gravity methods gravity is not a “constant” 9.78 m/s 2 responds to local changes in rock density...
TRANSCRIPT
Gravity Methods
• Gravity is not a “constant” 9.78 m/s2
• Responds to local changes in rock density
• Widely used in oil and gas, mineral exploration, engineering site surveys
• “Natural source” – only measure an existing field
• Major difficulty is extreme weakness of field variations (one part in 100 million)
• Variations in elevation and latitude are much greater, requires correction, and detailed surveying and levelling
• Gravity from ships, aircraft are much more difficult (expensive)
Gravitational theory
Newton’s law:
In terms of vectors:
Universal gravitational constant:
Gravitational theory
Force:
Acceleration (=f/m):
For the earth:
This is non-uniform, because:
• the shape of the earth is ellipsoidal, oblate
• the earth rotates
• topography is irregular
• there are internal variations in density
Gravitational potential“Potential” – equivalent to “work done”
What is the work done (per unit mass) in moving an object in from an infinite distance?
Gravity fields are “conservative” – work done is path independent
Integrating force x distance:
(2.5)
Gravitational potential
“Equipotential surface” – a surface over which the potential is a constant (e.g., surface of a fluid, earth’s oceans)
If
then the potential starts at zero, and decreases to negative infinity at the centre of the earth.
Exercise: Sketch the gravitational potential predicted using equation (2.5) as a function of distance, r. What is wrong with the prediction? (Hint: so far we have not considered anything other than point masses). Sketch a more accurate potential function for a solid earth. (Hint: see the next slide …)
Gravitational potential
How do we get gravitational acceleration from potential?
Answer: Gravity is the spatial derivative of potential
• first spatial derivative in any direction gives the component of gravity in that direction
• in mathematical language, g is the gradient of U, or
Use the equation for the gradient (2.6) and the formula for the potential (2.5) to rederive the formula for gravitational acceleration. (Hint: make use of the symmetry of the system!)
Gravitational potential
Gravity is always perpendicular to equipotential surfaces
(this is mathematically true)
Local variations in density:
• outside a perfect sphere, gravity effect is exactly that of a “point mass”
• gravity varies, in part, due to variations in density
If there is an excess of mass (increase in density) under the ocean, will this cause the equipotential surface to move A: down toward the centre of the earth, or B: up, away from the centre of the earth? Sketch the equipotential surface. Work out a reasoned argument for your answer. Add arrows to your sketch showing the local gravity vectors. Do these point slightly toward the density anomaly or slightly away from the anomaly? (Hint: make use of )
Geoid, spheroid – equipotential surfaces
Geoid: the actual equipotential surface of the earth (mean sea level)
• on continents, think of imaginary canels connected to the oceans
• responds to rotation, shape of the earth, and responds to density variations
Reference spheroid: a mathematical surface for a perfect, rotating, spheroidal earth
• takes into account radial variations in density, flattening, centrifugal effects
• accepted international formula is:
Geoid
Geoid
Geoid
Geoid, spheroid
Geoid, spheroid
Geoid, spheroid
Units used in gravity prospecting
Acceleration [m/s2] Geophysical prospecting 1 gal = 1 cm/s2= 10−2 m/s2
cgs units: 1 mgal = 10−3gals = 10−5 m/s2
SI units: 1 gu = 10−6 m/s2 (a “gravity unit”)Conversion: 1 mgal = 10 gu.Earth gravity field: ( approximately) ≈ 10 m / s2 = 1000 gals
= 106 mgals = 107 gu
Variation: Over the whole surface of the earth the gravity field varies by about 7,000 mgals Local effects: Due to local density changes alone, the variation is of the order of 10 mgalsSensitivity/accuracy: In order to make useful measurements, typical gravimeters need to detect changes in gravity of the order of 0.01 mgals (.1 gu). The absolute accuracy of a typical gravimeter is only about 0.1 mgal.
Therefore
Next lecture: Instruments used in gravity prospecting
Fundamental design of almost all gravity instruments uses a mass on a spring:
A change in gravity should cause a changein length given by
The problem with systems of this nature is they are natural oscillators
• restoring force overcompensates, mass overshoots equilibrium point
• solution is a system with no effective restoring force, an “unstable gravimeter”
• such a system has inherent periodicity, and mechanical instability