green approach to treat institutional …
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GREEN APPROACH TO TREAT INSTITUTIONAL WASTEWATER BY
USING CASSAVA PEELS STARCH (CPS) AS COAGULANT AID
VICKY KUMAR
A project report submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Master of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
SEPTEMBER 2018
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2DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this thesis to
“ALMIGHTY ”
(Who gave me strength, knowledge, patience, and wisdom)
to my beloved “Parents”
(Their love, devotion, cares, sacrifices, and prayers helped me to achieve this dream)
to my caring “Brother and Sisters and Sister in law”
(Their continuous support, encouragement, and efforts)
to my Niece “HEER” and Nephew “YASH”
(Their cutest acts relax me every time)
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3ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I am much more thankful of Allah SWT, for HIS special blessing over me.
HE always blessed me very well, although if I spend my life only for thanking of HIS
blessing still it is very less effort to be thankful for HIS blessing. All my achievements
are become in my way only because of HIM.
I would like thanks UTHM for giving me such a prestige opportunity to take
my master degree in this institute, which is a very important step in my professional
career.
My special and sincere thanks to my supervisor “Associate Professor Dr.
Norzila Binti Othman”, for her trust in me and I am also thankful for her social,
technical encouragement, guidance and recommendations. Without her continuous
motivation, this study would not have been the same as presented here. I would like to
thanks my Co-Supervisor Associate Professor Ir. Dr. Mohd. Fadhil Bin Md Din
(UTM) for his moral support.
I am also very much thankful to colleague mate “Syazwani Mohd Asharuddin”
to guide and assist me throughout my master journey especially for help and support
in all aspects.
Finally, I express my very profound gratitude to my parents for their sacrifices
and prayers, I take this opportunity to extend my heartfelt thanks to my brother Assoc.
Prof. Dr. Bhagwandas and to my sister “Engr. Sonia Lohana” for their support and
continuous encouragement throughout my years of study. This accomplishment would
not have been possible without them.
I’m thankful to all lecturers, academic staff and non-academic staff of
Universiti Tunn Hussein Onn Malaysia for all continuous support during my journey.
Last but not the least; I am thankful to my friends, for their positive attitude,
support, and encouragement.
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4ABSTRACT
The quality of water is superior for the stability of the ecosystem. Institutional
wastewater contains pollutants and exceed the level of contaminants beyond standards.
Applications of natural coagulants are widely in practice due to abundant source, low
price, environment-friendly and rapid biodegradable as compared to inorganic based
coagulants. This study traces the potential removal of pollutants from institutional
wastewater by coagulation-flocculation processes. Alum as primary coagulant and
CPS as coagulant aid was used for removal of pollutants. A series of batch experiments
were performed to study the removal mechanism to achieve optimum pH, dosage, and
settling time, to premeditated institutional wastewater removal efficiency (%) of COD,
TSS & Turbidity. Institutional wastewater physicochemical characteristics were
analyzed by pH, temperature, turbidity, COD, TSS, BOD, Characteristics of CPS were
characterized by SEM-EDX, FTIR, XRF, XRD, particle size and zeta potential.
Removal efficiency of dual coagulant (alum+CPS) were achieved at optimum dosage
of 40:60 mg/L at pH 8 with 60 mins settling time with removal efficiency of COD
(41%), TSS (86%) and Turbidity (91%). Selected parameters study showed a
significant reduction (P<0.05) for wastewater treatment. After coagulation and
flocculation process, produced sludge was further characterized with SEM-EDX,
FTIR and Zeta potential. However, zeta potential results revealed that stability of
alum+CPS at pH 8 were proven in removal efficiency and mechanism study. Due to
high removal achieved in the reduction of pollutants, therefore, the CPS as coagulant
aid has potential for the treatment of institutional wastewater.
