Groundwater in AsiaGroundwater in Asia ‐ challenges and opportunities ‐

Yatsuka KataokaYatsuka Kataoka

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)

Pre‐workshop of APWF Regional Knowledghub forPre workshop of APWF Regional Knowledghub for Groundwater Management

1 June 2011

What is IGES?What is IGES?

A strategic policy research institute established in March 1998, with the support of the Japanese Government

Headquarters: Hayama, Kanagawa Japan

3 branch offices in Japan (Tokyo, Kobe, and Kitakyusyu)

2 branch offices outside of Japan: Bangkok and Beijing

Staff number: about 100 (including ( gadministrative staff)

2

Our MissionOur Mission

• The mission of IGES is to propose policies p p pand institutional frameworks that aim to create a new type of environmentally sound and socially equitable society. 

S f k• Scope of work: Sustainable development issues in the Asia Pacific a region experiencingin the Asia‐Pacific, a region experiencing rapid growth in industrial activity and population, with serious implications for p p , pthe future global environment. 

3

Research Groups

Forest  Conservation FreshwaterSustainable 

Consumption and Production

Adaptation

Business and EnvironmentClimate Policy

Governance & CapacityEconomy & Environment

Cross‐cutting Issues (Project M Offi )

Market MechanismCapacity Economy & Environment Management Office)(CDM)

4

IGES Groundwater Study

1. Sustainable Water Management Policy Study  (SWMP)• Started in 2005• Started in 2005

1st phase (April 2005 – March 2007), focus on quantity2nd phase (April 2007 – March 2010) focus on quality2 phase (April 2007 – March 2010), focus on quality

• Geographical focus: urban areas, Asia• Methodology: Case studies on overall groundwater• Methodology: Case studies on overall groundwater management issues (6 cities in 5 countries* & Japanese cases)

* China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam

2. Quick Study of Water Resources Management in Mewat District, India  (2010) , ( )

3. Field study of arsenic contamination in Cambodia (2010)

Research Network of IGES for Groundwater Studies (example of SWMP study)(example of SWMP study)

Asia Pacific Water Knowledge Hub on GroundwaterAsia‐Pacific Water Knowledge Hub on Groundwater

IGES is a member of the Water Knowledge Hub Network for Asia‐Pacific Water Forum (APWF), being in charge of groundwater management.  Extensive comparative studies on groundwater management would start underExtensive comparative studies on groundwater management would start under the hub in the near future. 

Water Knowledge Hub Network:‐ Officially launched in June 2008‐ Network of hub‐organisations on specific areasNetwork of hub organisations on specific areas such as flood management, water quality, basin management, etc.

‐ The hubs shall collaborate to generate and share e ubs s a co abo ate to ge e ate a d s a eknowledge and develop capacity.

‐ Each hub‐organisation is expected to be a center of excellence committed to improving water security p g yin the Asia‐Pacific region by promoting knowledge sharing and championing feasible solutions for its priority water topic. 

Approved knowledge‐hub organizations

Today’s ContentsToday s Contents

• Overview of Groundwater Use in the world• Overview of Groundwater Use in the world

• Characteristics of Groundwater• Characteristics of Groundwater‐ general characteristics of groundwater‐ the importance of groundwater for the developmentp g p

• Groundwater Use and Management in Japang p(Osaka’s case)

• Groundwater Use and Management in Asian Cities

• Future challenges and action areas

Water is Finite ResourcesWater is Finite Resources

We depend on less than 3 % of global freshwater.

3%

Freshwater

p gWater demand has been rapidly increased since mid‐

1950s in the world, especially in Asia. 

97%

Salt Water

Rivers/Lakes( )

Groundwater

(0.3%)

Glaciers and 

(29.9%)

Permanent Ice Cap

(69.8%)

9UNEP Vital Water Graphics (http://www.unep.org/dewa/vitalwater/article42.html)

General characteristics of groundwaterg

Convenient to useConvenient to use

‐ high accessibility ‐ lower cost of development 

d d bl li bili f‐ good and stable quality ‐ stability of temperature

‐ slow speed of recharge (more reliable resource in drought)

The share of groundwater in world water use is about 20%. 

