grasslands and rangelands national parks and reserves land use
TRANSCRIPT
Grasslands and RangelandsNational Parks and Reserves
Land Use
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS
• Almost half of the world’s livestock graze on natural grasslands (rangelands) and managed grasslands (pastures).
• We can sustain rangeland productivity by controlling the number and distribution of livestock and by restoring degraded rangeland.
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS
• Overgrazing (left) occurs when too many animals graze for too long and exceed carrying capacity of a grassland area.
Figure 10-21
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING GRASSLANDS
• Example of restored area along the San Pedro River in Arizona after 10 years of banning grazing and off-road vehicles. See the effects of creating a riparian zone
Figure 10-22
Case Study: Grazing and Urban Development in the American West
• Ranchers, ecologists, and environmentalists are joining together to preserve the grasslands on cattle ranches.– Paying ranchers conservation easements (barring
future owners from development).– Pressuring government to zone the land to prevent
development of ecologically sensitive areas.
Management of the American West
• Overexploitation of resources caused great damage to the American West– Poor farming practices, overgrazing,
farming arid lands• John Wesley Powell in the late 1800s called for
agencies to base management on science– Farming Western lands had to
account for arid conditions– His ideas were ignored, contributing
to failures such as the Dust Bowl of the 1930s
Parks and reserves• Reasons for establishing parks and reserves include:
– Monumentalism = preserving areas with enormous, beautiful or unusual features, such as the Grand Canyon
– Offer recreational value to tourists, hikers, fishers, hunters and others
– Protect areas with utilitarian benefits, such as clean drinking water
– Use sites that are otherwise economically not valuable and are therefore easy to protect
– Preservation of biodiversity
Federal parks and reserves began in the U.S.
• National parks = public lands protected from resource extraction and development– Open to nature
appreciation and recreation
– Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872
• The Antiquities Act of 1906 – The president can declare
selected public lands as national monuments
The National Park Service (NPS)• Created in 1916 to administer parks and
monuments– 401 sites (84 million acres)– Includes national historic sites, national recreation
areas, national wild and scenic rivers– 273.6 million visitors in 2013– 58 National Parks
– Overseen by the Department of the Interior
National Wildlife Refuges
• Begun in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt• 150 Million acres of land and water in 560 land refuge
sites• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers refuges
– Management ranges from preservation to manipulation– Wildlife havens– Allows hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography,
education
Wilderness areas• Wilderness areas = area is off-limits to
development of any kind– Open to the public for hiking,
nature study, etc.– Must have minimal impact
on the land– Necessary to ensure that
humans don’t occupy and modify all natural areas
• Established within federal lands– Overseen by the agencies
that administer those areas
Not everyone supports land set-asides• Restriction of activities in wilderness areas
generated opposition to U.S. land protection policies– Some western states want resource extraction and
development• The wise-use movement = a coalition of
individuals and industries that oppose environmental protection– Protecting private property, transferring federal lands
to state or private hands, promoting motorized recreation on public lands
– Farmers, ranchers, loggers, mineral and fossil fuel industries
Wilderness protection has been weakened
• President George W. Bush weakened wilderness protection– Federal agencies have shifted policies and enforcement– Away from preservation and conservation – Toward recreation and resource extraction
Nonfederal entities also protect land• Each U.S. state and Canadian province has
agencies that manage resources– So do counties and municipalities
• Land trusts = local or regional organizations that purchase land to protect it– The Nature Conservancy is the world’s largest land
trust– Trusts protect (47 million acres)– Jackson Hole, Wyoming is protected by a land trust
Parks and reserves are increasing internationally
• Many nations have established national parks– Benefit from ecotourism– Protected areas now cover 9.6% of the world’s land area
• Parks do not always receive necessary funding– Paper parks = Areas protected on paper but not in reality– World heritage sites = protected areas that fall under
national sovereignty but are designated or managed by the United Nations
• 1007 sites across 163 countries
Transboundary and peace parks
• Transboundary park = an area of protected land overlapping national borders– For example, Waterton-Glacier National Parks in the U.S.
and Canada• Peace parks = transboundary reserves that help ease
tensions by acting as buffers between nations• Biosphere reserves = land with exceptional
biodiversity– Couple preservation with sustainable development
Biosphere reserves have several zones• This can be a win-win situation for everyone
Habitat fragmentation threatens species
• Contiguous habitat is chopped into small pieces– Species suffer
The SLOSS dilemma• Which is better to protect species?
– A Single Large Or Several Small reserves?– Depends on the species: tigers vs. insects
• Corridors = protected land that allows animals to travel between islands of protected habitat– Animals get more resources– Enables gene flow between populations
NATIONAL PARKS• Countries have established more than 1,842
national parks, but most are threatened by human activities.– Local people invade park for wood, cropland, and
other natural resources.– Loggers, miners, and wildlife poachers also deplete
natural resources.– Many are too small to sustain large-animal species.– Many suffer from invasive species.
