest) silv" s (to the forests)

Acc. silvam (the forest) silv! s (the forests)Abl. silv! (in or by the forest) silv" s (in or by the forests)

N.B.: Because Latin has no article (the or an), silva may mean the forest , a forest , or simply

forest .

Gender: Nouns of the first declension are overwhelmingly feminine.A very few nouns in the first declension are masculine:

1) Some natural genders such as agricola (farmer), nauta (sailor), p" r !ta (pirate),

po# ta (poet), scr " ba (scribe or clerk).

2) Some personal or family names: Catil " na, M $r # na, Dol !bella, Scaevola.

3) And Hadria (the Adriatic).

Even fewer nouns are of common gender: incola (inhabitant) and advena (stranger).

Adjectives, of course, will always agree with gender: p" r !ta malus (evil pirate),

po# ta cl !rus (famous poet).

Dea and F " lia: For the dative and ablative plural of dea (goddess) and f " lia

(daughter) the endings -!bus (de!bus and f " li!bus) are used to distinguish thesenouns from the second declension nouns deus (god) and f " lius (son).

Famili!s: An old genitive in -! s is preserved in the word famili! s (of the family), often with

pater , mater , f " lius, or f " lia. Thus, pater famili! s (father of the family = head of the household).



FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION NOUNS

1. First Declension Nouns are declined thus:

Singular Plural

Nom. -a -aeGen. -ae -!rum Dat. -ae -" sAcc. -am -!s Abl. -! -" s

2. Second Declension Nouns are declined thus:

Masculine Neuter

Singular Plural

Nom. -us (-er) -" Gen. -" -#rum Dat. -# -" sAcc. -um -#s Abl. -# -" s

Singular Plural

Nom. -um -aGen. -" -#rum Dat. -# -" sAcc. -um -a Abl. -# -" s

Some Second Declension nouns ending in -er will retain the e, such as (puer, puer! ). Others will drop the e (ager, agr! ).

Memorize the following regularities:

1. The Dative and Ablative are always alike in the plural. In the First andSecond Declensions they end in -! s.

2. The Accusative singular of all masculine and feminine nouns ends in -m and the plural in -s.

3. In Neuters of all declensions, the Nominative and Accusative are alwaysalike, and in the plural end in -a.

4. The Genitive plural of all declensions always ends in -um.

5. The Nominative and Vocative are alike in all declensions, except for thesingular of Second Declension nouns and adjectives ending in -us , whichshow -e in the Vocative: Et tu Brute?



THIRD DECLENSION NOUNS

1) Masculine and feminine third declension nouns are declined alike:

Masculine Feminine

Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

Acc.

Abl.

pater

patris

patr!

patrem

patre

patr" s

patrum

patribus

patr" s

patribus

vox

v"cis

v"c!

v"cem

v"ce

v"c" s

v"cum

v"cibus

v"c" s

v"cibus

Third declension nouns have a variety of nominative endings, but the

genitive singular always ends in -is.

2) Neuter nouns differ only in the accusative singular and nominative

and accusative plural.

Neuter

Nom. n"men n"mina

Gen. n"minis n"minum

Dat. n"min! n"minibus

Acc. n"men n"mina

Abl. n"mine n"minibus

3. I-Stems of the Third Declension:

Masculine & Feminine Neuter

Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

Acc.

Abl.

nox

noctis

noct!

noctem

nocte

noct" s

noctium

noctibus

noct" s

noctibus

mare

maris

mar#

mare

mar!

maria

marium

maribus

maria

maribus· Masculine and feminine I-Stems carry the distinctive i in the genitive plural.· Neuter I-Stems carry the i in the ablative singular, the nominative, and genitive

accusative plural.



I-Stems can be recognized by the following general rules:

1) Parisyllabic nouns (having the same number of syllables in nominative

and genitive singular) with the following exceptions:· Pater , m# ter , fr# ter , senex , iuvenis , canis have the genitive plural in -um.· S" d" s (seat), m" nsis (month), v# t" s (bard) appear with both -um and -ium

2) Monosyllabic nouns (having one syllable in the nominative singular)

with two consonants before the -is of the genitive singlular. ( pars,

partis, partium).

3) Neuter nouns in -e, -al, -ar (animal, anim# lis, anim# lium) decline like

mare.Some Common I-Stem Nouns:

c! vis, c! vis, c! vium (m.&f.) citizen

hostis, hostis, hostium (m.) enemy

n# vis, n# vis, n# vium (f.) ship

f ! nis, f ! nis, f ! nium (f.) end;

pl.boundaries, territory

clades, cladis, cladium (f.) defeat

m$ l" s, m$ lis, molium (f.) mass, structure

ars, artis, artium (f.) art, skill

d" ns, dentis, dentium (m.) tooth

mors, mortis, mortium (f.) death

pars, partis, partium (f.) part, share

urbs, urbis, urbium (f.) city

nox, noctis, noctium (f.) night

arx, arcis, arcium (f.) citadel

mare, maris, marium (n.) sea

animal, animalis, animalium (n.) animal

exemplar, exemplaris, exemplarium (n.) copy

Pure I-Stems show the -i not only in the genitive plural, but also in the accusative

singular, ablative singular, and often in the accusative plural:

Thus: turris (f.) tower

turris turr" s

turris turrium

turr! turribus

turrim turr! s (or -" s)

turr! turribus

v! s (f.) force, power

ebris (f.) fever

Tiberis (m.) Tiber

puppis (f.) stern (of a ship)

pelvis (f.) basin,

sec&ris (f.) axe

tussis (f.) cough

sitis (f.) thirst restis (f.) rope



FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD DECLENSION

1. First Declension Nouns are declined thus:

Singular Plural

Nom. -a -ae

Gen. -ae -arum

Dat. -ae -is

Acc. -am -as

Abl. -a -is

2. Second Declension Nouns are declined thus:

Masculine Neuter

Singular PluralNom. -us (-er) -i

Gen. - -i -orum

Dat. -o -is

Acc. -um -os

Abl. -o -is

Singular PluralNom. -um -a

Gen. -i -orum

Dat. -o -is

Acc. -um -a

Abl. -o -is

3. Third Declension Nouns are declined thus:

Masculine & Feminine Neuter

Singular Plural

Nom. ----- -es

Gen. -is -um

Dat. -i -ibus

Acc. -em -es

Abl. -e -ibus

Singular Plural

Nom. ------ -a

Gen. -is -um

Dat. -i -ibus

Acc. ------ -a

Abl. -e -ibus

Remember the Neuter Rule:

The Nominative and the Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in -a.

Remember:

i) The Accusative singular always ends in -m for masculine and femininenouns.

ii) The Ablative singular always ends in a vowel.ii) The Dative and Ablative plurals are always alike within each declension.



The Fourth Declension

Fourth declension nouns carry a characteristic -u- throughout their declension (except

in the dative and ablative plural) and are identified by the -!s in the genitive singular.

Masculine Neuter

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.Nom.Gen.Dat.Acc.Abl.

cursus curs! s cursu" ( ! ) cursum curs!

curs! s cursuum cursibus curs! s cursibus

corn! corn! s [corn! ]corn! corn!

cornua cornuum cornibus cornua cornibus

Arcus ( bow, arch ), tribus ( tribe ) and quercus ( oak ) always show -ubus in the dative and ablativeplural. Artus ( joint ), lacus ( lake ), partus ( birth ), ver! ( spit ), gen! ( knee ) and a few others willoccasionally show it.

Gender: Fourth declension nouns are generally masculine, although a few femininesand even fewer neuters appear. Feminine and masculine nouns are declined alike.

The following are the only common 4th Declension feminine nouns:

acus, -!s, needle anus, -!s, old woman domus, -!s, house

" d!s, -um (plural), the Ides manus, -!s, hand

nurus, -!s, daughter-in-law, young girl

pecus, -!s (also, - " ), food, provisions

porticus, -!s, colonnade, porch

socrus, -!s, mother-in-law

specus, -!s, cavetribus, -!s, tribe

The following are the only 4th Declension neuter nouns:

corn!, -!s, horn gen!, -!s, knee

gel!, -!s, frost, chill

pec!, -!s, herd, flock ver!, -!s, spit, tip of javelin

specus, -!s, cave (also masc. and fem.)

Domus (f.), house, shows forms of both the 4th and 2nd declensions (but is alwaysfeminine in gender).



The Fifth Declension

Fifth declension nouns carry a characteristic -e- and are identified bythe -e ! in the genitive singular.

Singular Plural

Nom. r !s r !s Gen. re " r !rum Dat. re " r ! bus Acc. rem r !s

Abl. r ! r ! bus

Gender: All 5th declension nouns are feminine, except dies, and compounds ofdies, which are masculine. Dies, however, can also be feminine when it refers to a

specific day: constit#t$ di!, on the appointed day.

Of nouns of the fifth declension, only dies and res are declined fully. Most lack

plural forms, which are, however, found in the nominative or accusative in acies,effigies, eluvies, facies, glacies, series, species, spes.

The 5th declension noun dies is used to form certain common adverbs andexpressions of time:

hodie, today pridie, the day before perendie, day after tomorrow

Note the following common 5th declension nouns:

aci!s, -e " (f), keenness, edge, line of battle

faci!s, -!" (f), shape, form, figure, face

effigi!s, -!" (f), an image, likeness, effigy

glaci!s, -!" (f), ice

fides, -e " (f), pledge, trust, faith

sp!s, spe " (f), hope

eluvi!s, -!" (f), flowing, discharge, flood

seri!s, -!" (f), row, chain, series; descent

speci!s, -!" (f), sight, view; shape, form



SUMMARY OF ABLATIVE USES

SHOWING LOCATION

1. Of place where

In urbe manet. He is staying in the city.

2. Of time when

Tertiä hörä discessërunt. They left at the third hour.