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5ABSTRAK
Air bersih adalah penting dalam menstabilkan persekitaran ekosistem. Lazimnya air
sisa perbandaran mengandungi bahan cemar dengan kepekatannya melebihi paras
piawaian pencemaran. Aplikasi koagulan semulajadi dipraktikkan dengan meluas
disebabkan sumber yang banyak, harga rendah, mesra alam dan terbiodegradasi
dengan cepat berbanding dengan koagulan tidak organik. Kajian ini dijalankan bagi
mengenalpasti potensi penyingkiran bahan pencemaran dari air sisa perbandaran
melalui proses pembekuan dan pemberbukuan. Alum sebagai bahan pengental utama
dan CPS sebagai bahan pengental bio bantuan telah digunakan untuk menyingkirkan
bahan pencemar. Satu siri kajian telah dijalankan untuk mempelajari mekanisma
penyingkiran untuk mencapai pH optimum, dos dan masa pengenapan, bagi
merancang kecekapan penyingkiran air sisa, dalam parameter COD, TSS dan
kekeruhan. Pencirian kimia fizikal air sisa perbandaran dianalisis berdasarkan
pH, suhu, kekeruhan, COD, TSS, BOD5, Pencirian bahan pengental CPS bio dicirikan
dengan SEM-EDX, FTIR, XRF, XRD, saiz zarah dan potensi zeta. Kecekapan
penyingkiran bahan pengental ganda (alum+CPS) dicapai pada nisbah optimum 40:60
mg/L pada pH8 selama 60 minit masa pengenapan dengan kecekapan penyingkiran
COD (41%), TSS (86%) dan Kekeruhan (91%). Parameter kajian yang dipilih
menunjukkan pengurangan yang ketara (p<0.05) untuk rawatan air sisa. Selepas proses
pembekuan dan pemberbukuan, enapcemar yang terhasil dicirikan lagi dengan SEM-
EDX, FTIR dan potensi zeta. Walau bagaimanapun, keputusan potensi zeta
menunjukkan bahawa zon yang stabil untuk alum+CPS adalah pada pH 8 dimana
keadaan pH ini memainkan peranan penting dalam kajian berkaitan kecekapan
penyingkiran dan mekanisme penyingkiran pencemar. Peningkatan peratus
penyingkiran dengan penggunaan bahan pengental bio menunjukkan kebolehan CPS
untuk digunakan dalam perawatan air sisa perbandaran.
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6CONTENTS
TITLE I
DECLARATION II
DEDICATION III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IVV
ABSTRACT V
ABSTRAK VI
CONTENTS VII
LIST OF TABLES XIV
LIST OF FIGURES XVI
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS XIX
LIST OF APPENDICES XX
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem statement 3
1.3 Research objectives 5
1.4 Research scope 5
1.5 Significance of study 6
1.6 Layout of thesis 7
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Institutional wastewater in Malaysia 10
2.3 Institutional wastewater composition 11
2.4 Impact of wastewater on the environment 13
2.5 Wastewater standard guideline 13
2.6 Physical characteristics of wastewater 15
2.6.1 Total suspended solids (TSS) 15
2.6.2 Turbidity 16
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2.6.3 Temperature 17
2.7 Chemical characteristics of wastewater 17
2.7.1 pH 18
2.7.2 Dissolved oxygen (DO) 18
2.7.3 Biological oxygen demand (BOD) 19
2.7.4 Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 20
2.8 Coagulation and flocculation 21
2.9 Coagulants 27
2.9.1 Primary coagulants 28
2.9.2 Chemical coagulant 28
2.9.3 Inorganic coagulants 29
2.9.4 Organic coagulants 30
2.10 Coagulant aids 31
2.10.1 Natural coagulant 32
2.10.2 Chitosan 32
2.10.3 Algae 33
2.10.4 Actinobacteria 33
2.11 Plant-based coagulants 34
2.11.1 Tannins 34
2.11.2 Cactus 35
2.11.3 Plant seed extracts 36
2.11.4 Moringa oleifera 36
2.12 Cassava starch 37
2.12.1 Production and utilization of cassava in
Malaysia 38
2.12.2 Nutrient composition of cassava 39
2.12.3 General morphology of cassava 40
2.12.4 The composition of the CPS layers 40
2.12.5 Starch 41
2.12.6 Structure of amylose and amylopectin 42
2.13 Factors affecting coagulation 43
2.13.1 Coagulation dose 43
2.13.2 pH 44
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2.13.3 Settling time 46
2.13.4 Mixing 46
2.13.5 Colloidal concentration 48
2.14 Mechanism of coagulation 48
2.14.1 Charge neutralization 49
2.14.2 Bridging mechanism 50
2.14.3 Sweep-floc/ colloid entrapment mechanism 52
2.14.4 Charge Density 52
2.14.5 Flocculation mechanisms 53
2.14.6 Adsorption 53
2.14.6.1 Physisorption 54
2.14.6.2 Chemisorption 54
2.14.7 Double layer compression 55
2.14.8 Type of Polymer 56
2.14.8.1 Non-ionic polyelectrolytes 56
2.14.8.2 Anionic polyelectrolytes 56
2.14.8.3 Cationic polyelectrolytes 56
2.15 Waste to wealth: Conversion of an agriculture