Case Study: Stresses on U.S. National Parks
• Overused due to popularity.
• Inholdings (private ownership) within parks threaten natural resources.
• Air pollution.
Figure 10-23
• Suggestions for sustaining and expanding the national park system in the U.S.
Figure 10-24
NATURE RESERVES
• Ecologists call for protecting more land to help sustain biodiversity, but powerful economic and political interests oppose doing this.– Currently 12% of earth’s land area is protected.– Only 5% is strictly protected from harmful human
activities.– Conservation biologists call for full protection of at
least 20% of earth’s land area representing multiple examples of all biomes.
NATURE RESERVES• Large and medium-sized reserves with buffer
zones help protect biodiversity and can be connected by corridors.
➢Costa Rica has consolidated its parks and reserves into 8 megareserves designed to sustain 80% if its biodiversity.
Figure 10-10B
NATURE RESERVES• A model biosphere
reserve that contains a protected inner core surrounded by two buffer zones that people can use for multiple use.
Figure 10-25
NATURE RESERVES
• We can prevent or slow down losses of biodiversity by concentrating efforts on protecting global hot spots where significant biodiversity is under immediate threat.
• Conservation biologists are helping people in communities find ways to sustain local biodiversity while providing local economic income.
NATURE RESERVES
• Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping can be used to understand and manage ecosystems.– Identify areas to establish and connect nature
reserves in large ecoregions to prevent fragmentation.
– Developers can use GIS to design housing developments with the least environmental impact.
NATURE RESERVES
• Wilderness is land legally set aside in a large enough area to prevent or minimize harm from human activities.
• Only a small percentage of the land area of the United States has been protected as wilderness.
Agriculture: Problems & Solutions
Monoculture, Slash & Burn Farming
Intercropping, Polyculture, Crop
Rotation & Agroforestry
Plowing/Tilling & Row Crops
Contour Plowing, Terracing, No-Till
Spray/Furrow Irrigation, Salinization, Waterlogging
Drip irrigation, Hydroponics, GMO drought-tolerant crops
Mechanization, CAFOs, “Energy Subsidy”
• Food travels ~ 2,000 km to reach your plate
Local & Unprocessed foods, Less Meat
Pesticide persistence; pesticide treadmill; collateral damage
• Bees dying from use of neonicotinoids
IPM (Integrated Pest Management)
& GMOs
Synthetic Fertilizer Production; Overapplication/runoff (eutrophication)
Organic Fertilizer, Composting, GMOs
Western Diet, “Lifestyle Diseases”
White Meat, Mediterranean Diet, Paleo Diet, Antibiotic-free meat
Marine Fisheries Overview
This project supported in part by the National Science Foundation. Opinions expressed are those of the authors and
not necessarily those of the Foundation.
byWynn W. Cudmore, Ph.D.
Northwest Center for Sustainable ResourcesDUE # 0757239
Summary• Marine fisheries are an important biological and
cultural resource• Significant numbers of stocks are overexploited or
depleted• Overfishing is a major cause for the decline of marine
fisheries• Traditional fisheries management has not resulted in
sustainable fisheries• New approaches include both market-based and
ecosystem-based solutions
NOAA Photo Library / OAR/National Undersea Research Program (NURP); Alaska Department of Fish and Game
What is a fishery?
• The resource (fish species)• The habitat• The people involved
NOAA Photo Library ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies / Marine Photobank NOAA Photo Library –Kip Evans
Tsukiji Fish MarketTokyo, Japan
Wikipedia
Most fish are harvested within 200 miles of shore
• Upwellings• Continental shelves• Estuaries
NEFSC (NOAA) NASA, MODIS Rapid Response Team
NCSR et. al.
Status of Marine Fisheries
• In 2004, 52% of world fish stocks were fully exploited, 25% were overexploited or depleted
• Large predatory fish have declined globally by 90%
• At least 42% of U.S. fisheries are being overexploited
UNFAO– Antonio Pais
Fisheries Collapses
Atlantic cod
Atlantic salmon
Pacific sardine
Haddock
Atlantic halibut
Peruvian anchovy
Collapse of the Atlantic Cod Fishery off Newfoundland
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Causes for Marine Fishery Declines
• Overfishing
The rate of fish mortality (harvest plusbycatch) exceeds the natural rate of replacement.