Th h i i i i llThe share is increasing especially 

in dry areas. (World Development 

Report 3)

Groundwater in urban context

GW is used from the beginning of 

urban developmenturban development.  Correlation between regional GDP (RGDP) and Estimated Groundwater use in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (source: IGES 2007) 10

Groundwater ‐ for irrigationg

(Source: UN World Water Development Report 3)

Globally, groundwater provides about 17 % of water use in irrigation (World Water 

Development Report 3).

In Asia and the Pacific, groundwater also serves as a major source of irrigation water: 

11

‐ 60% of the total agricultural water use in India (World Bank)‐ 70% of total agriculture water supply Hebei provinces, China

Groundwater ‐ for drinking waterg

(UN World Water Development Report 3)

A di i i l b ll d id 50% f According to an estimation, globally groundwater provides 50% of current potable water supplies. (IWMI 2007. Water for Food, Water for Life:  A Comprehensive 

Assessment of Water Management is available)

In Asia and the Pacific, groundwater provides drinking water to nearly 32% of population.

53% of Cambodian households drink from groundwater sources in the dry

12

53% of Cambodian households drink from groundwater sources in the dry season (Presentation of Dr. Mao Saray, Ministry of Rural Development, Cambodia)

Management Difficulties of GroundwaterManagement Difficulties of Groundwater

Groundwater is an open access resource in many‐ Groundwater is an open access resource in many 

areas in the region (tragedy of commons?)

‐ People (users) cannot see the resource and 

h f i i diffi l f h k htherefore it is difficult for them to know the status 

of the resources

‐ Groundwater use is decentrlised in general 

(individual use) 

G d t d t i JGroundwater use and management in Japan

A l G d t U (2006) 12 32 billi 3/• Annual Groundwater Use (2006): 12.32 billion m3/year

( )• 25% of total urban water use (domestic + industrial use)

Aquaculture10%

Construction5%

Industry30%

Agriculture27%

Domestic28%

Usage of Groundwater (2006)(d t “Ni Mi Shi H 21)(data source: “Nippon no Mizu Shigen H.21)

G d t M t i J (1)Groundwater Management in Japan (1)

N h i l d t No comprehensive laws on groundwater

N f d / i h No statutory statement of groundwater property/user rights. 

G ll d t i i d th i t d iGenerally, groundwater is recognised as the private domain.However, it is widely recognised that groundwater users should use the resource without harming others’ benefitsshould use the resource without harming others’ benefits.  

G d t M t i J (2)Groundwater Management in Japan (2)

Regulations of groundwater abstraction started as a measure to mitigate land Regulations of groundwater abstraction started as a measure to mitigate land subsidence that was observed in Japan during 1950 – 70s. 

National Laws related to groundwater use 

= Restriction of groundwater abstraction (by large users such as industry) in d i d i hi h l d b id i ( ) b ddesignated areas in which severe land subsidence is (was) observed. 

Industrial Water Law Industrial Water Law 

Building Water Law

Environmental standard of groundwater quality was established in 1997, hi h i t t t h h lth f h i d d ll tiwhich aims to protect human health from human‐induced pollution.  

G d t M t O k Cit ’Groundwater Management – Osaka City’s case

Most of the city is on lowlands on the Osaka Plain located on an alluvialMost of the city is on lowlands on the Osaka Plain located on an alluvial formation with rather soft ground, consisting of cohesive soil and sandy soil. 

Surface water is the main source of drinking water, and groundwater as sed mainl as the so rce ofwas used mainly as the source of 

industrial water since the early 1890s. 

(IGES 2007)

Groundwater Management – Osaka City’s caseg y

yen)

*1

m)*

2

I th l t 1950 65% f 30

e (tr

illio

n y

ce d

epth

(m

subsidence depth

In the late 1950s, 65% of 30 industries located in costal area depends on groundwater

utpu

t val

ue

subs

iden

cdepends on groundwater. 

Land subsidence was observed in

dust

rial o

u

umul

ativ

e sLand subsidence was observed in 

the early 1890s and intensified in the 1950s Industrial in

d

cu

industrial output value

the 1950s. Industrial development at that time was supported by groundwater supply

1925 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

*1. price by value of 1965

*2 at Nishi 4 (Torishima Konohana ku)

supported by groundwater supply. 

2. at Nishi-4 (Torishima, Konohana-ku)

(IGES 2007)

L d b id i t i O kLand subsidence impacts in Osaka

id b b ff d b fl d i h h i h f‐ More wider areas began to be affected by floods since the height of dikes became lower as the land base sank. 