3. Of time within which

Tribus diëbus discëdëmus. We shall leave within three days.

SHOWING MEANS OR CIRCUMSTANCES

1. Of means or instrument

Tëlö vulnerätus est. He was wounded by a weapon.

2. Of accompaniment

Vënï cum meïs amïcïs. I came with my friends.

3. Of manner

Dönum magnö gaudiö accëpit. He received the gift with great joy.

SHOWING SEPARATION:

1. Of place from which

Ab ïnsulä navigämus. We are sailing from the island.

2. Of separation

Cïvës timöre liberävit. He freed the citizens from fear.

Defendimur a ferocibus Gallis. We are defended from the fierce Gauls. 3. Of personal agent

Hoc factum est ä Caesare. This was done by Caesar.

MISCELLANEOUS CASE USAGES:

1. Showing Comparison:

Haec via longior illä est. This road is longer than that one.

2. Showing Degree of Difference

Paulö post discëssit. He left a little later. (“afterward by a little bit”)

3. Ablative of Specifiction or Respect

Rex nomine erat. He was king in name (only).

4. Ablative of Cause

Hoc fëcï amöre vestrï. I did this from (out of, because of) love of you.



SUMMARY OF ABLATIVE USES

With Preposition

Fabulam de deis narrat. He is telling a story about the gods.Ambulo cum amicis. I am walking with friends.In urbe manet. He is staying in the city. Ab insula navigamus. We are sailing from the island.

Place from which (without preposition) Roma venit. He comes from Rome.

Time when (without a preposition) Autumno folia de arboribus cadunt. In autumn leaves fall from the trees.

Time within which (without a preposition) Tribus diebus discedeamus. We shall leave within three days.

Instrument or means (without a preposition) Marcus pugno Titum pulsat. Marcus hits Titus with his fist.

Manner (sometimes with cum , often without) Donum magno gaudio accipit. He receives the gift with great joy.Caesar magna cum laude Romam intrat. Caesar enters Rome with great praise.

Separation (without preposition)Cives timore liberat. He frees the citizens from fear.

Personal agent (always with a or ab and a passive verb)Servus verberatur a domino. The slave is beaten by his master.

Comparison (without preposition) Haec via longior illa est. This road is longer than that one.

Degree of Difference (without preposition)

Paulo post discedit. He leaves a little after. (“afterwards by a little bit”)

Specification or Respect (without preposition)Rex nomine est. He is king in name (only).

Cause (without a preposition)Hoc facio amore patriae. I do this out of (because of) love country.



Ablative Absolute (without preposition)

Urbe capta Aeneas fugit. The city having been captured, Aeneas flees.

Description (Quality) (without preposition)Est puella eximia forma. She is a girl of exceptional beauty.

Source (Origin) (without preposition)Dea natus est. He is goddess-born.Nobili genere ortus est. He is high-born.

Price (without preposition)Annulum decem sesteriis vendit. He sells the ring for 10 sesterces.

Route (without preposition)Via Latina it. He is going by way of the Latin Road.



ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE

One of the most common uses of present and perfect participles in Latin is aconstruction called the Ablative Absolute.

The ablatives of a participle and a noun (or pronoun) are used to form a

substitute for a subordinate clause defining the circumstances or situation in which

the action of the main verb occurs. The ablatives are only loosely connected

grammatically to the remainder of the sentence, hence its name absolute

(absolütus = free or unconnected).

An Ablative Absolute with a perfect passive participle was widely used inclassical Latin to express the cause or time of an action:

Hïs verbïs dictïs, Caesar descëdit. With these word having been said, Caesar departs.

Acceptïs litterïs, Caesar descëdit. With the letter having been received, Caesar departs.

Leöne vïsö, fëminae discessërunt. With the lion having been seen, the women departed.

Equally common was an Ablative Absolute with a present active participle:

Leöne adveniente, fëmina discëssit. With the lion approaching, the woman left.

On occasion, another noun may take the place of the participle in the Ablative

Absolute construction:

Caesare duce vincëmus. With Caesar as leader, we shall conquer.

Note: The noun (or pronoun) expressed in the Ablative Absolute is never the subject of

the sentence. If we wish to say “When she was departing, the woman saw the lion”, we

cannot use the Ablative Absolute, because the subject of each clause (“she” and

“woman”) is the same. Instead, a simple participle must be used: Fëmina discëdënsleönem vïdit.

Because the participle in an Ablative Absolute retains its verbal force, it may

govern its own direct object:

Duce militës vocante, hostes fügërunt. With the general calling his soldiers, the enemy fled.



PRONOUNS

Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. Pronouns have special declension forms,

which may vary between substantive and adjectival use. They are divided into seven

classes:

Personal Pronouns: as, ego, I.

Reflexive Pronouns: as, se, himself .

Possessive Pronouns: as, meus, my.

Demonstrative Pronouns: as, his, this; ille, that.

Relative Pronouns: as, qui, who.

Interrogative Pronouns: as, quis, who?

Indefinite Pronouns: as, aliquis, some one.

I. Personal Pronouns:

ego, tu, I, you

II. Reflexive Pronouns:

sui, sibi, se, se, himself, herself, itself

III. Possessive Pronouns:

meus, tuus, suus, my, your, his, her, its

noster, vester, suus, our, your, their

IV. Demonstrative Pronouns:

is, ea, id, he, she, it; this, that

hic, hace, hoc, this

ille, illa, illud, that

ipse, ipsa, ipsum (emphatic), himself, herself, itself

idem, eadem, idem, the same

V. Relative Pronouns:

qui, quae, quod, who, which



VI. Interrogative Pronouns:

quis, quid, who, what?

VII. Indefinite Pronouns:

aliquis, aliqua, aliquid, someone, something

quidam, quaedam, quodam, a certain

quisque, quaeque, quodque, each

quisquam, quaequam, quodquam, anyone, anything

quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever

quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam, someone, something

uterque, utraque, utrumque, each (of two)

unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquodque, every single one



Personal Pronoun

1. Personal Pronoun is, ea, id (he, she, it):

Singular Plural

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom.

Gen.Dat.

Acc.Abl.

is

eiuse !

eume"

ea

eiuse !

eame#

id

eiuse !

ide"

e ! (i ! )

e"rume ! s (i ! s)

e"se ! s (i ! s)

eae

e#rume ! s (i ! s)

e#se ! s (i ! s)

ea

e"rume ! s (i ! s)

eae ! s (i ! s)

The form of the personal pronoun is governed by its use in the sentence and will

show number, gender and case, as appropriate:Puer eam pulsat. The boy beats her. (Direct Object Accusative)

Puella eum pulsat. The girl beats him. (Direct Object Accusative)

Puella eos pulsat. The girl beats them. (Direct Object Accusative)

Imperative Mood

The imperative mood is used for commands and corresponds to our use of

go!, look!, come!, etc. Like English, the imperative mood does not show person or

(generally) tense; but, unlike English, number is distinguished between singularand plural.

The singlular imperative is formed by dropping the -re from the infinitive:

voc#re, to call doc$re, to teach disc$dere, to leave ven ! re, to come

voc#, call! doc$, teach! disc$de, leave! ven ! , come!

The plural is formed as follows (note the third conjugation in particular);

voc#te, call! doc$te, teach! disc$dite, leave! ven ! te, come!



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

I. Hic, haec, hoc (this, these)

Singular (this) Plural (these)


Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

Acc.

Abl.

hic

huius

huic

hunc

höc

haec

huius

huic

hanc

häc

hoc

huius

huic

hoc

höc

h ï

hörum

h ïs

hös

h ïs

hae

härum

h ïs

häs

h ïs

haec

hörum

h ïs

haec

h ïs

II. Ille, illa, illud (that, those)

Singular (that ) Plural (those)


Nom.

Gen.

Dat.

Acc.

Abl.

ille

illïus

illï

illum

illö

illa

illïus

illï

illam

illä

illud

illïus

illï

illud

illö

illï

illörum

illïs

illös

illïs

illae

illärum

illïs

illäs

illïs

illa

illörum

illïs

illa

illïs

Demonstrative adjectives will, of course, agree with the noun they modify in

number, case and gender:

Puer has puellas pulsat - The boy beats these girls.

Puellae hos pueros pulsant - The girls beat these boys.

The demonstrative adjective may also act as a pronoun (in substitution for a

noun):

Puer has pulsat - The boy beats them (feminine).

Vir haec dicit - The man says these things (neuter plural).



Relative & Interrogative Pronoun

1. Relative Pronoun qui , quae, quod (who, that, which):

Singular Plural Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom.

Gen.Dat.Acc.Abl.

qui

cuiuscuiquemquo

quae

cuiuscuiquamqua

quod

cuiuscuiquodquo

qui

quorumquibusquosquibus

quae

quarumquibusquasquibus

quae

quorumquibusquaequibus

The relative pronoun agrees with some word (its antecedent) expressed orimplied in a preceding clause. It agrees with its antecedent in gender andnumber; but its case depends on its use in its own clause:

a) Video puellam quae in regia habitat. (I saw the girl who lives in the palace).

The relative pronoun quae is feminine singular because its antecedent ( puellam) is

also feminine singular. It is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the

relative clause (the girl who lives in the palace).

b) Liber quem puellae dedi bonus est. (The book which I gave the girl is good).The relative pronoun is masculine singular because its antecedent (liber) is masculinesingular. It is accusative, because it is the direct object in the relative clause. Notethat English often omits the relative pronoun, but it is always expressed in Latin.

c) Puellae quibus libros dedi callidae sunt. (The girls to whom I gave the books are clever).The relative pronoun is feminine plural because its antecedent ( puellae) is feminineplural. It is dative, because it is the indirect object of dedi in the relative clause.

