growth of slums in bangalore city -...
TRANSCRIPT
32
GROWTH OF SLUMS IN
BANGALORE CITY
CHAPTER-II
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India is getting urbanized rapidly. It is estimated that by 2030, 40.6% of
the country's population will be living in urban areas (UN Population Division,
World Urbanization Prospects). More than one-third of urban population in
India lives in cities (i.e., settlements with population of more than 1, 00,000).
The number of such cities has increased from 1 in 1901 to 35 in 2001 and
continues to rise (2001 census, Registrar General of India). The rapid growth
of cities widened the gap between the demand and supply of essential
services and infrastructure, people' to live in crowded slums unsanitary
conditions, exposing themselves to pollution and natural calamities.
According to Pranob Sen, Principal Advisor to the Planning
Commission that the urban slum population in India, Asia's fourth largest
economy and the world’s second fastest growing one, is nearly one billion.
The country’s financial capital, Mumbai, houses the largest number of
urban slums - some 6.5 million people live in them. The city is also home to
Asia’s largest slum, Dharavi New Delhi, with 1.8 million people living in its
slums, houses the second largest number of urban slums. Kolkata with 1.49
million slum inhabitants is a close third. An estimated 30% slums
Maharashtra State has the highest number of slums in the country (32%),
followed by West Bengal (15%), and Andhra Pradesh (15%).
Based on the findings of the study suggests that there is a need for
upgrading program through rehabilitation/renovation approach as well as
provision of urban basic services. Generation of regular employment
opportunities will help improve the level of capital, base and potential for
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capital formation to enhance the level of provision for basic amenities.
Sanitary services, particularly toilets, water supply and waste disposal
facilities need urgent attention.
Reasons for the repaid growth of urban slums: High natural growth rate:
Indian slums suffer from “poor utilization of the reproductive child health
services provided by the government, lack of awareness regarding birth
spacing and very low use of contraceptives”. Migration of villagers to cities
with multinational retail firms and IT giants producing numerous opportunities
of employment: Urban migration of villagers who seek employment as daily
wage skilled and unskilled and unskilled labourers or domestic helps, end up
residing in subhuman conditions in slums.
Changes within a city’s economic structures: Restructuring and
dismantling of larger industries in big cities like Mills, forcing the large number
of jobless work force into informal sector activities and thereby contribute to
urban poverty.
Poor sanitation and housing affect a) Health, Hygiene and Sanitation
b)Education, and c) On Social Problems and Moral Apathy of slum dwellers.
Urbanization in Karnataka
Karnataka is the eighth largest state in India covering an area of
1, 91,791 Sq kms and has a population of about 57 million (current estimate).
Demographically, it is about the size of Britain (58.3m), France (58.7 m), Italy
(57.2 m) and Thailand (59 m). Geographically, it comprises three regions- the
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plains, the coastal and the hilly and covers seven agro- climatic zones. The
people of the state inhabit 28000 villages and 237 towns and cities.
Karnataka is one of the more industrialized and urbanized states in
India. In terms of contribution to the State economy, agriculture has been
showing a declining trend. Its share in GSDP halved from 36% in 1993 to 18%
in 2005. On the contrary, employment in agriculture decreased from 65% to
just 61% during the same period. While the contribution of industry to GDSP
has remained somewhat constant around 27% that of the service sector has
increased significantly to 54%. The growing disparity between agriculture and
other sectors is likely to have a significant impact on the urban economy.
The Government of Karnataka set up a Committee on 31-12-2008 to
study the various issues relating to urban governance and prepare an Urban
Development Policy for the state in the context of the 12th Schedule to the
74th Constitution Amendment Act and with a view to meet the challenges
created by rapid urbanization in the State. What follows is an attempt at
formulating an Urban Development Policy for Karnataka State.
The total population of Karnataka in 2001 was 52.7 million of which the
urban population was 17.9 million or 34%. Karnataka ranks fourth in the
degree of urbanization among the major states in India after Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra and Gujarat as can be seen from Table 1. The decadal growth of
urban population in Karnataka over the last 100 years is shown in Table 2.