waste to produce bio coagulant 57
2.16 A literature review of the cassava usage in water
treatment studies 58
2.17 Use of Natural coagulants for wastewater
treatment and their respective applications for
removal of pollutants from wastewater 60
2.18 Concluding remarks 63
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 65
3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Overview of study 65
3.3 Study area 67
3.4 Institutional wastewater sampling and
preservation 68
3.4.1 In-situ analysis 68
3.4.2 Laboratory analysis 68
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3.5 Institutional wastewater parameters
characterization 69
3.6 Bio coagulant formation from agriculture waste 69
3.7 Preparation of CPS as a coagulant aid 70
3.7.1 Collection process of cassava peels 70
3.7.2 Cleaning of cassava peels 70
3.7.3 Filtration process 71
3.8 Characterization of CPS 72
3.9 Instrumental analysis of the alum, CPS and
alum+CPS 73
3.9.1 SEM-EDX analysis 73
3.9.2 Energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) analysis 74
3.9.3 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis 74
3.9.4 FTIR analysis 74
3.9.5 XRD analysis 75
3.9.6 Particle size analyzer 75
3.9.7 Moisture content 75
3.9.8 Zeta potential and IEP analysis 76
3.9.8.1 Zeta potential measurement 76
3.10 Preparation of alum stock solution 77
3.11 Preparation of cassava peel starch (CPS) stock
solution 78
3.12 Preparation of alum+CPS stock solution 78
3.13 Coagulation and flocculation test 79
3.14 Jar Testing 82
3.15 Coagulant and alum dosage optimization by Jar
Test 82
3.16 Study on the effect on coagulation and
flocculation 83
3.17 Statistical analysis 84
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 85
4.1 Introduction 85
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4.2 Characterization of institutional wastewater 85
4.3 Characterization of alum and CPS (CPS) 89
4.3.1 Surface morphology and elemental mapping
of alum 89
4.3.2 Surface morphology and elemental mapping
of CPS 91
4.3.3 Chemical functional group analysis for alum
using FTIR 94
4.3.4 Chemical functional group analysis for CPS
using FTIR 96
4.3.5 Crystalline structure analysis of alum using
XRD 97
4.3.6 Crystalline structure analysis of CPS using
XRD 99
4.3.7 Chemical composition analysis of alum using
XRF 100
4.3.8 Chemical composition analysis of CPS using
XRF 101
4.3.9 Particle size analysis of alum 102
4.3.10 The particle size of CPS 103
4.3.11 Moisture content 104
4.4 Effect of pH, dosage and settling time on
coagulation and flocculation 105
4.4.1 Effect of pH on the reduction of TSS, COD,
Turbidity by using Alum, CPS, and
alum+CPS dosage 106
4.4.1.1 Effect of pH on the reduction of
TSS, COD, Turbidity using single
alum 106
4.4.1.2 Effect of pH on the reduction of
TSS, COD, Turbidity using single
CPS 108
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4.4.1.3 Effect of pH on the reduction of
TSS, COD and Turbidity using
dual alum+CPS 109
4.4.2 Effect of dosage on the reduction of TSS,
COD and Turbidity using alum, CPS and
alum+CPS 111
4.4.2.1 Effect of single alum dosage
on the reduction of TSS, COD, & Turbidity 111
4.4.2.2 Effect of single CPS dosage on
reduction TSS, COD, Turbidity 112
4.4.2.3 Effect of dual alum+CPS dosage
on the reduction of TSS, COD and Turbidity 114
4.4.3 Effect of settling time on reduction of TSS,
COD, Turbidity by using alum, CPS, and
alum+CPS dosage 116
4.4.3.1 Effect of settling time on reduction
of TSS, COD, Turbidity using single alum 116
4.4.3.2 Effect of settling time on reduction
of TSS, COD, Turbidity using single CPS 117
4.4.3.3 Effect of settling time on reduction
of TSS, COD, Turbidity using dual
alum+CPS 119
4.5 Chemical functional group analysis after
coagulation and flocculation process using FTIR 121
4.5.1 Chemical functional group analysis of alum
flocs from optimum pH, dosage and settling
time using FTIR 121
4.5.2 Chemical functional group analysis of CPS
flocs from optimum pH, dosage and settling
time using FTIR 123
4.5.3 Chemical functional group analysis of
alum+CPS flocs from optimum pH, dosage
and settling time using FTIR 124
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4.6 Characterization of Floc using SEM-EDX at
optimum alum, cps, and alum + CPS after jar test 125
4.6.1 Surface morphology of alum flocs after jar
test using SEM 125
4.6.2 Surface Morphology of CPS flocs after jar
test using SEM 127