2. Interrogative Pronoun quis , quid (who?, what?): Singular Plural

Masc./ Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

Nom.Gen.Dat.Acc.Abl.

quiscuiuscuiquemquo

quidcuiuscuiquidquo

quiquorumquibusquosquibus

quaequarumquibusquasquibus

quaequorumquibusquaequibus

Most singular and all plural forms are identical to the relative pronoun.

3. Interrogative Adjective (what?)

The interrogative adjective is declined like the relative pronoun qui, quae,quod. Carefully distinguish the meaning:

Quis es Minerva? Who is Minerva? (Interrogative Pronoun).Quae dea est auctor amoris? What goddess is the author of love? (Interrogative Adjective)Quid est consilium hostium? What is the plan of the enemy? (Interrogative Pronoun).Quod consilium hostes habuerunt? What plan did the enemy have? (Interrogative

Adjective)



Conjugation of Verbs

The inflection of a verb is called a Conjugation. Most verb inflections in English havedisappeared, although we still distinguish between I go , he goes , etc. Latin, however,retains full inflections for most verbs, the forms of which must be mastered in order todistinguish meaning.

Through conjugation a verb expresses: Person, Number, Tense, Mood and Voice.

1. PERSON & NUMBER: A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. Thereare Three Persons and Two Numbers, arranged thus:

1st person singular (I) 1st person plural (we)2nd person singular (you) 2nd person plural (you)3rd person singular (he, she it) 3rd person plural (they)

In English person and number normally cannot be determined without the aid of

pronouns (I, you, we, they , etc.) except in the 3rd pers. sing.: I go, you go, we go, they go; but he goes.

Latin always distinguishes number and person: amo (I love), amas (you love) amat (heloves), etc. Because person and number are contained in the endings themselves, thepersonal pronouns (I, you, he, etc.) are used mainly for emphasis.

The personal endings in Latin distinguish the person and number of the verb, and must be mastered early:

1st person singular -o, -m 1st person plural -mus2nd person singular -s 2nd person plural (you) -tis

3rd person singular -t 3rd person plural (they) -nt

2. TENSE: Latin tenses have the same general meaning as the corresponding Englishtenses:

Continued action: Present: I love, I am loving, I do love.Imperfect: I loved, I was loving, I did love.Future: I will love.

Completed action: Perfect: I have loved, I loved.Pluperfect I had loved.Future Perfect I will have loved.

Note that the emphatic (I do love) and the progressive (I am loving) tenses do not existas separate forms in Latin.

3. MOOD: Latin has four Moods: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive.

a) Indicative: The Indicative is used for statements and questions: I love that book. Are you reading that book?



b) Subjunctive: The Subjunctive has many uses, including commands, conditions,wishes, possibility, and dependent clauses. It is often translated by the Englishindicative; frequently by auxiliary verbs indicating uncertainty or wish (may,might, would, should); sometimes by the (now rare) subjunctive (I wish I were inRome); sometimes by the Infinitive; and often by the Imperative.

c) Imperative: The Imperative is used to express command or exhortation: Go! Heshall be set free!

d) Infinitive: The Infinitive is chiefly used as an indeclinable noun (To err is human) oras a complementary infinitive to complete the meaning of another verb (I want to go).

Note that the basic idea of a verb expressed by the Infinitive is not limited(infinitivus) by person or number (though it is limited by tense and voice).

4. VOICE: Latin has two Voices (Active and Passive) with uses corresponding to

English: I love (Active); I am loved (Passive).

a) The Active Voice expresses what the subject of the verb is or does: I am well. I love.

b) The Passive Voice expresses what is done to the subject of the verb: I am loved.The subject "I" is no longer the actor in the sentence, but the recipient of theaction.

Note that only transitive verbs can have a full passive voice. A little thoughtwill show that such forms as "I live" or "we persevere" can have no meaningin the passive voice. But meaning can attach to 3rd person singular forms of some intransitive verbs: His life was lived well.

The Verbto Be:

The verb "to be" is irregular in English and Latin. Learn the forms forthe Present Indicative:

sum sumuses estisest sunt

Principal Parts: The complete conjugation of a verb can be obtained from its PrincipalParts, which must be memorized when a verb is first encountered. The Four PrincipalParts are:

1) Present Indicative, 1st pers. sing.2) Infinitive3) Perfect Indicative, 1st pers. sing.4) Perfect Passive Participle.

Thus: amo (I love)amare (to love)amavi (I loved)amatus (loved)



PERSONAL ENDINGS FOR VERBS

Verbs in English take their meaning from the personal pronouns attached tothem: “I walk” and “they walk” mean different things. In Latin the personalpronouns are not necessary to complete the meaning of the verb. Instead, themeaning is determined by the endings attached to the verb stem. These“personal endings” are used in virtually all tenses and must be memorized.

I. Learn the personal endings of Active Verbs:

Person Singular Plural

1st -o (-m) (I) -mus (we)

2nd -s (you) -tis (you)3rd -t (he, she it) -nt (they)

The only exception to this pattern is in the Perfect Tense, which has thefollowing personal endings:

-i -imus-isti -istis-it -erunt

Note that even the Perfect Tense follows the regular pattern except in the 1st and2nd person singular.

II. Learn the personal endings of Passive Verbs:


1st -r (I) -mur (we)

2nd -ris (you) -mini (you)

3rd -tur (he, she it) -ntur (they)



VERBS: PERSONAL ENDINGS AND TENSE INDICATORS

I. Personal endings of Active Verbs:


1st -o (-m) (I) -mus (we)

2nd -s (you) -tis (you)

3rd -t (he, she it) -nt (they)

The only exception to this pattern is in the Perfect Tense, which has the followingpersonal endings:

-i -imus-isti -istis-it -erunt

Note that even the Perfect Tense follows the regular pattern except in the 1st and 2ndperson singular.

II. Personal endings of Passive Verbs:


1st -r (I) -mur (we)

2nd -ris (you) -mini (you)

3rd -tur (he, she it) -ntur (they)

III. Tense Indicators:

Indicative:

Imperfect: -ba-Future: -bi- for 1st & 2nd conjugations, -e- for 3rd & 4th conjugations.Perfect: -i, -isti , -it, -imus, -istis , -erunt (add to perfect stem).Pluperfect: -eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus , -eratis, -erant (add to perfect stem).Future Perfect -ero, -eris, -erit, -erimus , -eritis, -erint (add to perfect stem).

Subjunctive:

Present tense: He beat a friar. (Characteristic vowels for the 4 conjugations).Imperfect: Add personal endings to the infinitive.Pluperfect: -issem , -isses , -isset, -issemus , -issetis , -issent (add to perfect stem).Perfect: -erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus , -eritis, -erint (add to perfect stem).



Present Tense – All Conjugations – Active and Passive

Active Voice:

-o !

-a !s

-at

-a !mus

-a !tis

-ant

Thus: amo ! I love

ama !s you love

amat he loves

ama !mus we love

ama !tis you (pl.) love

amant they love

-eo !

-e !s

-et

-e !mus

-e !tis

-ent

Thus: moneo ! I warn

mone !s you warn

monet he warns

mone !mus we warn

mone !tis you (pl.) warn

monent they warn

-o !

-is

-it

-imus

-itis

-unt

Thus: peto ! I seek

petis you seek

petit he seesk

petimus we seek

petitis you (pl.) seek

petunt they seek

-io !

-|s

-it

-|mus

-|tis

-iunt

Thus: venio ! I come

ven|s you come

venit he comes

ven|mus we come

ven|tis you (pl.) come

veniunt they come

Passive Voice:

-or

-ris

-tur

-mur

-mini

-ntur

Thus:

portor portaris

portatur

portamur

portaminiportantur

doceor doceris

docetur

docemur

doceminidocentur

mittor mitteris

mittitur

mittimur

mittiminimittuntur

capior caperis

capitur

capimur

capiminicapiuntur

audior audiris

auditur

audimur

audiminiaudiuntur



FIRST & SECOND CONJUGATION VERBS

I. First Conjugation Verbs (-!re) in the present tense are formed as follows:

-"

-!s

-at

-!mus

-!tis

-ant

Thus: am" I love am!s you love

amat he loves

am!mus we love am!tis you (pl.) love

amant they love

The Imperative is formed with -! (sing.) and -!te (pl.): am!, am!te.

Principal Parts: am", -!re, -!v # , -!tum

There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjugation, most formed directly from a noun or

adjective stem. Thus, arma, arms - arm", I arm; amor, love - am", I love. Their conjugation is

usually regular (like am", am!re, am!v # , am!tum) but note the following irregularities in the3rd and 4th Principal Parts (those marked with * also have regular forms):

crep!, -"re, crepu # *, crepitum - to make noise cub!, -"re, cubu # *, cubitum* - to lie down

d!, d"re, ded # , datum - to give dom!, -"re, domu # , domitum - to subdue fric!, -"re, fricu # , frictum* - to rub

iuv!, -"re, i$v # , i$tum - to help

lav!, "re, l"v # , lautum* - to wash mic!, -"re, micu # , — - to glitter

nec!, -"re, necu # *, nec"tum - to kill plic!, -"re, plicu # *, plicitum - to fold

p!t!, -"re, p!t"v # , p!tum - to drink sec!, -"re, secu # , sectum - to cut son!, -"re, sonu # , sonitum - to sound

st!, st"re, stet # , statum - to stand

ton!, -"re, tonu # , tonitum - to thunder vet!, -"re, vetu # , vetitum - to forbid, veto

II. Second Conjugation Verbs (-$re) in the present tense are formed as follows:

-e"

-$s

-et

-$mus

-$tis

-ent

Thus: mone" I warn

mon$s you warn

monet he warns

mon$mus we warn

mon$tis you (pl.) warn

monent they warn

The Imperative is formed with -$ (sing.) and -$te (pl.): mon$, mon$te.

Principal Parts: mone", -$re, -u # , -itum.