About 2.5 billion USD (in 2000 price) between 1955 and 1969 to reinforce dykes, raise bridges, and develop a drainage system. y , g , p g y

‐ Floods forced industries to stop their operation sometimes. They needed to invest more to development of dykes to protect themselves. 

Tangible evidence of damage caused by the land subsidence raised public awareness of the problem and urged city governmentraised public awareness of the problem and urged city government to take practical measures to mitigate the problem. 

Measures taken in the cityMeasures taken in the city

Intensive survey on groundwater use was conducted forIntensive survey on groundwater use was conducted for industries and commercial complex and a large‐size apartments. (cf. ground level has been monitored since the early 1990s when ( g yland subsidence was suspected by scientists, and therefore there are accumulation of data on subsidence. ))

Intensive groundwater abstraction mainly by industries was identified as the cause of land subsidence.  

A committee on land subsidence mitigation was formulated with the initiative of local governments. Private sector (industries) joined the committee.  

Measures taken in the cityMeasures taken in the city

1. Strict abstraction control to major groundwater users , that are industries and large buildings (by laws)and large buildings. (by laws)

2. Provision of alternative water sources for industries:C t ti f I d t W t S l W k (IWSW)= Construction of Industry Water Supply Works (IWSW), 

which supplies water at cheaper price than the municipal water supply scheme. In Osaka’s case, the source of IWSW is surface water.  Tax exemption for the equipment to introduce IWSW water. Subsidies from national government to local government for construction.

(IGES 2007)

Measures taken in the cityMeasures taken in the city

3 Encouragement of water saving efforts at industries and large3. Encouragement of water saving efforts at industries and large buildings:= Tax exemption and loan for introduction of water saving p gtechnologies.

*Introduction of wastewater treatment fee for water quality*Introduction of wastewater treatment fee for water quality conservation is one of the incentives of water saving in industrial productionp

4. Intensive data collection of causes and effectscf groundwater use (such as abstraction volume and purpose ofcf. groundwater use (such as abstraction volume and purpose of use), subsidence level)

5. Information disclosure to the public on the issues(though mass media to raise public awareness )

Industrial Water Supply Works as the pp yalternative water source

intensifying abstraction as population and reduction of stable abstraction with modest useeconomic growth abstraction

introduction of control measures

increasing stress & identification of problems

reducing stress, abatement of problems, rehabilitation of aquifers

control measures

strict control could cause new problems?(e g too much increase of

(no stress)

measures rehabilitation of aquifers (e.g. too much increase of groundwater level)

(IGES 2007)

Why the city could reduce abstraction volume in a few years?

Others, 11.5

volume in a few years?

Cooling, 65.1

Ai h ti

Flushing, 16.2

In case of Osaka City, it was relatively easy to reduce or phase out groundwater 

Air heating, 7.2 abstraction because of the 

purpose of use. 

Others, 5

Purpose of groundwater in large buildings in 1965 (percentage)

e.g. Cooling water = easy to reduce by the efforts of water saving Also easy to change the

Washing, 20

Others, 5 saving. Also easy to change the source of water. 

I h d h lCooling, 43

Raw Material, 3

In other words, there were less negative impacts if appropriate financial and technical supports 

Processing, 29

were provided to users. 

Purpose of groundwater in industries in 1965 (percentage)

(IGES 2007)

D l f i th itiDelay of response in other citiesThe Higashi‐Osaka city which shared the groundwater basin with Osaka city suffered from land subsidence impacts even after Osaka City mitigate land subsidence problems.   Basin approach is necessary. 

(IGES 2007)

E i iEmerging issues

Since water saving efforts, there are less water demand of IWSW water, which causes financial difficulties in operation and maintenance of IWSW. 

In the area where groundwater abstraction control is weak (e.g. areas not controlled by national law), groundwater use became 

f h d f ll fan promising option of the reduction of water cost especially for the large commercial complex, hospital, and fitness center.  In 

it d th d ti f f th i i lsome cases, it caused the reduction of revenue of the municipal water supply scheme. 

Comprehensive or integrated management is necessary in water planning. 

Groundwater Management in Asian CitiesGroundwater Management in Asian Cities

• Research on Sustainable 

●

Ti ji

Water Management Policy (SWMP), conducted 

●Tianjin

Osakaby IGES

• Comparative study on groundwater in Asian 

Colombo and ● ●

●

Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC)Bangkok

cities. 