4.6.3 Surface morphology of alum+CPS flocs
after jar test using SEM 130
4.7 Zeta Potential after coagulation 132
4.7.1 Surface particle charge of alum at a fixed
optimum dosage at various pH 134
4.7.2 Zeta potential of CPS at a fixed optimum
dosage at various pH 135
4.7.3 Zeta potential of alum+ CPS at a fixed
optimum dosage at various pH 136
4.7.4 Zeta potential of alum, CPS and alum+CPS
dosages at fixed pH 137
4.8 Summary 139
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 141
5.1 Introduction 141
5.2 Conclusion 141
5.3 Recommendations 143
REFERENCES 145
APPENDICES 177
VITA 204
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7LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Constituents present in institutional wastewater 12
2.2 Direct and indirect sources of water pollution 13
2.3 Environment Quality (Sewerage and Industrial Effluents)
Regulations, 2009 (Environment Quality Act 1974 14
2.4 Typical Characteristic of Untreated Institutional Wastewater 15
2.5 Various natural coagulants used for wastewater treatment 24
2.6 Inorganic coagulants characteristics 27
2.7 Commonly used chemical coagulants in wastewater treatment 28
2.8 Benefits and drawbacks of inorganic coagulants usage 29
2.9 Inorganic coagulants 30
2.10 Organic coagulants 31
2.11 Average composition of the cassava (%) 40
2.12 Composition of cassava starch peels (CPS) 40
2.13 Cassava starch peels extraction based on flesh, periderm, and
cortex 41
2.14 Various natural coagulants used for wastewater treatment 62
3.1 Institutional wastewater parameters characterization standard
methods 69
3.2 Alum + CPS stock preparation ratio 80
3.3 Jar test working condition 81
4.1 Institutional wastewater characterization 87
4.2 Elemental composition of alum 91
4.3 Elemental composition of CPS 94
4.4 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra peak frequencies and
corresponding functional groups of alum powder 95
4.5 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra peak frequencies and
corresponding functional groups of CPS (CPS) 96
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4.6 Elemental composition of alum 101
4.7 Chemical composition analysis of CPS 101
4.8 Moisture content determination 105
4.9 Jar test optimization conditions 106
4.10 Alum+CPS dosage distribution based on ratio 115
4.11 FTIR spectra peak frequencies and corresponding functional
groups of alum after jar test 122
4.12 FTIR wavelength difference before and after treatment alum
dosage 122
4.13 FTIR spectra peak frequencies and corresponding functional
groups of cps after jar test 123
4.14 FTIR wavelength difference before and after treatment CPS
dosage 123
4.15 FTIR spectra peak frequencies and corresponding functional
groups of alum+cps after jar test 125
4.16 Elemental composition of alum Flocs 127
4.17 Elemental composition of CPS flocs 129
4.18 Elemental composition of alum +CPS flocs 132
4.19 Zeta potential before and after coagulation 133
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8LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 Organic and inorganic particles of all sizes in suspended solids
concentration 16
2.3 Wastewater treatment with coagulation and flocculation process 23
2.6 Structure of cassava peels 38
2.7 Basic structure and chemical arrangement of amylose and
amylopectin 43
2.4 Schematic illustration of a charge neutralization flocculation
mechanism between negatively charged particles and a cationic
polymer 50
2.5 (a) Adsorption of polymer and formation of loops available for
binding (b) Polymer bridging between particles (c) Restabilization
of colloid particles 51
3. 1 Methodology flow chart 66
3.2 Institutional wastewater treatment plant (Source: Google map) 67
3.3 Discharge point of institutional wastewater 67
3.4 (a) Agriculture waste produced by factory collected in polythene
bags (b) Raw cassava peels obtained after separation process
(c) Native cassava starch as bio coagulant powder 70
3.5 Cassava peel preparation process as bio coagulant 71
3.6 Cassava peels characterization 72
3.7 Accessory use to produce pressed pellet 74
3.8 Experimental conditions of the optimization study 84
4.1 Morphology image of aluminium sulfate powder (500X) 90
4.2 (a) Element mapping of alum, (b) C; (c) H; (d) O; (e) Al;
(f) S; at 50µm (500X) 90
4.3 EDS Spectra of alum 91
4.4 Morphology image of CPS (750X) 92