During the last five decades, urbanization in Karnataka registered rapid
growth except during 1951-61 when the rate of growth was only 18.26%. The
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highest growth was recorded during 1941-51 (61.7%) and 1971-81 (50.6%).
However, during the following two decades, the eighties and nineties, the rate
of growth of urban population declined to 29.09 and 28.85% respectively.
Significantly, the urban population in Karnataka has been growing
faster than the rural population. During 1991-2001, the former registered a
growth rate of nearly 29% compared to 12% of the latter. Three factors
account for the growth of urbanization in the State – natural growth, migration
and reclassification of cities.
Towns have been classified into six categories on the basis of their
population size. In order to appreciate the direction of the urbanization
process, it is necessary to examine the distribution of population between
different classes of towns and regions and their growth trends.
There are 237 census towns or urban settlements are spread over
1,91,791 sq. kms in Karnataka. The most significant feature to be noted is that
as much as 120 lakhs or 66.4% of the urban population of the state is
concentrated in 23 class I cities. The largest number of towns (101) is in class
III category accounting for 17% of the urban population or 31 lakh people. The
highest growth rate has been registered in Class I towns (34%) followed by
Class III towns (4.82%) and Class II (2.81%). Other classes have shown
negative growth rates.
There are wide variations in the degree of urbanization in different
districts of the state as shown in Map 2. 1. Bangalore Urban with 88% of its
population living in urban areas is the most urbanized district and accounts for
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13% of the urban population of the state. The second most highly urbanized
district is Dharwad with an urban population of 55%. All the other districts
have less than 40% of the people living in urban centres. Urbanization is
lower than 30% in ten districts and less than 20% in nine districts. The least
urbanized district is Kodagu (13.8%). Districtwise details are given in Map 2.1.
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Map 2.1.
39
Slums in Karnataka
The Karnataka Government with an aim to make the State slum-free
has decided to remove all hurdles in taking up construction and re-
development of slum areas. The main aim of this exercise is to make the
State slum-free in five to eight years,” According to the survey conducted by
the State Government, as much as 22 per cent of the population in urban
areas of the State live in slum areas. In all, there are 40 lakh people living in
2,722 slums spread across the Government and private land. This includes
597 slums in Bangalore, where 15 lakh people live.
under Slum Free City Planning Scheme, the preparatory phase of Rajiv
AwasYojana, funds have also been provided to the Government of Karnataka
for undertaking preparatory activities for preparation of Slum Free City Plans
of Action including survey of slums and slum households, GIS mapping of
cities, integration of GIS & MIS etc. in 8 cities of Karnataka i.e., Bangalore¸
Mysore, Hubli-Dharwad¸ Mangalore, Belgaum, Gulbarga, Davanagere and
Bellary. The survey has been conducted in 214 cities of the state. A total of
3573 slums have been recorded of which 2019 are notified & 1554 are non-
notified. The total population living in these slums is 3645827 and the number
of households is 745950. 23% of the households are female headed
households. The number of households with pucca, semi puccaand katcha
dwellings is 299329, 325652 and 120969 respectively. The slum scenario in
the state has given in table 2.1
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Table- 2.1
Slum scenario in Karnataka
Sl. No Description Figures
1 Total Urban Population (2011 Census) 179.86 Lakhs
2 Slum Population 40.50 Lakhs
3 Total No of Slums 2722
4 Percentage of Sums Population 22.56%
5 Notified slums 2251
6 Non-notified slum 496
7 Slum Declared in ULB land 1084
8 Slum Declared in Private Land 666
9 Slum Declared in Railways /Detenu 5
Source: Census Report of Karnataka Slum Development Board, Bangalore
As per table 2.1 the total urban population of Karnataka is 179.86
Lakhs people. Among them the slum population is 40.50 Lakhs constituting
22.56 percent of total urban population. The total number of slums in
Karnataka is 2722. Out of which 2251 are notified slums and the remaining
491 are non-notified slums. The Slum Declared in ULB land is 1084 hectares
and 666 hectares is private land. There are 5 slums declared around railway
stations and railway tracks.
Slum Population Trends in Karnataka
The growth of slums and slum population in Karnataka state during
1971-2011 is presented in table 2.2.