There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conjugation, many of them verbs of conditionwith corresponding noun and adjective forms (timor, fear ; timidus, fearful , shy - time", -$re,

timu # , to fear ). The Perfect Stem often ends (like mone" and time") in -u # , but -ev # , - # , -s # , and

-x # are also found. Note the following:

"rde!, -%re, "rs # - to burn, be on fire

auge!, -%re, aux # , auctum - to increase

fle!, -

%re, fl

%v # , fl

%tum - to weep doce!, -%re, docu # , doctum - to teach

iube!, -%re, iuss # , iussum - to ordermane!, -%re, mans # , mansum - to wait for

misce!, -%re, miscu # , mixtum - to mix move!, -%re, m!v # , m!tum - to move

pende!, -%re, pepend # , p%nsum - to hang

persu"de! -%re, persu"s # , persu"sum - to persuade

responde!, -

%re, respond

# , responsum - to reply r # de!, -%re, r # s # , r # sum - to laugh

sede!, -%re, s%d # , sessum - to sit tene!, -%re, tenu # , tentum - to hold

torque!, -%re, tors # , tortum - to twist vide!, -%re, v # d # , v # sum - to see



THIRD CONJUGATION VERBS

Third Conjugation Verbs have the infinitive ending in -ere. (Note the differencefrom the -ere of the 2d conjugation).

1. Present tense has the characteristic vowel -i:

-o-is-it

-imus-itis

-unt

Thus: petopetispetit

petimuspetitispetunt

Note that the characteristic vowel -i- of the third conjugation in the present tensechanges to -unt in the 3rd person plural.

2. The Imperfect tense is completely regular (with the short -e- of the infinitivelengthening to -e- before the characteristic -ba- ending):

petebam petebamuspetebas petebatispetebat petebant

3. The Future tense differs significantly from what we have seen in the first andsecond conjugations. There the characteristic symbol was -bi- , inserted beforethe personal ending. For the Third Conjugation the characteristic vowel is -e-(with -am in the first personal singular):

petam petemuspetes petetispetet petent

4. The Perfect tenses (Perfect, Pluperfect and Future Perfect) are regular, formingnormally from the stem of the third principal part. The Perfect Stem, however,varies widely. Note the following:

bibo, -ere, bibi, bibitum, to drinkclaudo , -ere, clausi , clausum , to closecresco, -ere, crevi, cretum, to grow

desisto, -ere, -stiti , -stitum , to desist, stopdico, -ere, dixi, dictum, to say, speakfigo, -ere, fixi, fixum, to fasten, affix,

transfixlego, -ere, legi, lectum , to read; gather;

choose

mitto, -ere, misi , missum , to send pono, -ere, posui, positum , to put, placepeto, -ere, petivi, petitum, to seek, ask

quaero, -ere, quaesivi, quaesitum , to seek, inquirequaeso, -ere, to beg, askrelinquo, -ere, reliqui, relictum, to leave

behindtraho, -ere, traxi, tractum, to draw, drag



A few verbs show reduplication in the Perfect Stem:

cado, -ere, cecidi, casum , to fall

caedo, -ere, cecidi, caesum ,to cut

curro, -ere, cucurri, cursum , to rundisco, -ere, didici, to learn fallo, -ere, fefelli, falsum , to deceive

parco, -ere, peperci, parsum , to spare

pello, -ere, pepuli, pulsum, to drivetango, -ere, tetigi, tactum, to touchtendo, -ere, tetendi, tentum or tensum,to stretch

5. Third -io verbs: Some 3rd conjugation verbs end in -io in the 1st pers. sing.,present tense. They show -iunt in the 3rd pers. pl., present tense. The -i- alsoappears throughout the imperfect and the future tenses. The perfect tenses areregular, formed from the stem of the third principal part. Note the paradigm forfacio, facere, feci, factum , to make, do:

Present Imperfect Future Perfect Pluperfect Fut. Perf.

faciofacisfacitfacimusfacitisfaciunt

faciebamfaciebasfaciebatfaciebamusfaciebatisfaciebant

faciamfaciesfacietfaciemusfacietisfacient

fecifecistifecitfecimusfecistisfecerunt

feceramfecerasfeceratfeceramusfeceratisfecerant

fecerofecerisfeceritfecerimusfeceritisfecerint

Note the following common third conjugation -io verbs:

facio, -ere, feci, factum, to make, dofugio, -ere, fugi, fugitum, to flee

rapio, -ere, rapui, raptum, to seize,carry off



FOURTH CONJUGATION VERBS

Fourth Conjugation Verbs have the infinitive ending in -ire.

1. Present Tense:-io

-is

-it

-imus

-itis-iunt

Thus: venio

venis

venit

venimus

venitis

veniunt

Note that -i is the characteristic vowel of the fourth conjugation in the present tense,changing to -iu in the 3rd person plural.

2. The Imperfect Tense has regular endings, but with the characteristic -i-:

veniebam veniebamusveniebas veniebatis

veniebat veniebant

3. The Future Tense also shows the characteristic -i- , as well as the future tensesign -e- as in the 3rd conjugation (instead of the -bi- of the lst and 2dconjugations). Note, however -iam in 1st person singular:

veniam veniemusvenies venietis

veniet venient

4. The Perfect tenses (Perfect, Pluperfect and Future Perfect) are regular, forming

normally from the stem of the third principal part. Note the following:

aperio, -ire, aperui, apertum, to openaudio, -ire, -ivi, -itum, to hearnescio, -ire, nescivi, nescitum, to be ignorant of,not to know

sentio, -ire, sensi, sensum, to feel, know, sensevenio, -ire, veni, ventum, to comeconvenio, -ire, -veni, -ventum, to meet, assemblepervenio, -ire, -veni, -ventum, to arrive

Thus: Perfect: veni venimus

venisti venistis

venit venerunt

Pluperfect: veneram veneramusveneras veneratis

venerat venerant

Future Perfect: venero venerimusveneris veneritis

venerit venerint



THE PASSIVE VOICE

Present Passive Voice: Latin use of the Active and Passive Voices corresponds

generally to the English use. The passive forms for present, imperfect and future

are based on present stems for all conjugations, with these personal endings:

-r -mur

-ris -mini

-tur -ntur

-äre -ëre

-ere -ere (io)

- ïre

portor

portäris

portätur

portämur

portämini

portantur

doceor

docëris

docëtur

docëmur

docëminï

docentur

mittor

mitteris

mittitur

mittimur

mittimin ï

mittuntur

capior

caperis

capitur

capimur

capimin ï

capiuntur

audior

aud ï ris

aud ïtur

aud ïmur

aud ïminï

audiuntur

Imperfect Passive: The imperfect passive is formed by inserting -ba-:

portäbar

portäbäris

portäbätur

portäbämur

portäbäminï

portäbantur

docëbar

docëbäris

docëbätur

docëbämur

docëbäminï

docëbantur

mittëbar

mittëbäris

mittëbätur

mittëbämur

mittëbäminï

mittëbantur

capiëbar

capiëbäris

capiëbätur

capiëbämur

capiëbäminï

capiëbantur

audiëbar

audiëbäris

audiëbätur

audiëbämur

audiëbäminï

audiëbantur

Future Passive: Formed by inserting -bi- for first and second conjugations, -ë- for

third and fourth:

portäbor

portäberis

portäbitur

portäbimur

portäbimin ï

portäbuntur

docëbor

docëberis

docëbitur

docëbimur

docëbimin ï

docëbuntur

mittar

mittëris

mittëtur

mittëmur

mittëminï

mittentur

capiar

capiëris

capiëtur

capiëmur

capiëminï

capientur

audiar

audiëris

audiëtur

audiëmur

audiëminï

audientur

Passive Infintives: Change the final -e of the infinitive ending to -ï , except in the

third conjugation where the entire infinitive ending becomes -ï .

portärï docërï mittï capï aud ïrï

Spectätörës procul aud ïrï possunt, the spectators can be heard at a distance.



Perfect Passive System

The perfect system for the passive voice (perfect, pluperfect and future perfect) is

formed by adding a form of esse to the perfect passive participle (the 4th principal

part). The perfect passive participle (always nominative) will agree with its subject

in number and gender.

Perfect Passive (I was carried . . . ): present tense of esse + the perfect passive

participle:

portatus sum

portatus es

portatus est

portat ï sumus

portat ï estis

portat ï sunt

doctus sum

doctus es

doctus est

doct ï sumus

doct ï estis

doct ï sunt

missum sum

missum es

missum est

missï sumus

missï estis

missï sunt

captus sum

captus es

captus est

captï sumus

captï estis

captï sunt

aud ï tus sum

aud ï tus es

aud ï tus est

aud ïtï sumus

aud ïtï estis

aud ïtï sunt

Pluperfect Passive (I had been carried . . . ): imperfect tense of esse + the perfect

passive participle:

portatus eram

portatus eras

portatus erat

portat ï erämus

portat ï erätis

portat ï erant

doctus eram

doctus eras

doctus erat

doctï erämus

doct ï erätis

doct ï erant

missum eram

missum eras

missum erat

missï erämus

missï erätis

missï erant

captus eram

captus eras

captus erat

captï erämus

captï erätis

captï erant

aud ï tus eram

aud ï tus eras

aud ï tus erat

aud ïtï erämus

aud ïtï erätis

aud ïtï erant

Future Passive (I will have been carried . . . ): future tense of esse + the perfect

passive participle:

portatus ero

portatus eris

portatus erit

portat ï erimus

portat ï eritis

portat ï erunt

doctus ero

doctus eris

doctus erit

doct ï erimus

doct ï eritis

doct ï erunt

missum ero

missum eris

missum erit

missï erimus

missï eritis

missï erunt

captus ero

captus eris

captus erit

captï erimus

captï eritis

captï erunt

aud ï tus ero

aud ï tus eris

aud ï tus erit

aud ïtï erimus

aud ïtï eritis

aud ïtï erunt

The perfect passive participle will agree with its subject in number and gender:

Vir ab agricolä in casam ductus est. The man was led into the house by the farmer.