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4.5 Elemental chemical maps obtained by SEM: (b) H; (c) C; (d) O;
(e) F; (f) Al; (g) Si; (h) P; (i) Fe; at 30µm (750X) 93
4.6 EDX spectrum of native CPS 94
4.7 FTIR spectra of alum powder 96
4.8 FTIR spectra of CPS 97
4.9 X-Ray diffraction (XRD) of alum 99
4.10 X-Ray diffraction (XRD) of CPS 100
4.11 Particle size of alum sample 103
4.12 Particle size of CPS sample 104
4.13 Effect of pH on the reduction of TSS, COD, Turbidity using
single ALUM 107
4.14 Effect of pH on the reduction of TSS, COD, Turbidity using
single CPS 109
4.15 Effect of pH on the reduction of TSS, COD, Turbidity using dual
alum+CPS (50:50) 110
4.16 Effect of single alum dosage on the reduction of TSS, COD,
Turbidity 112
4.17 Effect of single CPS dosage on the reduction of TSS, COD,
Turbidity 113
4.18 Effect of dual alum+CPS dosage on the reduction of TSS, COD,
Turbidity 115
4.19 Effect of settling time on reduction of TSS, COD, Turbidity by
using single alum 117
4.20 Effect of settling time on reduction of TSS, COD, Turbidity
using single CPS 119
4.21 Effect of settling time on reduction of TSS, COD, Turbidity
using dual alum+CPS 121
4.22 FTIR spectra of alum flocs after jar test optimization 122
4.23 FTIR spectra of cps after jar test optimization 124
4.24 FTIR spectra of alum+cps after jar test optimization 125
4.25 Surface morphology of alum flocs (500X) 126
4.26 EDX spectrum of alum floc 127
4.27 Surface morphology CPS flocs (500X) 128
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4.28 Elemental composition of CPS flocs 129
4.29 Surface morphology of alum+CPS flocs (500X) 130
4.30 Elemental composition of alum+CPS flocs 131
4.31 Zeta potential at fixed alum dosage at various pH 135
4.32 Zeta potential at fixed CPS dosage at various pH 136
4.33 Zeta potential at a fixed alum+CPS dosage at various pH 137
4.34 Zeta potential at fixed pH and various dosages alum 138
4.35 Zeta potential at fixed pH and various dosages of CPS 138
4.36 Zeta potential at fixed pH and various dosages of alum+CPS 139
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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Avg Average
Cl Chlorine
cm
CPS
Centimeter
CPS
EDX Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy
kg Kilogram
L/l Length
mg Milligram
MgO Magnesium Oxide
mm Millimeter
O Oxygen
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy
T Temperature (°C)
XRD X-ray Diffraction
XRF X-ray Fluorescence
UTHM Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
BOD5 Biological Oxygen Demand at 5 day
µm Micrometer
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
TOC Total Organic Carbon
mg/L milligram per liter
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
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9LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Institutional wastewater characterization 177
B Effect of pH on reduction of cod, tss and turbidity using
alum, cps and alum+cps 178
C Effect of dosage on reduction of cod, tss and turbidity using
alum, cps and alum+cps 180
D Effect of settling time on reduction of cod, tss and turbidity
using alum, cps and alum+CPS 182
E Oneway alum turbidity TSS, COD by ph, Dosage, Settling
time/statistics descriptives homogeneity /missing analysis
/posthoc =tukey alpha(0.05). 184
F Oneway CPS turbidity tss cod by ph, Dosage, Settling
time/statistics descriptives homogeneity /missing analysis/
posthoc=tukey alpha(0.05). 190
G Oneway alum+CPS turbidity tss cod by ph, Dosage,
Settling time/statistics descriptives homogeneity /missing
analysis /posthoc =tukey alpha(0.05). 194
H Equipemtns and analyzers list 200
(i) List of all equipment used in this study 200
(ii) List of analyzers used in this study 201
(iii) Apparatus listing used in this study 203
(iv) Flocs formation and sludge production 203
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10CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Wastewater can be an important water resource, but its use must be carefully planned,
treated and regulated to prevent adverse health effects due to contamination of
environment. Water plays a substantial role in supporting and maintaining human
health and sustainable ecosystem development, population growth, urbanization,
industrialization and consumption patterns change has generated ever-increasing
demands for freshwater resources worldwide (Bagatin et al., 2014; UNESCO, 2015).