NOAA Photo Library – Teobaldo Dioses
Causes for Marine Fishery Declines
• Overfishing• Highly efficient technology
Fishing vessels and gear
Radar and sonar
Electronic navigation
Aircraft with infrared sensors
Electronic image intensifiers
NOAA Photo Library - C. Oritz Rojas
Causes for Marine Fishery Declines
• Overfishing• Highly efficient technology• Bycatch
The capture of non-target fish or other marine animalsin fishing gear
NOAA Photo Library
Causes for Marine Fishery Declines
• Overfishing• Highly efficient technology• Bycatch• Overcapacity
Fishing fleets are larger than necessary to harvest the allowable catch
Northeast Fisheries Science Center
Community and ecosystem-level impacts of fishery declines
• Fishing down the food web• Habitat degradation• Trophic cascades• Changes in life history traits
Fishing Down the Food WebThe serial harvest of progressively lower
trophic levels
Time
Trophic Level
Concept : Daniel Pauly; Artist: Aque Atanacio
Habitat Degradation: the impact of fishing gear
Dr. R. Grant Gilmore, Dynamac CorporationLance Horn, National Undersea Research Center/University of North Carolina at Wilmington
Before trawling After trawling
Deep-sea Oculina coral reefs off Florida's Atlantic Coast
Changes in life history traits
• Females respond to fishing pressure by spawning at an earlier age
• Removal of large females reduces reproductive potential
NOAA Fisheries
Summary of Community/Ecosystem Effects of Fishing
Pew Center on Global Climate Change
Why are fishery declines allowed to occur?
“Overfishing occurs because all of the economic incentives are in place for it to occur.”
Iudicello, et al., 1999
• Government subsidies• Increasing demand• Shifting baselines• Lack of adequate fisheries data
Government subsidies
The global fishing fleet spends $50 billion more than it makes every year.
UN Food and Agriculture Organization
Increasing demand for seafood
From 1961 to 2003 total fish consumption in China increased from 3.2 million tons to 25.4 million tons Artwork © Ray Troll
Shifting Baselines“Fishing has a short memory. If you see twice as many fish as you’ve seen in
the last 10 years, it’s still twice as much of not very much.”
Teri Frady - NMFS
Post card from Census of Marine Life - History of Marine Animal Populations – Glenn Jones
Lack of Adequate Fisheries Data
Effective management requires collection andinterpretation of basic biological information on fish species and marine ecosystems
© Pete Naylor, uwphoto.geckoworks.com 2005 / Marine Photobank
Traditional fisheries management (“Single-species approach” – failed)
• Quotas (Total Allowable Catches)• Gear restrictions• Maximum sustainable yield• Closures
Gear Restrictions(ex: mesh size limits on nets)
NOAA Fisheries
NCSR
Closures – an example
Areas closed in 1994 to any fishing gear capable of catching Atlantic cod
NOAA Fisheries
Sea scallops on Georges Bank
NOAA Fisheries – Northeast Fisheries Science Center NOAA Fisheries - Chantell Royer
Area Closed
Market-based Solutions
• Certification• Consumer-based solutions• Purchase of fishing rights• Aquaculture• Increased use of underutilized species• Reduce government subsidies
Certification of Seafood
Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)
52 fisheries certified:■ North Sea herring■ Australian mackerel■ Oregon Pink Shrimp■ Baja California red rock lobster
MSC / Marine Photobank
Consumer-based solutions
www.blueocean.org/fishphone.index.html
Purchase of fishing rights
Governments may buy out willing fishing permit holders to reduce fishing effort
NOAA Fisheries - Robert Brigham
Aquaculture
Fish farming has the potential to reduce the pressure on wild-caught fish
Farmed organisms that do not consume fish meal are most sustainable
NOAA Photo Library – Courtesy of UNFAO, Danilo Cedrone
Increased use and marketing of underutilized species
• Silver hake = “whiting”
• Slimeheads = “orange roughy”• Patagonian toothfish = “Chilean sea bass”
• Deep sea angler = “monkfish”
Sascha Regmann / Project Blue Sea / Marine Photobank (top image)
© Gavin Parsons / www.gavinparsons.co.uk / Marine Photobank (bottom image)
Reduce government subsidies
Reduction and eventual elimination of government subsidies allows price to be
a more reliable indicator of scarcity.
Ecosystem-based Fishery Management
Attempts to sustain healthy marine ecosystems and the fisheries they support
• Reduce bycatch• Marine reserves• Catch share programs• Ecologically sustainable yield
Reduce bycatchTurtle excluder device on shrimp boat in Gulf of Mexico
NOAA Photo Library / William B. Folsom, NMFS
Marine Reserves
Extractive activities (fishing, mining, oil drilling) are prohibited in marine reserves
Catch Share Programs Limited Access Privilege Programs – LAPPs
Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs) can be
bought and sold
UNFAO / NOAA Photo Library / Jose Cort
Bluefin tuna harvest in Spain
The Future of Marine Fisheries
“An ecosystem-based approach is founded on the notion that robust fisheries depend onhealthy marine ecosystems…… Ideally, ecosystem-based fishery management would shift the burden of proof that fishing would not take place unless it could be shown not to harm key components of the ecosystem.”
Pikitch, et al. 2004
NOAA Photo Library / Passage Productions
COMPASS, E. Neeley
Some good news for a change?