Virgö a virö in casam ducta est. The maiden was led into the house by the man .

Animal ä puerö in casam ductum est. The animal was led into the house by the boy.



FUTURE TENSE

I. Tense Indicators: The future tense indicator for the 1st and 2nd conjugations is -bi-. The

future tense indicator for the 3rd and 4th conjugations is -e- and -ie-.

II. Formation:

Active Passive

1st Conjugation

am!b" am!bimus am!bor am!bimur

am!bis am!bitis am!beris (-re) am!bimin #

am!bit am!bunt am!bitur am!buntur

2nd Conjugation

doc$b" doc$bimus doc$bor doc$bimur

doc$bis doc$bitis doc$beris (-re) doc$bimin #

doc$bit doc$bunt doc$bitur doc$buntur

3rd Conjugation

ponam pon$mus ponar pon$mur

pon$s pon$tis pon$ris (-re) pon$min #

ponet ponent pon$tur ponentur

3rd Conjugation (-i! Verbs)

capiam capi$mus capiar capi$mur

capi$s capi$tis capi$ris (-re) capi$min #

capiet capient capi$tur capientur

4th Conjugation

audiam audi$mus audiar audi$mur

audi$s audi$tis audi$ris (-re) audi$min #

audiet audient audi$tur audientur

III. Future Tense of sum:

er" erimus

eris eritis

erit erunt

III. Future Tense of possum:

poter" poterimus

poteris poteritis

poterit poterunt



Imperfect Tense

The Imperfect Tense denotes action going on in the past tense (i.e., continuous action in the

past). It is often translated with the past progressive tense in English (I was going to the

store). The Imperfect Tense can also denote repeated or customary action in the past (Iused to go to the store), as context requires.

The Tense Indicator for the Imperfect is -ba-. The personal endings are regular.

I. Active Voice:

amabam monebam ponebam audiebam

amabas monebas ponebas audiebas amabat monebat ponebat audiebat

amabamus

monebamus

ponebamus

audiebamus amabatis monebatis ponebatis audiebatis amabant monebant ponebant audiebant

II. Passive Voice:

amabar monebar ponebar audiebar

amabaris monebaris ponebaris audiebaris amabatur monebatur ponebatur audiebatur amabamur monebamur ponebamur audiebamur

amabamini

monebamini

ponebamini

audiebamini amabantur monebantur ponebantur audiebantur

III. The Imperfect of sum, esse:

eram eramus eras eratis erat erant

IV. The Imperfect of possum, posse:

poteram

poteramus poteras poteratis poterat poterant



The Perfect Tenses

The tenses of the perfect system (perfect, pluperfect & future perfect) are all formed off the

perfect stem, obtained from the third principal part of the verb. Note the regular principal

parts for 1st and 2d conjugation verbs: vocö, -äre, -ävï, -ätum and dëbeö, -ëre, -uï, -itum.

I. ACTIVE VOICE

Add to the perfect stem the following endings:

Perfect Pluperfect Future Perfect

-ï -imus -eram -erämus -erö -erimus

-istï -istis -eräs -erätis -eris -eritis

-it -ërunt -erat -erant -erit -erint

vocävï vocävimus vocäveram vocäverämus vocäverö vocäverimusvocävistï vocävistis vocäveräs vocäverätis vocäveris vocäveritis

vocävit vocävërunt vocäverat vocäverant vocäverit vocäverint

debuï debuimus debueram debuerämus debuerö debuerimus

debuistï debuistis debueräs debuerätis debueris debueritis

debuit debuërunt debuerat debuerant debuerit debuerint

The perfect system for the passive voice (perfect, pluperfect and future perfect) is formed by

adding a form of esse to the perfect passive participle (the 4th principal part). The perfect

passive participle (always nominative) will agree with its subject in number and gender.

Learn the third principal parts of the following verbs:

sum, esse, fuï, futurum, to be iubeö, -ere, iussï, iussum, to order

dö, däre, dedï, datum , to give maneö, -ëre, mansï, mansum, to remain

iuvö, -äre, iuvï, iutum, to help moveö, -ëre, mövï, mötum, to move

stö, stäre, stetï, statum, to stand pendeö, -ëre, pependï, pënsum, to hang

vïvo, -ere, vïxï, victum, to live respondeö, -ëre, respondï, responsum, to reply

sedeö, -ëre, sëdï, sessum, to sit tendö, -ere, tetendï, tentum (-sum), to extend veniö, -ïre, vënï, ventum, to come videö, -ëre, vïdï, vïsum, to see

Note the perfect tenses of sum, esse, fui:

fui fuimus fueram fueramus fuero fuerimus

fuisti fuistis fueras fueratis fueris fueritis

fuit fuerunt fuerat fuerant fuerit fuerint



II. Passive Voice:

Perfect Passive (I was loved . . . ): present tense of esse + the perfect passive participle:

amatus sum

amatus es

amatus estamatï sumus

amatï estis

amatï sunt

doctus sum

doctus es

doctus estdoctï sumus

doctï estis

doctï sunt

missus sum

missus es

missus estmissï sumus

missï estis

missï sunt

captus sum

captus es

captus estcaptï sumus

captï estis

captï sunt

audïtus sum

audïtus es

audïtus estaudïtï sumus

audïtï estis

audïtï sunt

Pluperfect Passive (I had been loved . . . ): imperfect tense of esse + the perfect passive participle:

amatus eram

amatus eras

amatus eratamatï erämus

amatï erätis

amatï erant

doctus eram

doctus eras

doctus eratdoctï erämus

doctï erätis

doctï erant

missus eram

missus eras

missus eratmissï erämus

missï erätis

missï erant

captus eram

captus eras

captus eratcaptï erämus

captï erätis

captï erant

audïtus eram

audïtus eras

audïtus erataudïtï erämus

audïtï erätis

audïtï erant

Future Passive (I will have been loved . . . ): future tense of esse + the perfect passive participle:

amatus ero

amatus eris

amatus eritamatï erimus

amatï eritis

amatï erunt

doctus ero

doctus eris

doctus eritdoctï erimus

doctï eritis

doctï erunt

missus ero

missus eris

missus eritmissï erimus

missï eritis

missï erunt

captus ero

captus eris

captus eritcaptï erimus

captï eritis

captï erunt

audïtus ero

audïtus eris

audïtus eritaudïtï erimus

audïtï eritis

audïtï erunt

The perfect passive participle will agree with its subject in number and gender:

Vir ab agricolä in casam ductus est. The man was led into the house by the farmer.

Virgö a virö in casam ducta est. The maiden was led into the house by the man.

Animal ä puerö in casam ductum est. The animal was led into the house by the boy.

Infinitive of the Perfect Tense:

The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding –isse to the perfect stem:

amavisse, to have loved docuisse , to have taught posuisse, to have placed

The perfect passive infinitive is formed with esse + the perfect passive participle:

amatus esse, to have been loved auditus esse, to have been heard



Irregular Verbs

1. sum, esse, fui (to be)

Present Imperfect Future Perfect

sum eram ero fuies eras eris fuisti

est erat erit fuitsumus eramus erimus fuimusestis eratis eritis fuistis

sunt erant erunt fuerunt

2. possum, posse, potui (to be able)

possum poteram potero potuipotes poteras poteris potuistipotest poterat poterit potuitpossumus poteramus poterimus potuimuspotestis poteratis poteritis potuistis

possunt poterant poterunt potuerunt3. fero, ferre, tuli, latum (to carry, bear)

fero ferebam feram tuli

fers ferebas feres tulisti

fert ferebat feret tulit

ferimus ferebamus feremus tulimus

fertis ferebatis feretis tulistis

ferunt ferebant ferent tulerunt

4. volo, velle, volui (to want, wish)

volo volebam volam voluivis volebas voles voluisti

vult volebat volet voluitvolumus volebamus volemus voluimusvultis volebatis voletis voluistis

volunt volebant volent voluerunt

5. nolo, nolle, nolui (to not want)

nolo nolebam nolam noluinon vis nolebas noles noluisti

non vult nolebat nolet noluitnolumus nolebamus nolemus noluimusnon vultis nolebatis noletis noluistisnolunt nolebant nolent noluerunt

6. malo, malle, malui (to prefer)

malo malebam malam maluimavis malebas males maluisti

mavult malebat malet maluitmalumus malebamus malemus maluimusmavultis malebatis maletis maluistis

malunt malebant malent maluerunt



Infinitives

General: An infinitive is, strictly speaking, an abstract verbal noun.

The infinitive is used in Latin, as in English, as a noun: Errare humanum est = To err is

human. When so used, the Latin infinitive is an indeclinable neuter noun.

The infinitive is also used in Latin, as in English, to complete the meaning of another

verb (complementary infinitive): Possum videre = I am able to see.

Unlike English, Latin rarely uses an infinitive to indicate purpose.

The infinitive is most widely used in Latin in Indirect Speech (Oratio Obliqua), which

combines an accusative subject with an infinitive in subordinate clauses after a verbs of

saying, thinking, and perceiving.

Puto eum sapientem esse = I think that he is wise.

Because the infinitive is widely used in the Indirect Speech, it must in Latin show tense

and voice and (where able) gender. Note the forms of the infinitive:

Formation:

Active Passive

Present: amäre (to love) amärï (to be loved)

Perfect: amävisse (to have loved) amätus esse (to have been loved)

Future: amätürus esse (to be about amätum ïrï (to be going to be

to love) loved)

Notes:

1) The present passive infinitive is formed by dropping the -e from the active

infinitive and adding -ï. But in the third conjugation, the entire infinitive ending (-ere)

is dropped before adding the -ï: ducere ducï (to be led).