KandyReport of SWMP: http://www.iges.or.jp/en/fw/report.html

27

●Bandung

Groundwater Use in Case Study CitiesGroundwater Use in Case Study Cities

City YearGW Use(m3/day)

Total Water Use(m3/day)

Dependency(%)

Tianjin 2004 386,301  846,575  46 

Bangkok* 1996 476,438  6,471,973  7 

HCMC 2005 226 000 ‐‐ ‐‐HCMC 2005 226,000  ‐‐ ‐‐

Bandung 2000 394,013  670,501  59 

Colombo 2001 234,000  625,399  37 

Kandy 2000 41,000  83,225  49 

*Chao Phraya and Tha Chin River Basin

28

*Chao Phraya and Tha Chin River Basin

Groundwater Use in Case Study Cities (1)Groundwater Use in Case Study Cities (1)

0 25 50 75 100

(%)

天津

52Tianjin

天津

バンコク G d i28Bangkok

バンコク

バンドン

Groundwater is an important water resource in the cities

59Bandung

バンドン

ホーチミン

55HCMC

ホ チミン

Ratio of groundwater use in total water use（IGES 2006）

29

（IGES 2006）

Groundwater Use in Case Study Cities (2)Groundwater Use in Case Study Cities (2)

0% 50% 100%

天津

15 23 62Tianjin

バンコク工業用水 農業用水生活用水

64.5 34 1.5BangkokIndustry

Domestic

バンコク

バ ド80 20Bandung

Agricultureバンドン

4357HCMCホーチミン

Groundwater uses （IGES 2006）

30

（IGES 2006）

Groundwater management challenges (1)Groundwater management challenges (1)

Depletion in groundwater table and land p gsubsidence due to over extraction of groundwater

In China groundwater level has declined in 30% In China, groundwater level has declined in 30% 194 key cities in regions monitored (WEPA, 2007)..

Land subsidence in Bandung

L d b id i HCMCLand subsidence in HCMC

Cumulative drop in water level and land subsidence in some Asian cities (IGES, 2007)

Negative Impacts of excessive abstraction practicesNegative Impacts of excessive abstraction practices

Land subsidence in Bangkok (1992‐2000)

Source: UNESCAP 2002

32

Source: UNESCAP, 2002

(by courtesy of Dr. Babel, AIT)In Bandung

（Geological Environment 2003)

Measures taken in the case study citiesMeasures taken in the case study cities

R l ti ( t l fCity

Measures

Regulations (control of abstraction,

registration of pumping)

Economic Instrument

(Charge, taxes)

Technologies(including provision of alternative

water resources)

Organisation in charge

Tianjin◎

(only in designated area)

◎(User Charge)

• Inter-basin transfer

• Purification of water with ROTianjin City

Bangkok◎

(stronger control to more affected areas)

◎(User Charge)

• Inter-basin transfer

• Expansion of municipal water supply systems (source: rivers)

• GW department, MONRE

)• Promotion of conjunctive use

Bandung◎

(stronger control to◎

(GW T )

• Development of surface water

• Expansion of municipal water• West Java EPA

Bandung (stronger control to affected areas)

(GW Tax) Expansion of municipal water supply systems

• Local government

• Development of surface water• DONRE

HCMC△

(partly introduced)◎

(GW Tax)

Development of surface water

• Expansion of municipal water supply system

• Other department of MONRE and more.

33

Laws and regulations on groundwaterLaws and regulations on groundwater

Tianjin TianjinTemporary Regulation on Groundwater Resource Management (1987)Management (1987)

Bandung BandungAct. No. 11/1974 and its amendment No.7/2004 on water resources; West Java Regulation No.16/2001, etc.resources; West Java Regulation No.16/2001, etc. 

BangkokgGroundwater Act (1978, 2003 amendment)

HCMC, Colombo/KandyNo specific laws/regulations on groundwater

34

Contents of groundwater regulationsContents of groundwater regulations

• Drilling license to ensure environmentally sound drilling.Drilling license to ensure environmentally sound drilling.

• Designation of areas where intensive or more stringent• Designation of areas where intensive or more stringent measures are necessary (groundwater protection areas).

• Designation of groundwater users to be regulated.