Over the past several decades, ever-growing demands and misuse of water
resources have caused severe water stress as well as the risks of water contamination
in many parts of the country (Theodoro et al., 2013). Thus, current misuse of water is
increasing issues related to growing population, living standards, climate change, and
urbanization, activities has departed clean water resources worldwide (Choy et al.,
2014). Nearly 1.6 million people are constrained to use contaminated water and more
than a million people die from diarrhea every year due to water-borne diseases
especially in developing countries (Sowmeyan et al., 2011). By 2030, the world is
projected to face a 40% global water deficit under the business-as-usual scenario
(Zhang et al., 2017). Asia and the Pacific area have lower renewable water resources
per capita than the global average, as the population grows, more water will be required
for socio-economic activities (UNESCAP, 2013).
Institutional wastewater is treated is to eliminate solid matter in the form of
organic before remaining water to be discharged back to the environment (Srinivas,
2008). The treatment process must be capable to perform basic wastewater handling.
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As population and trade grew to their aptitude size, increased degrees of treatment
before discharging institutional wastewater became necessary. The supply of clean
water is an essential responsibility to support consumers daily needs that aim to help
in lowering health incidence and decrease skin diseases, eye infections, as well as
worm infections if water is supplied with recommended standard (Prüss & Neira
2016). Adequate institutional wastewater treatment and sanitation are essential to
remove turbidity, impurities which can be overcome through the process of
coagulation and flocculation (Lee, Robinson & Chong, 2014).
These processes of coagulation and flocculation are elements of total
clarification system used in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). Hence, it is
necessary to optimize the process and the coagulant used that are essential to produce
clean water that meets the stringent water quality standards. Coagulation and
flocculation have been practiced broadly in water and wastewater treatment for the
removal of particulate and dissolved materials (Duan & Gregory, 2003).
The suspended particles vary considerably in the source, composition charge, particle
size, shape, and density. Correct application of coagulation and flocculation processes
and selection of the coagulants depend upon understanding the interaction between
these factors (JarPrakash, Sockan & Jayakaran 2014). Coagulation and flocculation
occur in successive steps intended to overcome the forces stabilizing the suspended
particles, allowing particle collision and growth of flocs (Saritha & Vuppala, 2011).
Aluminium salts such as aluminium sulfate and poly aluminium chloride are
the most prominent. However, a large dosage of aluminium in treated water has raised
concern over the large amount of sludge production, required more cost in marinating
plant operations. However, presence of high amount of dosage causes health effect due
to prolonged exposure to aluminium in wastewater which can result in Alzheimer
diseases, skin diseases (Tomljenovic, 2011). One of the main causes of waterborne
diseases is the improper treatment of wastewater.
Therefore, being focused on the alternative coagulants such as plant-based
natural coagulants. Apparently, plant-based coagulants as coagulant aid are cost-
effective, highly biodegradable, non-toxic, non-corrosive and unlikely to produce
water with extreme pH (Oladoja, 2015). In order to minimize the exposure of
prolonged problems that causes and required more cost and efforts in maintaining
plants natural coagulants played a vital role for partial replacement of organic based
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coagulant such as alum. Therefore, dual coagulant played an important role to
overcome these problems. Thus, these facts make them a promising alternative
towards reducing alum dosage during wastewater treatment.
1.2 Problem statement
In order to understand wastewater treatment, it is important to know the various
components that challenge wastewater treatment processes and pollutants. The main
composition of institutional wastewater is the number of organic pollutants load that
makes wastewater beyond its limits. Institutional wastewater is the consumed water
instigating from all aspects of human activities. It typically constitutes a combination
of flows from the kitchen, bathroom, and laundry, encompassing laboratories, toilets,
baths, kitchen sinks, garbage grinders, dishwashers, washing machines, and water
softeners. Institutional wastewater, as the name implies, principally originates in
residences and is also referred to as sanitary sewage. Wastewater management
facilities produce sludge; it’s the product of pulling all of the waste out of our water
supply. Unfortunately, producing this sludge also means cleaning it up, which means
there’s a huge footprint left on the environment, maintenance cost and continues check
and balance required. Currently, Challenges on wastewater treatment are diversified
and differ depending not only on legislations for effluent control but also on regional
characteristics and socio-economic conditions. Hence, there is a difficult in identifying
a common challenge applicable to all situations. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that
implementation of a cost-effective and high-performance wastewater treatment system
is of importance.