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Table- 2.2
Growth of Slums and Slum Population in Karnataka State during 1971-2011
S. No Year No of Slums Growth rate Population (Lakh) Growth rate
1 1971 611 5.1
2 1981 778 27.53 6.25 22.54
3 1991 1322 69.62 10.54 68.64
4 2001 1996 50.98 34.5 227.32
5 2011 2722 36.37 40.5 17.39
Source: Census Report of Karnataka Slum Development Board, Bangalore
Chart 2.1
It is evident from table 2.2 that the slums as well as slum population in
Karnataka State is increasing gradually year by year. The growth rate of
slums during 1981-1991 is high than the other decades. On the other hand
the growth rate of slum population is high during 1991-2001, than the other
decades. During five decades of study the slums increased from 611 to 2722
in the state. The slum population during the same period increased nearly
eight times.
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History and culture of Bangalore
The word Bangalore came from the Kannada word Bangalore which
means town of boiled beans. Bangalore, the Capital of the south Indian state
of Karnataka is better known as Silicon Valley of India, a hub of most of the
tech companies around the world. It is also known as the Pub City with the
highest number of pubs in any Indian city and as Garden City for its year
round blossoms and greenery.
The earliest reference to the name, in the form ‘Bangalore’, is seen
in a ninth century Ganga inscription (hero-stone) from Begur, referring to a
battle that was fought in that place. The present name of the city, Bangalore is
an anglicised form of Bangalore which according to the popular belief is
derived from Bengaalu– synonymous of Benda kaalu or boiled beans and
ooru meaning a town. Tradition associates Hoysala King Vira Ballala (12th
century) with the origin of this name. Vira Ballala, during one of his hunting
expeditions in this region, lost his way and after hours of wandering reached
the hut of an old woman. This woman is believed to have offered cooked
beans to the king. Pleased with her hospitality, the king named the place as
‘benda kaala ooru’ (town of boiled beans). But it is interesting to note that
there was already evidence for name of the place much before Hoysalas.
Kamath (1990) notes that Bangalore is said to have got its name from benga,
the local Kannada language term for Pterocarpus marsupium,a species of dry
and moist deciduous tree, and ooru, meaning town. However, the founding of
modern Bangalore is attributed to Kempe Gowda, a scion of the Yelahanka
line of chiefs, in 1537 (Kamath, 1990). Kempe Gowda is also credited with
construction of four towers along four directions from Petta, the central part of
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the city, to demarcate the extent of city growth. By the 1960s the city had
sprawled beyond these boundaries.
Later on, the city was administered by the Wodeyars, rulers of Mysore,
until it was given as Jagir (with rights for general administration and collection
of taxes) to Hyder Ali during late 18th century. Hyder Ali and later, his son,
Tippu Sultan, were responsible for growth and development of Bangalore in a
significant way with the construction of summer palace and Lalbagh. Indeed,
Bangalore was already the commercial capital during Tippu’s time and the
second important city after Srirangapatna, Tippu’s capital. During the early
19th century, the city was known to have almost all coins in circulation from
different places and kingdoms, thus evidencing a flourishing trade and
commerce. The fall of Bangalore in the Second Mysore War of 1792, may
also have led to the fall of Tippu Sultan in Third Mysore War of 1799, after
which Bangalore became a base for the British troops and saw the
establishment of the Cantonment in 1802. British control over Bangalore was
initially established indirectly through the Maharaja of Mysore. By 1831, the
administration of the city was taken over by the British, and in 1862 two
independent municipal boards were established: Bangalore City Municipality
(in the older areas), and Bangalore Civil and Military Station Municipality. At
Independence, Bangalore was notified as the capital of Mysore (now
Karnataka) State. In 1949, the two municipalities were merged and the
Bangalore City Corporation was formed. Subsequently, to keep up with the
pace of growth and development, there have been reorganizations with
respect to the zones and wards within the corporation, rising from 50 divisions
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in 1949 to 95 wards in 1980s, 100 wards in 1995 and now about 150 wards.
With the 2006 notification, the Bangalore City Corporation is now reorganized
as Greater Bangalore City Corporation.