• Registration of groundwater users (volume and purpose of use)use) 

I t d ti f h i h• Introduction of charging scheme(groundwater user charge or tax)

Charging System (Bangkok)

Area Area without public water

Charging System (Bangkok)

supply service user typeArea

with public water supply service

Area without public water supply service

1. Domestic consumption 8.50 Baht/m3 Exempt1. Domestic consumption 8.50 Baht/m+ preservation charge

Exempt

2. Business

Business not using agricultural 25 % discountBusiness not using agricultural products (proclaimed by minister) as raw material

8.50 Baht/m3

25 % discount

Business using agricultural 70 % discount+ preservation charge

Business using agricultural products (proclaimed byMinister) as raw material

70 % discount

17 Baht/m3 > 10 Baht/m3 public water supply3. Agriculture

Crop cultivation Exempt

Animal farm with groundwater use Exempt

17 Baht/m > 10 Baht/m public water supply

8.50 Baht/m3

+ preservation charge

glicense not more than 50m3/d

p

Animal farm with groundwater use license greater than 50m3/d

70 % discount for users of less than 50 m3/day

36

(source) Babel and N. Donna (2006)

Groundwater charge can be an incentive to reduce groundwater abstraction.

Groundwater preservation charge is used for groundwater conservation related research and activities. 

3.5 18

(MCM/日) (ﾊﾞｰﾂ/m3)(B/m3)(MCM/day) User charge and preservation charge is decided in comparison with the price of municipal water supply water.

2

3.0 15Preservation charge

water. 

2.0

2.512

MWA給水量

（販売量）

地下水保全料金

Municipal water supply volume

1.59（販売量） 保全料金supply volume

1.0

3

6

Groundwater abstraction

0.0

0.5

0

3地下水揚水量 地下水料金

abstraction volume GW charge

371955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Groundwater charge system in Tianjin

Unit: Yuan/m3

Groundwater charge system in Tianjin

U it: Yua /

For Township For Petroleum and Chemical

Other Enterprises

Enterprise Corporation

1987 0.05 0.12 0.0968

1998 0 50 0 50 0 501998 0.50 0.50 0.50

2002 Areas with Tap Water Available

Areas without Tap Water SupplyAvailable Supply

1.90 1.30

Tap water:  3.6 Yuan/m3

(source) Xu and Zhang(2006)

No charges to agricultural water, which is the major groundwater user in 

38

the city. 

G d t b t ti i B dGroundwater abstraction in Bandung

80

90 Crisis Economy hit Indonesia

60

70

80

illio

n/Y

ea

r) Act Number 18/1997 groundwater tax揚水量

40

50

60

bs

tra

cti

on

(M

i

Governor

West Java Governor Decree Number 29/2003

量

20

30

40

un

d W

ate

r A

b Governor Decree Number 181.1/SK.1624-

Bapp/82

In 2001, West Java Province Government issued Province

10

20

Gro

u

Act Number 22/1999 on Local Government

issued Province Regulation Number 16/2001 on Ground Water Management

0

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1976

1985

1988

1990

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

Year1900 2000

39

From  SWMP report by the West Java EPA

Groundwater Tax in BandungGroundwater Tax in Bandung

Tax scheme in Bandung is based on the sophisticated calculation which consists of three element belowcalculation, which consists of three element below. 

(1) Natural component ratio (point of abstraction, water quality, ( ) p (p , q y,with or without alternative water sources, type of aquifer

(2) Recovery and supplementary elements (Intake and Use)(3) P i f t (d id d b th l ti )(3) Price of raw water (decided by the regulation)

Formula:Formula:(1)×(2)×(3)＝Groundwater Tax

The formula of the groundwater tax in Bandung consider the value of groundwater to some extent.

40

consider the value of groundwater to some extent. 

Other example of economic instrument introduction

Groundwater abstraction control by electricity chargeGroundwater abstraction control by electricity charge

• Too much decentrlised use and undefined (or unclear) property rights = direct management is not a option. 

• A trial to change groundwater user’s consuming behaviour g g gthrough the change in electricity pricing scheme in India.

Limited hours pumping = low GW pumpingElectricity rate based on meters = encouraged the savings of GW use

(IWMI study)

Groundwater management h ll ( )challenges (2)

I Ti ji d tIn Tianjin, groundwater contains high concentration of fluoride and dental floursisof fluoride and dental floursis rate is 41% in urban area (Xu et al. 2008).