2) The perfect passive and future active infinitives will show gender whereappropriate: Puto eam me amaturam esse = I think she will love me. Puto eos eam ad

oppidum ducturos esse = I think they will lead her to the town.

3) The future active infinitive, rare in English, is widely used in Latin for Indirect

Speech constructions (see 2 above).

4) The future passive infinitive is rarely seen.



DEPONENT VERBS

There is a group of verbs in Latin which have passive forms but active meanings. They

are called deponent verbs because they have “laid aside” (dëpönö, -ere) their passive

meanings but have retained their passive forms. They are translated only in the active

voice.

Thus: loquor, loqui, locutus sum, to speak, talk

loquor = I speak

loquitur = he, she, it speaks

etc.

The conjugation of deponent verbs is completely regular:

First conjugation: cönor, -ärï, -ätus sum, to try, attempt

Second conjugation: polliceor, -ërï, pollicitus sum, to promise

Third conjugation: loquor, loquï, locutus sum, to speak, talk Fourth conjugation: orior, orïrï, ortus sum, to rise, arise

Note 1: Deponent verbs, however, have retained a few regular active forms:

a. The present active participle: loquëns, -entis = speaking

b. The future active participle: locutürus, -a, -um = about to speak

c. The future active infinitive: locutürus esse = to be about to speak

Note 2: Because deponent forms are translated actively, they can have no “4th principal

part” (i.e., they have no perfect passive participle). Instead, the participle form

contained in the 3rd principal part (conatus, pollicitus, locutus, ortus, etc.) is a perfect

active particple. This participle fills a much needed gap in the language and accordingly

is frequently used. Thus:

conatus = having tried pollicitus = having promised

locutus = having spoken ortus = having arisen

SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS:

Four verbs in Latin have active forms in the first two principal parts, but deponent

forms in the third principal part (i.e., the perfect tense). They also are translated only in

the active voice. These verbs are:

audeö, -ëre, ausus sum, to dare gaudeö, -ëre, gävïsus sum, to rejoice

fïdö, -ere, fïsus sum, to trust soleö, -ëre, solitus sum, to be accustomed to



COMMON DEPONENT VERBS:

lst Conjugation:

arbitror, -ärï, -ätus sum, to think

cönor, -ärï, -ätus sum, to try, attempt

hortor, -ärï, -ätus sum, to encourage, urge

moror, -ärï, -ätus sum, to delay

mïror, -ärï, -ätus sum, to wonder at, be surprised

2nd Conjugation:

polliceor, -ërï, pollicitus sum, to promise

videor, -ërï, vïsus sum, to seem

vereor, -ërï, veritus sum, to fear mereor, -ërï, meritus sum, to deserve, earn

3rd Conjugation:

loquor, loquï, locütus sum, to speak, talk

patior, patï, passus sum, to suffer; permit, allow

proficïscor, proficïscï, profectus sum, to set out, depart

aggredior, -ï, aggressus sum, to approach, attack congredior, -ï, congressus sum, to meet, come together

ëgredior, -ï, ëgressus sum, to go out, disembark

prögredior, -ï, prögressus sum, to advance, go forward

sequor, sequï, secütus sum, to follow

ütor, -ï, usus sum, to use, make use of (+ abl.)

morior, -ï, mortuus sum, to die (fut. act. part. = moritürus)

näscor, -ï, natus sum, to be born; be found

revertor, -ï, reversus sum, to go back, return

4th Conjugation:

orior, -ïrï, ortus sum, to rise, arise

potior, -ïrï, potïtus sum, to get possession of (+ abl.)

opperior, -ïrï, oppertus sum, to await, wait for



IMPERSONAL VERBS OF FEELING

The following 5 impersonal verbs take the genitive of the cause of the

feeling and the accusative of the person affected:

piget - it vexes, irks

paenitet - it repents

taedet - it wearies

miseret - it pities

pudet - it shames

Piget m! stultitiae meae - I am vexed at my folly.

Paenitb! bit eum stultitiae suae - He will repent his folly.

Taedet n" s vitae - We are weary of life.

Miseret e" s pauperum - They pity the poor.

Nonne t ! pud ! bat stultitiae tuae - Were you not ashamed of your folly?

The cause of the feeling may also be expressed by an infinitive or a

clause:

neque m! paenitet mort ! l " s inim" citi ! s hab# re (Rab. Post. 32) - nor am I

sorry to have deadly enmities.

n$ n dedisse istunc pudet; m! quia n$ n acc# p" piget (Pl. Pseud. 282) - he is

ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.



Independent Uses of the Subjunctive Mood

General: Latin has three moods or “manners of verbal action”. The indicativemood is used for statements of fact and questions. The imperative moodexpresses a command. The subjunctive is used to express idea, intent, desire,

uncertainty, potentiality, or anticipation. The subjunctive is found primarily insubordinate clauses, but some independent uses also exist. Its use is subtle and

best learned from long exposure to the original texts. But general rules do exist.

A. Jussive and Hortatory Subjunctive:The Jussive (iubeo, -ere, iussi, iussus) and Hortatory (hortor, -ari, -atus sum) areused to express a command or an exhortation:

Veniat! Let him come! ( Jussive)Veniamus! Let’s come! (Hortatory)

The Jussive occurs in the third person, the Hortatory in the first.The negative is introduced by ne: Ne hoc faciat! Let him not do this!

B. Potential Subjunctive:The subjunctive may be used to express an action which might possiblyoccur:

Haec credas. You might believe these things.Dicas eum hominem bonum esse. You might say he is a good man.

Past potentiality is expressed by the imperfect subjunctive:Crederes eum hominem bonum esse. You might have believed he was a

good man.

C. Deliberative Subjunctive:The present and imperfect subjunctives are used to deliberate aboutsomething, often in a rhetorical question:

Quid faciam? What am I to do?Quid facerem? What was I to do?

The negative is introduced by non.

D. Optative SubjunctiveThe Optative (opto -are) is used for a future wish capable of fulfillment,

introduced by utinam or ut (negative utinam ne or ne):Utinam veniat! Would that he may come!Utinam ne veniat! Would that he may not come!

Contrary to fact wishes use the imperfect subjunctive for present time andpluperfect subjunctive for past time:

Utinam veniret! Would that he were coming (but he is not).Utinam venisset! Would that he had come (but he did not).



CONJUGATION OF SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

I. Present Tense.

The present subjunctive is formed by changing the characteristic vowel of the fourconjugations (remember: He beat a friar).

amem amemus doceam doceamus ducam ducamus audiam audiamusames ametis doceas doceatis ducas ducatis audias

audiatisamet ament doceat doceant ducat ducant audiat audiant

The passive is formed with normal personal endings (-r, -ris, -tur, -mur, -mini, -ntur).

II. Imperfect Tense.

The imperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the personal endings to the present activeinfinitive (i.e., the second principal part).

amarem amaremus docerem doceremus ducerem duceremus audirem audiremusamares amaretis doceres doceretis duceres duceretis audires audiretisamaret amarent doceret docerent duceret ducerent audiret audirent

The passive is formed with normal personal endings to the present active infinitive.

III. Perfect Tense.

The perfect subjunctive is formed much like the future perfect indicative, adding theseendings to the perfect stem (third principal part): -erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint.

amaverim amaverimus docuerim docuerimus duxerim duxerimus audiverim audiverimusamaveris amaveritis docueris docueritis duxeris duxeritis audiveris audiveritisamaverit amaverint docuerit docuerint duxerit duxerint audiverit audiverim

IV. Pluperfect Tense.

The pluperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the personal endings to the perfect

infinitive.amavissem amavissemus docuissem docuissemus duxissem duxissemus audivissem audivissemusamavisses amavissetis docuisses docuissetis duxisses duxissetis audivisses audivissetisamavisset amavissent docuisset docuissent duxisset duxissent audivisset audivissent

The passive is formed in the normal fashion by combining the perfect passive participlewith the present subjunctive of esseI: amatus sim, doctus sim, etc.

V. Subjunctive of Esse.

Present Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect

sim simus essem essemus erim erimus fuissem fuissemus

sis sitis

esses essetis eris eritis fuisses fuissetissit sint esset essent erit erint fuisset fuissent



Third Declension AdjectivesThird-declension adjectives fall into three classes: 1) Adjectives of three

terminations in the nominative singular - one for each gender; 2)Adjectives of two teminations; and 3) Adjectives of one termination. Withrare exceptions, third declension adjectives follow the inflection of I-Stemnouns.

1. Third Declension Adjectives of Three Terminations:

Masculine Feminine Neuter


aceracrisacriacremacri

acresacriumacribusacresacribus

acrisacrisacriacremacri

acresacriumacribusacresacribus

acreacrisacriacreacri

acriaacriumacribusacriaacribus

celeber , -bris, -bre, celebrated, famous

2. Third Declension Adjectives of Two Terminations: Masc. & Fem. Neuter


omnisomnisomniomnemomni

omnesomniumomnibusomnesomnibus

omneomnisomniomneomni

omniaomniumomnibusomniaomnibus

brevis, breve, shortcrudelis , crudele, cruel, bloodyfidelis , fidele, faithful

gravis, grave, heavy, seriouslamentabilis, lamentabile, deplorableomnis, omne , all

perennis, perenne, perennial, eternalpuerilis , puerile, boyishregalis, regale, royal

similis, simile, liketerribilis, terribile, terribletristis, triste, sad , gloomy

3. Third Declension Adjectives of One Termination:

Masc. & Fem. Neuter

Nom.Gen.Dat.Acc.