Bangalore, in spite of the buzz around IT-based and related
commercial activities, has retained much of its unique cultural ties keeping its
date with its history, culture and tradition. The city is known for historical
temples such as the Someshwara temple in Halasuru (neighbourhood of
Bangalore) built during 12–13th century by Cholas, Basavanagudi (Bull
Temple) built by Kempe Gowda during 16th century, Kaadu Malleshwara
temple built during 17th century in Dravidian architecture, and Gavi
Gangadhareshwara temple, all nestle in the middle of the city. Apart from the
numerous temples that have mushroomed around the city, Bangalore also
has one of the six basilicas in the country, built during the 17th century,
St. Mark’s Cathedral built during 1808, the oldest mosque, Sangeen Jamia
Masjid built by the Moghuls during the 17th century, and the popular Jamia
Masjid near the City Market built during the 1940s. The ‘Bangalore Karaga’ is
a major annual fair associated with the Dharamaraya temple, is considered to
be the actual fair of the erstwhile city, and is still persistent in the older central
parts of the city. Karaga, a five-day festival of Tigalas, a community who
migrated from Tamil Nadu, has many unique features such as intense
religious fervour, strict rituals, unchanged traditions over centuries, a fixed
route and stops for the procession, welcome and respect shown at all the
temples on route. The annual groundnut fair, ‘Kadalekai Parishe’ takes place
in a part of old city, Basavanagudi during November–December. More
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recently, an annual cultural fest called ‘Bangalore Habba’ (‘habba’ in Kannada
means festival) is held during the first week of December hosting various
cultural programmes like music, dance and drama. The involvement of all
sections of people and the unique communal harmony displayed by the
special prayer at Tawakkal Mastan Darga (mosque) are also remarkable.
Bangalore geography and environment
Bangalore is situated in the southeast of the South Indian state of
Karnataka. It is positioned at 12.97° N 77.56° E and covers an area of 2,190
square kilometres (850 sq mi). A landlocked city, Bangalore is located in the
heart of the Mysore Plateau (a region of the larger Deccan Plateau) at an
average elevation of 920 metres (3,020 ft). Bangalore district borders with
Kolar and Chikkaballapur in the northeast, Tumkur in the northwest, Mandya
and Ramanagaram in the southeast and Mysore and Tamil Nadu in the south.
Geography
Bangalore lies in the southeast of the South Indian state of Karnataka.
It is in the heart of the Mysore Plateau (a region of the larger Precambrian
Deccan Plateau) at an average elevation of 1010 m (3,448 ft). It is positioned
at 12.97°N 77.56°E and covers an area of 1741 km² (896 mi²). The majority of
the city of Bangalore lies in the Bangalore Urban district of Karnataka and the
surrounding rural areas are a part of the Bangalore Rural district. The region
comprising the Bangalore Urban and Rural districts is known as the
Bangalore (region). The Government of Karnataka has carved out the new
district of Ramanagara from the old Bangalore Rural district.
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In the 16th century, Kempe Gowda I constructed many lakes to meet
the town's water requirements. The Kempambudhi Kere, since overrun by
modern development, was prominent among those lakes. In the earlier half of
20th century, the Nandi Hills waterworks was commissioned by Sir Mirza
Ismail (Diwan of Mysore, 1926–41) to provide water supply to the city.
Currently, the river Kaveri provides around 80% of the total water supply to
the city with the remaining 20% being obtained from the Thippagondanahalli
and Hesaraghatta reservoirs of the Arkavathi river. Bangalore receives 800
million litres (211 million US gallons) of water a day, more than any other
Indian city. However, Bangalore sometimes does face water shortages,
especially during the summer season- more so in the years of low rainfall. A
random sampling study of the Air Quality Index (AQI) of twenty stations within
the city indicated scores that ranged from 76 to 314, suggesting heavy to
severe air pollution around areas of traffic concentration.
Bangalore has a handful of freshwater lakes and water tanks, the
largest of which are Madivala tank, Hebbal lake, Ulsoor lake and Sankey
Tank. Groundwater occurs in silty to sandy layers of the alluvial sediments.