Nowadays common practices for wastewater treatment including examination
of wastewater treatment plants reveals that almost all types of processes are being used.
These include (1) simple and low-cost processes (sedimentation, stabilization ponds
and aerated lagoons) that required enough area to install facilities, (2) high cost,
secondary treatment processes (activated sludge, trickling filters), and (3) the high cost
advanced treatment processes (nitrification, denitrification, gravity media filtration,
chemical clarification, activated carbon adsorption, reverse osmosis, etc, that required
chemicals). However, coagulation and flocculation is process and can be install
anywhere without any special needs.
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A very important step in water and in wastewater treatment is the coagulation
flocculation process, which is widely used, due to its simplicity and cost-effectiveness.
Regardless of the nature of the treated sample (e.g. various types of water or
wastewater) and the overall applied treatment scheme, coagulation-flocculation is
usually included, either as pre-, or as post-treatment step. The efficiency of
coagulation-flocculation strongly affects the overall treatment performance; hence, the
increase of the efficiency of coagulation stage seems to be a key factor for the
improvement of the overall treatment efficiency. The main reason for the higher
efficiency of organic polymers is their higher molecular weight (MW), which implies
better flocculation properties. Thus, the increase of molecular weight and size of the
pre-polymerized coagulants is thought to be the way for further improvement. The
general concept followed is, the introduction of various additives in the structure of a
pre-polymerized coagulant, in order to produce a homogenous, stable product with
higher MW and improved coagulation-flocculation performance, than the initial
reagent. The challenge to confront is the desirable combination of higher efficiency
and cost-effectiveness, which are the basic prerequisites for the development of new
products. Various additives were examined, which can be classified into two main
categories; inorganic and organic.
Chemical coagulants having harmful effects on human health. Even though
chemicals used in treating turbid water is a lack of superiority in footings of green
chemistry. It was reported through the scrutiny that there are adverse effects of
aluminium presence in drinking water that causes Alzheimer’s and related diseases.
Therefore, the amount of residual aluminium in treated water should be
controlled. Due to the presence of aluminium content, such process of treatment
creates disposal problems that affect the environment due to the large volume of
sludge. Thus, it is necessary to develop an environment-friendly and acceptable
alternative coagulant that can enhance if not replaced alum, ferric salts and artificial.
In this background, natural coagulants are apparent to be very practicable for emerging
countries.
Presently, alternative natural coagulants are highly demanded rather than
artificial, natural coagulants can be from renewable resources, and that are safe for
human health. However, in few cases it becomes necessary to purify the natural
coagulant as aid using extraction, modification, and engineering techniques to modify
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native properties of natural coagulants to enhance treatment process. Natural
coagulants are available at low price, ample in the source, biotransformation/
bioremediation and multipurpose.
Major concerns to use these by-products is conversion into adsorption material
to remove toxic and valuable metals, ultimately producers would get benefits and their
market value become high. Cassava peels contain a high amount of cyanogenic
glucosides that makes pulp unsuitable as animal fodder. Natural coagulants contain the
higher molecular weight of carbohydrates, proteins, and polysaccharides per unit area
than other primary food crops under climatic conditions. Landfilling has widely
adopted disposal method in Malaysia, as composting and recycling is not yet in
practice.
However, to my best knowledge, there is no literature that can describe the
abilities of CPS in treating wastewater. Therefore, this study is carried out to use the
green approach (cassava peels starch) as it is profusely available, cheaper and
renewable pioneer to produce coagulant that can treat wastewater. In the contemporary
study, coagulation-flocculation before and after in terms of test is conducted using CPS
to improve wastewater quality.
1.3 Research objectives
i. Characterization of institutional wastewater.
ii. To characterize the physical and chemical composition of cassava peel starch
(CPS) as coagulant aid.
iii. To determine the effect of alum, CPS and alum+CPS by varying pH, dosage
and settling time during batch study, for removal efficiency of turbidity, TSS,
and COD.
iv. To determine the mechanism of coagulation and flocculation based on
examination of CPS as coagulant aid characterization.
1.4 Research scope
The main focus of this research is the potential of the coagulant namely cassava peel
starch (CPS) to function like other conventional coagulants such as alum and iron
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