Abl.

ingensingentisingentiingentem

ingenti

ingentesingentiumingentibusingentes

ingentibus

ingensingentisingentiingens

ingenti

ingentiaingentiumingentibusingentia

ingentibus

audax, -acis*, bold, daringdiscors, discordis , inharmonious, discordantfelix, felicis , happy, fortunateferox, ferocis, savage, wildinfelix , infelicis , unhappy, unfortunateingens, ingentis, huge, mighty

innocens, innocentis , harmlessmultiplex, multiplicis , multiplerecens, recentis, recentsapiens, sapientis , wisesupplex , supplicis , suppliantvetus, veteris, old

*The second entry is the genitive singular.



Note: Observe where the characteristic -i appears in 3rd declensionadjectives:

1) -i in the ablative singular of all genders.2) -ium in the genitive plural of all genders.3) -ia in the nominative and accusative plural of the neuter.

A few third declension adjectives of one ending are declined without the

characteristic -i. Thus, vetus, veteris , old: vetere (abl. sing.), veterum (gen. plu.), vetera(neut. nom. and acc. plu.).

Of course a third declension adjective may be used with a noun of anydeclension. Note the following patterns:

3 endings 2 endings 1 ending

acer viracris reginaacre animal

omnis viromnis reginaomne animal

sapiens virsapiens reginasapiens animal

Nine Irregular Adjectives

Nine adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declension have their genitivesingular in -ius and their dative singular in -i in all genders. Otherwise theyshow the regular endings for adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declension(e.g., bonus, -a, -um). Their plurals are regular.

alius , alia, aliud , other* nullus , -a, -um, no, nonesolus, -a, -um, alone

totus, -a, -um, wholeullus , -a, -um, anyunus, -a, -um, one

alter, altera, alterum, the otherneuter, neutra, netrum, neitheruter, utra, utrum, which (of two)

Thus:Masc. Fem. Neut.

Sing. solussoliussolisolumsolo

Plural: soli

solasoliussolisolamsola

solae

etc.

solumsoliussolisolumsolo

sola

*Alius has alterius in the genitive singular (to avoid “aliius”). Otherwise, itfollows the pattern set forth above.

Note the similarities in the declensions of the pronouns ipse, ipsa, ipsum;ille , illa , illud ; iste , ista , istud , all of which show the same pattern as abovein the genitive and dative singular.



COMPARISON OF A DJECTIVES

Adjectives are compared in Latin in the same manner as in English. There arethree degrees of comparison: 1) Positive; 2) Comparative; 3) Superlative:

1) Positive: long short tall

2) Comparative: longer shorter taller3) Superlative: longest shortest tallest

1. Positive Adjectives: The Positive Degree of Adjectives is the normal form: longus, -a, -um.

2. Comparitive Adjectives

Adjectives are compared by adding -ior (M.&F.) or -ius (N.) to the base. Thebase is taken from the genitive singular of the adjective. The comparative adjective

is then declined as a regular third declension ( i.e., not i-stems).

Masc. & Fem. NeuterNom.Gen.Dat.Acc.Abl.

longi!rlongi!rislongi!r " longi!remlongi!re

longi!r#slongi!rumlongi!ribuslongi!r#slongi!ribus

longiuslongi!rislongi!rilongiuslongi!re

longi!ralongi!rumlongi!ribuslongi!ralongi!ribus

3. Superlative Adjectives:

Superlative adjectives are formed by adding normal 1st and 2nd declensionendings ( -us, -a, -um ) to the base. The stem is taken from the genitive singular:

longissimus, -a, -um brevissimus, -a, -um felicissimus, -a, -um

Translation of the Superlative:In Latin the superlative is broader in meaning than in English. It can mean

longest (as in English); but also rather long, too long , very long.

4. Comparison with Quam :

Latin can use quam (than) to compare two words. If quam is used, the wordscompared are in the same case: Puellae diligentiores quam pueri sunt.

5. Ablative of Comparison:

If the word to be compared is in the nominative or accusative, quam may beomitted and the second word put in the ablative: Puellae diligentiores pueris sunt.



6. Comparison in -er :

All adjectives ending in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus, -rima, rimum

to the nominative. The comparative is regular.

pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum pulchrior, -ius pulcherrimus, -a, -um

celer, celeris, celere celerior, -ius celerrimus, -a, -um

7. Comparison of Adjectives in -eus or -ius:

Adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declension ending in -eus or -ius form the

comparative with magis and the superlative with maxime:

idoneus, -a, -um magis idoneus, -a, -um maxime idoneus, -a, -um

8. Adjectives in -ilis:

A few adjectives ending in -ilis form their superlative with -limus, -a, -um:

facilis, -e (easy) facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um

difficilis, -e (difficult ) difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -umsimilis, -e (similar, like) similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um

dissimilis, -e (unlike) dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um

gracilis, -e (slender) gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um

humilis, -e (humble, lowly) humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um

9. Irregular Adjectives:

Some adjectives (as in English) are simply irregular and must be memorized:

bonus, -a, -um melior, melius optimus, -a, -um

malus, -a, -um peior, peius pessimus, -a, -umm!gnus, -a, -um maior, maius maximus, -a, -um

parvus, -a, -um minor, minus minimus, -a, -um

mult " , -ae, -a pl#r$s, plura pl#rim " , -ae, -a

-------- exterior, exterius extr$mus, -a, -um

-------- inferior, inferius infimus, -a, -um (imus)

-------- interior, interius intimus, -a, -um

-------- prior, prius pr " mus, -a, -um

-------- proprior, propius proximus, -a, -um

-------- superior, superius summus, -a, -um-------- ulterior, ulterius ultimus, -a, -um

multus, -a, -um -------- pl#rimus, -a, -um

senex, senis senior --------



PARTICIPLES

General: When we take a verb and make an adjective out of it, we have constructed averbal adjective or participle:

The shouting woman departed.The men saw the destroyed town.

A participle, like any other adjective, must agree with the noun it modifies in gender,number and case. But the participle also has attributes of tense and voice: “shouting” ispresent active; “destroyed” (i.e., “having been destroyed”) is perfect passive.

Because the participle, although an adjective, retains verbal force, it may take a directobject:

We saw Hercules drinking the wine: Vidimus Herculem vinum bibentem.

Formation: Active Passive

Present: amäns, amantis (loving) ----------

Perfect: [Deponent Verbs only] amätus, -a, -um (having been loved)

Future: amätürus, -a, -um amandus, -a, -um (about to love) (having to be loved)

Present Active Participle: Add -ns to the present stem (-ntis for genitive singular) anddecline like third declension adjectives of one termination. In the case of i-stem verbs,-ie- will appear: capiëns, capientis.

If used as an attributive adjective, the present participle will have -ï in the ablative

singular. ab amantï fëminä , by the loving wife.

If used as a substantive (noun), the present participle will have -e in the ablative

singular. ab amante , by a lover.

Perfect Passive Participle: This is the fourth principal part of the verb, declined as anadjective of the 1st and 2nd declension.

Future Active Participle: Take the fourth principal part of the verb, drop the -us andadd -ürus, -a, -um. Then decline as a 1st and 2nd declension adjective.

Future Passive Participle: Add -ndus, -a, -um to the present stem. Then decline as a 1stand 2nd declension adjective. In i-stem verbs, -ie- will appear: audiendus, -a, -um;sentiendus, -a, -um.



Uses of the Participle:

The tense of a participle is always relative to that of the main verb. A present participlerefers to action contemporaneous with that of the main verb (whether the main verb ispast, present or future). A perfect participle refers to action prior to that of the mainverb. A future participle refers to action subsequent to that of the main verb. A properunderstanding of Latin participles must always bear in the mind their tense and voice.

Present active participle: contemporaneous action, active voice.Fëmina clämäns eum vidit:

The shouting woman saw him.Shouting, the woman saw him.

When she was shouting, the woman saw him.

Perfect passive participle: prior action, passive voice.Fëmina territa clämävit.

The having-been-frightened woman shouted.

The woman, having been frightened, shouted.

The frightened woman shouted.When she had been frightened, the woman shouted.

Future active participle: subsequent action, active voice.Fëmina dictüra virum vïdit.

The about-to-speak woman saw her husband.

The woman, about to speak, saw her husband.

About to speak, the woman saw her husband.

When the woman was about to speak, she saw her husband.

Future passive participle (gerundive): subsequent action, passive voice.

Librös legendös in mënsä posuit.He placed having-to-be-read books on the table.

He placed books to be read on the table

He placed books which should be read on the table.

The Perfect Active Participle of Deponent Verbs: A perfect active participle (havingseen, having done, having left, etc.) is a critical syntactical component. It’s absence inLatin for regular verbs is made up for by the frequent use of the perfect participle ofdeponent verbs (which by nature must be active), the use of the ablative absolute, andthe use of cum clauses. Take care to translate the perfect participle of a deponent verbactively (locutus , having said; hortatus , having encouraged; secutus , having followed,

etc.).

Notes: 1) Latin participles are often best rendered in English as subordinate clauses(i.e., temporal, causal, concessive, conditional). The context must decide.

2) The future passive participle (gerundive) often carries the notion ofobligation, necessity, or propriety.



INDIRECT STATEMENT (ORATIO OBLIQUA)

General: The statement “He scatters dragon’s teeth on the land” is a direct

statement (!r "ti! recta): Dent # s drac!nis in terr " spargit.

But after words of saying, denying, announcing, telling, showing, knowing,not knowing, believing, thinking, hearing, seeing, feeling, hoping, fearing, and

the like, we are able to express statements indirectly (!r "ti! obl $ qua):

He says that he scatters the dragon’s teeth on the land.

He hopes that he scatters the dragon’s teeth on the land.

Formation: In English indirect statements are introduced by a

subordinating conjunction that , which has no equivalent in classical Latin.

Instead, a subject accusative + infinitive is used. The subject of the olddirect statement (he) is made accusative (eum) and the verb (scatters) is put

into its infinitive form ( spargere).