The Peninsular Gneissic Complex (PGC) is the most dominant rock unit in the
area and includes granites, gneisses and migmatites, while the soils of
Bangalore consist of red laterite and red, fine loamy to clayey soils.
Vegetation in the city is primarily in the form of large deciduous canopy
and minority coconut trees. Though Bangalore has been classified as a part of
the seismic zone III, it has experienced quakes of magnitude as high as 6.4.
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Topology
Bangalore has two unique topological terrains-North Bangalore taluk
and the South Bangalore taluk. The North Bangalore taluk is a relatively more
level plateau and lies between an average of 839 to 962 meters above sea
level. The middle of the taluk has a prominent ridge running North and North
East- South and South East (NNE-SSW). The highest point in the city,
Doddabettahalli, (962m) is on this ridge. There are gentle slopes and valleys
on either side of this ridge. The low-lying area is marked by a series of water
tanks varying in size from a small pond to those of considerable extent, but all
fairly shallow.
The topology of Bangalore is flat except for a central ridge running
NNE-SSW. The highest point is Doddabettahalli, which is 1062 m (3,496 ft)
and lies on this ridge. No major rivers run through the city, though the
Arkavathi and South Pennar cross paths at the Nandi Hills, 60 km (37 mi.) to
the north. River Vrishabhavathi, a minor tributary of the Arkavathi, arises
within the city at Basavanagudi and flows through the city. The rivers
Arkavathi and Vrishabhavathi together carry much of Bangalore's sewage. A
sewerage system, constructed in 1922, covers 215 km² (133 mi²) of the city
and connects with five sewage treatment centers located in the periphery of
Bangalore.
The South Bangalore taluk has an uneven landscape with intermingling
hills and valleys. The southern and western portions of the city consist of a
topology of granite and gneissic masses. The eastern portion is a plane, with
rare minor undulations.
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There are no major rivers flowing through the city. However, rivers
Arkavathi and Kaveri merge within the proximity of Nandi Hills, which lie
60 km north of Bangalore. River Vrishabhavati, a tributary of Arkavathi, flows
for a small stretch in the Bangalore North taluk and carries a bulk of the city's
sewerage. The city has a handful of freshwater lakes and water tanks such as
Madivala tank, Hebbal tank, Ulsoor lake and Sankey Tank. Groundwater
occurs in silty to sandy layers of alluvial sediments and jointed quartzite.
The rock types prevalent in the district belong to the Saugar,
Charnokite and Peninsular Gneissic Complex (PGC) groups. The PGC is the
dominant group of rocks and covers two-thirds of the area and includes
granites, gneissis and migmatites. The soils in Bangalore vary from red
laterite to clayey soils.
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Map 2.2
Bangalore City
50
Quite recently there have been serious attempts by sociologists and
urban planners to characterize the city. Heitzman (2004) has analysed the
nature of growth that the city experienced with the emergence of the
information society, while bringing out the ingredients that led to the
transformation of planning methodologies and spatial planning tools for the
city. Nair (2005) has exemplified Bangalore as ‘the promise of the metropolis’
while illustrating the urban fabric of Bangalore over the last century. In this
profile, an attempt is made to bring out the status of current infrastructure and
various facets of planning and governance. Table 2.3 gives the derails of
growth of area of Bangalore city during 1949-2007.
Table-2.3
Bangalore City Corporation Limits over the Years
Year Area (Sq.KM)
1949 69
1963-64 112
1969 134
1979 161
1995 226
2007 741
Source: Karnataka Slum Clearance Board
As per the table 2.3 the Bangalore city limits increasing gradually over
the years. The city is confined to 69 sq.km in 1949 and the area by 2007
increased to 741 sq.kms.
Rainfall and temperature
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Due to its elevation, Bangalore enjoys a pleasant and equable climate
throughout the year. The highest temperature recorded was 38.9°C (102.0°F)
on 22 May 1935 and the lowest was 7.8°C in 1884. Winter temperatures
rarely drop below 11°C (52°F) and summer temperatures seldom exceed
36°C (97°F).
Bangalore receives about 1300 mm of rain annually, the wettest
months being August September, October and in that order. The summer
heat is moderated by fairly frequent thunderstorms and occasional squalls
causing power outages and local flooding. The heaviest rainfall recorded in a
24 hour period was 159.7 mm recorded on 1 October 1997.