Fluoride contamination in Confined Aquifer III 

Source: Report on the Distribution Law and Formation Mechanisms of the Major Pollutants in Tianjin Groundwater

4242

G d t lit i B dGroundwater quality in Bandung

100or 

Shallow Aquifer

80

90

100

ideline fo

50

60

70

WHO gu

ing

20

30

40

exceeding 

Drinki

0

10

20

samples e

NoData

NoData

NoData

NoData

NoData

% of 

(S IGES SWMP St d ）

4343

Pollutants (Source: IGES SWMP Study）

Coliform in surface water and groundwater in HCMCColiform in surface water and groundwater in HCMC

on

1.0E+06

1.0E+08

1 0 106

1.0x108

once

ntra

ti/1

00m

l)

1.0E+04

1.0E 06

Groundwater 1.0x104

1.0x106

olifo

rm C

o(M

PN/

1.0E+02

Groundwater Quality Standard for Drinking1.0x102

Co

1.0E+00

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Drinking

Surface Water Groundwater1.0x100

Dong Nai River

Saigon River

Pleistocen Aquifer

(20-50m)

Upper Pliocen Aquifer

(50-100m)

Lower Pliocen Aquifer

(100-140m)(50-100m) (100-140m)

Potential Capacity(m3/day) 6,000,000 940,000 796,000 952,000 753,000

Current Water Use 847 000 303 000 284 700 323 300 2 960

44

Current Water Use(m3/day) 847,000 303,000 284,700 323,300 2,960

P i f t d t d b ttl tPrice of tapped water and bottle water

(USD/m3) 

City Tapped Water Bottle Water

Tianjin 0.49 60.93‐76.17

Bangkok 0.25‐0.42 ??

HCMC 0.17‐0.49 61.29‐67.42

Bandung 0.28‐1.00 ??

45

Outline of groundwater quality management 

Tianjin Bangkok Bandung Ho Chi Min City

L f h P l ’ E h d G l i

Law/Regulation

Name

Law of the People’s Republic of China on 

Prevention and Control of Water Pollution

Enhancement and Conservation of National Environment; Quality 

Act,1992

Government regulation No82/2001 on water 

quality management and water pollution control

Law on Environment Protection, 2005

Conservation of public Water quality/ g

ContentPollution control for 

groundwater

Conservation of public water resources including 

groundwater

Water quality management and pollution control

Groundwater environment protection

NQuality standard for 

d

Groundwater Quality Standard(Groundwater

Water quality standard (f bli

Groundwater Quality S d dGroundwater 

quality standard

Name groundwater(GB/T 14848‐9)

Standard(Groundwater Quality Standard for Drinking purpose)

(for public water including groundwater)

Standard(TCVN5944‐1995)

categories, Parameter

5 categories, 39 parameters

38 parameters4 categories, 41 parameters

22 parametersParameter parameters parameters

Implementing agency

Tianjin Water Conservancy Department

Department of Groundwater Resources

West Java Mining and Energy Agency

Department of Natural Resources and Environment

Monitoring

Number of sampling points

unknown 117 (304 wells) 36 40 (86 wells)

Frequency unknown 1‐3 time/year unknown 1‐4 time/year

Parameter unknown 14 unknown 16

46

St t f d t lit it iStatus of groundwater quality monitoringNumber of Indicators

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

StandardTianjin

Monitoring

Standard

Tianjin

Bangkok

13/39 (33%)

Monitoring

Standard

Bangkok

Ho Chi

14/55 (25%)

16/22 (73%)

Monitoring

Standard

Ho Chi Minh City

Osaka/Tokyo

16/22 (73%)

26/26 (100%)

Monitoring

Osaka/Tokyo 26/26 (100%)

Others Pesticides VOCs Heavy Metal Bacterial Chemical Physical

Difference between number of indicators designated in the groundwater quality t d d d th t ll t t d

47

standard and those actually tested.  

Treatment for Naturally Occurring Contamination

Tianjin:

Treatment for Naturally Occurring Contamination

Tianjin: (1) Water Improvement and Defluorination Projects in 

Tianjin Rural Areaa j u a ea・construction of 58 defluorination water‐supply stations in 2006‐2010・safe water will be available for 225,300 people

( ) l f k(2) Rural Safe Drinking Water Project in Jin Nan District(88.9 million yuan (13 million USD))t ti f d t t t t l t (46 it )・construction of  groundwater treatment plants (46 sites)

・installation of canned defluoridation devices (47 sites)・safe water will be available for 103,596 people, p p

HCMC :(1) Rural water supply program (UNICEF/EU)