This usage also may be found in English (though less commonly than

the subordinate clause with that ): I believe him (subject accusative) to

be (infinitive) a good man.

When dealing with indirect speech, only the subject and the verb are

changed - the rest of the sentence remains unchanged.

Direct Statement: Dent # s drac!nis in terr " spargit.

Indirect Statement: D$ c! eum dent # s drac!nis in terr " spargere.

Reflexive in Indirect Statement: If the subject of the indirect statement is

the same as the subject of the main (introducing) verb, the reflexive

pronoun is used:

D$ cit s# drac!nis dent # s in terr " spargere.

He says that he (himself) scatters the dragon’s teeth on the land.

D$ cunt s# drac!nis dent # s in terr " spars%ros esse.

They say that they (themselves) will scatter the dragon’s teeth on

the land.



FORMS FOR INFINITIVES:

Each verb has six infinitive forms, five of which are in common

use and must be learned:

Active

Pres. laud!re mon"re d#cere aud $ re

Perf. laud!visse monuisse d#xisse aud $ visse

Fut. laud!t#rus esse monit#rus esse duct#rus esse audit#rus esse

Passive

Pres. laud!r $ mon"r $ d#c $ aud $ r $ Perf. laud!tus esse monitus esse ductus esse aud $ tus esse

Fut. laud!tum $ r $ monitum $ r $ ductum $ r $ aud $ tum $ r $

The future passive infinitive is rare.



GERUND AND GERUNDIVE

I. The Gerund

The Gerund is a verbal noun , always active in force. The infintive of the verbs supplies

the nominative case:

Legere est difficile = To read is difficult (reading is difficult)

The other cases are formed by adding -nd- to the present stem of the verb (-iend- for3rd conjugation I-stems and all 4th conjugation verbs), plus the neuter singular endingsof the second declension. The Gerund has no plural.

A. Declension of Gerund:

(Nom.legere reading)Gen. legendi of reading

Dat. legendo to/for readingAcc. legendum readingAbl. legendo from/with/in/by reading

B. Gerund as simple noun: The Gerund funtions in grammatical cases like any othernoun; but it retains its verbal force and may control a direct object or be modified by anadverb:

Cupidus legendi est. He is desirous of reading. Obj. Gen.

Legendo discimus. We learn by (means of) reading. Abl. of Means

Regi libenter parendo* By obeying the king willingly, Abl. of Means fortiores fiemus. we shall become stronger.

* Note that verbs governing the dative will do so in the gerund form as well.

C. Gerund with ad to express purpose:

Ad + the gerund will express purpose:

Ad legendum venit. He comes for the purpose of reading (to read).

But where a direct object is used, the gerundive is preferred.

D. Gerund with causa to express purpose:

The genitive of the gerund followed by causa will express purpose:

Legendi causa venit. He comes for the sake of reading (to read).But where a direct object is used, the gerundive is preferred.



II. The Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)

The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and is always passive in force. It is formed by adding-ndus, -a, -um (-iendus, -a, -um with I-stems and 4th conjugation verbs) to the stem of theverb. It declines like a lst and 2nd declension adjective.

A. Gerundive as simple adjective:The Gerundive carries a notion of necessity, obligation or propriety and can be used(like any adjective) in simple agreement with its noun:

Libros legendos habeo. I have books having to be read (thatmust be/should be read).

Fortis et laudandus vir est. He is a brave man and worthy to be praised.

Iniuria et non ferenda facta est. An injury not to be borne has been done.

B. Gerundive with Direct Object:

The Gerundive is always preferred over the Gerund where a direct object in the accusativecase is involved:

Libris legendis discimus. We learn by books being read (byreading books).

Cupidus librorum legendorum est. He is desirous of books being read (of reading books).

C. Gerundive with ad + acc. and gen. + causa to express purpose:

The Gerundive (like the Gerund) may be used with ad + acc. or gen. + causa to expresspurpose. This is the regular construction where a Direct Object is involved.

Librorum legendorum causa venit. He comes for the sake of books being read (toread books).

Ad libros legendos venit. He comes for the purpose of books being read(to read books).

D. The Passive Periphrastic Conjugation:

Finally, the gerundive is used with sum in the Future Passive Periphrastic Conjugation.Here, also, there is always a notion of necessity, obligation, or propriety. Theconstruction is passive; and the gerundive will agree (number, case, and gender) withthe subject of the sentence. Since the gerundive here functions in a verbal setting,agreeing with the subject of the sentence, the case will always be nominative (oraccusative in indirect speech).

Carthago delenda est. Carthage must (should) be destroyed.

Nautae videndi sunt. The sailors must be seen.

Dative of Agent with Passive Periphrastic:

If the agent of the action is expressed, the dative case is used:

Carthago nobis delenda est. Carthage must be destroyed by us.

Nautae videndi sunt tibi. The sailors must be seen by you.



THE SUPINE

The Supine is a verbal noun of the fourth declension, appearing only in the accusative

singular (-um) and ablative singular (-ü) and limited to two usages.

I. The Supine in -um:

A. The Supine in -um may be used after verbs of motion to express purpose:

Legätös ad Caesarem mittunt rogätum auxilium. They send envoys to Caesar to ask for help.

Stultitia est venätum ducere invïtäs canës. It is folly to take unwilling dogs to hunt.

The construction is found most commonly with the verbs ïre and venïre , followed

by many phrases: cubitum , dormitum , sessum , salütätum , etc.

The Supine in -um may take a direct object, though the construction was not very

common:

Hannibal patriam dëfënsum revocätus est. Hannibal was recalled to defend his country.

The Supine in -um, very common in early Latin, was not favored by Cicero and Caesar. It

was frequent again in Sallust and Livy but in Later Latin was generally supplanted by the

infinitive of purpose.

B. The Supine in -um was used with the passive inifinitive of ïre (ïrï) to form the

rare future passive infinitive:

Häs litteräs redditum ïrï putäbam. I thought that this letter was going to be returned.

The construction was never common and was often replaced with a futurum esse

(fore) ut construction: Nuntiat fore ut foedus fieret. He reported that a treaty would be

made.

II. The Supine in -ü.

The Supine in -ü is used with a few adjective (and the nouns fäs, nefäs, and opus) to

express an ablative of respect or specification:

mirabile dictü: marvelous to relate

facilis factü: easy to do.

sï hoc fäs est dictü: if this is right to say.

nihil dignum dictü: nothing worthy of mention.



Ut Clauses of Purpose, Result and Indirect Command

The expression of purpose, result, and indirect command are distinct:

He died in order that we might live. (Purpose) It rained so hard that my basement was flooded. (Result)

I requested that he go. (Indirect command).

For each of these constructions, Latin uses a subordinate clause introduced by ut with

the verb of the subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

I. Ut Clauses of Purpose:

A Purpose Clause is preceded by ut (in order that) with the verb in the subjunctive.

Venit ut eam videat. He comes in order that he might see her (“to see her”).

A negative purpose clause is formed with ne (in order that . . . not).

Puella discessit ne videretur. The girl left (in order) that she not be seen.

N.B. In a relative Purpose Clause, qui, quae, quod may replace ut when the

antecedent of the relative pronoun is expressed.

Viros misit qui hoc facerent. He sent men (who were) to do this.

N.B. When the Purpose clause has a comparative, ut is often replaced by quo.

Glaudium abiecit quo facilius curreret. He threw away his sword so that he

might run more easily.

II. Ut Clauses of Result:

A result clause is preceded by ut (so that) with the verb in the subjunctive.

A negative result clause is formed with ut . . . non (so that . . . not).

N.B. Tam (so, so very), sic (so, in such a way), ita (so, so very, in such a way), tantus,

-a, -um (so large, so great) and the like often precede a Result Clause.

Tanta fecit ut urbem servaret. He did such great things that he saved the city.

Tam strenue laborat ut multa perficiat. He works so energetically that he

accomplishes many things.

Erant tot aedificia ut omnia videre non possem. There were so many buildings

that I could not see them all.



III. Ut Clauses of Indirect Command:

Sometimes an ut clause simply expresses a command, wish, desire, hope, etc.,

without any strong meaning of purpose or result.

A negative indirect command clause is formed with ne.

Mihi persuasit ut venirem. He persuaded me that I come (to come).

Me monuit ne venirem. He warned me that I not come (not to come).

Ab eis petivit ne se vulnerarent. He begged them not to wound him.

IV. Negative Ut Clauses:

Negative ut Clauses use distinctive introducing words. Learn the following:

Negative Purpose Negative Result Negative Ind. Command

that . . . not ne that . . . not ut . . . non that . . . not ne

Purpose: Celeriter cucurrit ne capi posset.

He ran quickly in order that he not be caught.

Result:

Tam celeriter cucurrit ut capi non posset. He ran so quickly that he could not be caught.

Indirect Eum oravit ne tam celeriter curreret.

Command: I begged him that he not run so fast.



Latin Contractions

1. All verbs in -ris (i.e., the 2nd person singular of the present, imperfect, and

future tenses of deponents and the passive voice of other verbs) are often

syncopated to –re.imitere for imiteris

2. All verbs in the 3rd person plural of the perfect tense may show -ere instead of -

erunt .

invexere for invexerunt

amavere for amaverunt

3. fore = futurus esse

essem, esses, etc. = forem, fores, etc. (though not strictly a contraction)

4. -vi- and -ve- are often suppressed in perfect forms:optastis for optavistis

audissent for audivissent

audisse for audivisse

nosti for novisti

amarant for amaverant

noram for noveram

5. aliquis, aliqua, aliquod contract to quis, qua, quod after si, nisi, num and ne.

6. ac = atque di = dei

deum = deorum

dis = deis

vin’ = visne

scin’ = scisne

sis = si vis

sodes = si audes

sultis = si vultis

7. Contractions found in the old poets:

homost = homo est

i l i l

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