・construction of 5, 221 boreholes for domestic use・installation of 500 iron removal system・installation of 500 iron removal system

48

P i i f t t d d t t it (Ti ji )Provision of treated groundwater to community (Tianjin)

Photo by Mr. T. Kuyama, IGES

4949

Sand Filtration of Community Groundwater Supply System in HCMC

5050

Photo by Mr. T. Kuyama, IGES

Treatment at individual household levelTreatment at individual household level

In HCMC↓

↑In BandungIn Bandung

51

Photo by Mr. T. Kuyama, IGES

Groundwater Issues identified by case studies y

Because of excessive groundwater abstraction (more than Because of excessive groundwater abstraction (more than recharging capacity), groundwater has been depleted. 

As a result of overexploitation land subsidence became serious As a result of overexploitation, land subsidence became serious. 

Arsenic and fluoride pollution became a very serious problem which affects people’s healthwhich affects people s health.

Salinization became serious especially in coastal areas of the regionin coastal areas of the region. 

Groundwater pollution in shallow aquifer by coliform is a commonaquifer by coliform is a common problem in many areas of the region.   

Inadequate toxic substance (including Inadequate toxic substance (including hazardous solid wastes) contaminated groundwater. 

Land subsidence in HCMC

52

Land subsidence in HCMC

Status of Groundwater ManagementStatus of Groundwater Management 

<Outline of Groundwater Management>gThe  laws and standards on groundwater quantity and quality protection already exist, however implementation (the enforcement and the 

it i ) i kmonitoring) is weak.

<Rule making and charging system for quantity management>T t l f d t b t ti l d l tiTo control of groundwater abstraction, laws and regulations are introduced in case study cities. In many cases, charge to groundwater is introduced. How effective the charging system works depends on the price g g y p pof other water sources.  

<Provision of Alternative Water>Provision of alternative water source is also a measure to reduce groundwater use. Switching to alternative water resource which satisfy th lit d i ki i l i i ti f hthe quality as a drinking source is also a promising option for human health safety. 

St t f G d t M t (2)

<Sanitation and Groundwater>

Status of Groundwater Management (2)

<Sanitation and Groundwater>The improvement of sanitary condition can contribute to mitigate anthropogenic contamination of groundwater.  However, immediate p g g ,improvement of current sanitary condition is difficult due to the low affordability of a proper sanitation facility. 

<Countermeasures at Individual Households>Public sectors in each city try to mitigate groundwater contamination. However they are facing difficulties in implementation To protectHowever, they are facing difficulties in implementation.  To protect themselves from the risk of groundwater contamination, households have already taken their own countermeasures, such as installation of purification systems, adding of the chemicals for disinfection, and purchase of  bottled water. 

54

Groundwater management challenges

Lack of clear policies on groundwater management and weak

Groundwater management challenges

Lack of clear policies on groundwater management and weak enforcement of groundwater laws and regulations.Undefined water rights issue is also a problem in some cases. 

Lack of coordination between organizations responsible for groundwater management and overlapping of responsibilities.

Lack of human resources with adequate knowledge on groundwater resources management.

Less awareness of groundwater users on potential problems and risks

L k f d d b d i i Lack of groundwater database and monitoring system.

Less recognision of future climate change impacts.

To use groundwater in a sustainable way, groundwater management should be introduced or strengthened further.

E i d f t iEmerging and future issue

Climate change and its impacts on groundwater resources

Shift in precipitation ultimately shift in water balance of aquifer by increase or decrease of recharge.q y g

Shift in precipitation also make surface water more unreliable which may force to development of groundwater resources. 

S l l i i t d d t lti f i Sea level rise is expected due to melting of ice sheets and glaciers as a result of global temperature rise. Rise in sea level would allow saltwater to penetrate farther inland and upstream in low lying river deltas (IPCC, 1998). Source: IPCC Technical Paper VI

Action areas needed to promote sustainable groundwater management

I i f d di i ( i i d Improving assessment of groundwater resources condition (monitoring and modeling)

Formulating or re‐designing policy options (regulatory or direct and economic measures) to manage groundwater resources (mostly in urban context)

Reforming or creating new institutions responsible for groundwater management in integrated manner

Focus on land management and groundwater management linkages

Involvement of stakeholders in planning and implementation of groundwater control. 

How groundwater should be managed in integrated water resource management. 

Photos by IGES