Most of the rainfall occurs during late afternoon/evening or night and
rain before noon is infrequent. October 2005 was recorded as one of the
wettest months in Bangalore with heavy rains causing severe flooding in
some areas, and closure of a number of organisations for over a couple of
days.
Seismicity
Because it lies in the seismically stable region, Zone II (encompassing
parts of Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh),
Bangalore has been untouched by major seismic events. Only mild tremors
have been recorded in the city. The land use pattern of Bangalore city is given
in table 2.4.
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Table-2.4
Land Use in Bangalore City
Component PIU "ideal" Index Average Score
Air Quality 395 180
Water Quality 130 121
Land 40 37
Terrestrial ecosystem 150 143
Aquatic ecosystem 15 12.5 Socio-economic (traffic, quality of life, etc.) 270 49.5
Total 1000 542
Source: "Environment Impact Analysis" (2003) conducted by Bangalore Mass Rapid Transport Limited (BMRTL)
According to data contained in the Bangalore Mahanagara Palike
Master Plan, 40.4% of the land in the city is used for residential purposes.
Transport uses 24.3% of the land, while land used for industrial, and
commercial purposes comprise 6.9% and 2.7% respectively. As the city of
Bangalore expands, the BMP expects the percentage of land used for
industrial purposes to decrease, while it expects the percentages of land used
for residential, commercial and public and semi-public purposes to increase.
General metropolitan environment
A random sampling study of the Air Quality Index (AQI) of twenty
stations within the city indicated scores that ranged from 76-314, suggesting
heavy to severe air pollution around areas of traffic concentration. Major
pollutants contributing to Bangalore's high AQI score include nitrogen oxide,
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) and carbon monoxide.
The Bangalore metropolitan area, referred to as the Garden City of
India has an abundance of fauna and flora. The city has two nationally
renowned botanical gardens-Cubbon Park and Lal Bagh. A majority of the
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trees in the city are big to medium canopy trees with girths above 40 cm.
Coconut trees form a large minority of the tree population in the city. In 2003,
the Battelle Environmental Evaluation System (BEES) index used to evaluate
environmental components was used to rate Bangalore's physical, biological
and socioeconomic parameters.
Demography and economy
The state of Karnataka was carved out in 1956 based on linguistic
boundaries, with regions dominated by Kannada speaking people. Bangalore
was retained as the capital of the state, with Kannada as the official language
while accommodating other languages like Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, English
and Hindi, true to its cosmopolitan status. The census of population in
Bangalore has been recorded every decade since 1871, during the colonial
times, the most recent census being carried out in 2001. Figure 5 shows the
growth of population in Bangalore from 1871 to 2001 (5.7 million), along with
an estimate for 2007 (7 million). It is notable that since the first census,
Bangalore was already the most populous city in Karnataka. This urban
primacy has been retained consistently for more than a century now. After
Independence, Bangalore, now a State capital, saw an influx of population
migrating to the city, although it should be noted that the steep population rise
in the decade 1941–1951, while due in part to this migration, also reflects the
amalgamation of Bangalore Civil and Military Station Municipality with the
then Bangalore City Corporation. Population growth during the 1970s could
be ascribed to numerous public sector industries and other defence
establishments that came up during the period and fuelled significant
immigration. By this time, incidentally, Bangalore had lost its tag of
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‘Pensioners Paradise’, gained before Independence. Although the advent of
IT is attributed to the late 1980s, major growth and expansion of this industry
happened only during the late 1990s. Still, population growth in Bangalore in
the last census decade, 1991–2001 (38%), was substantially less than in
1971–1981 (76%). Nevertheless, the physical growth of the city has been
phenomenal over the last few years, and the glaring evidence of this is
increased travel-times and the escalating real-estate prices. The population of
Bangalore city from 1871 to 2011 is given in table 2.5.
Table 2.5
Growth of Population of Bangalore City during 1901 to 2011
S.No Year Population
1 1901 163091
2 1911 189485
3 1921 240054
4 1931 309785
5 1941 410967
6 1951 786343
7 1961 1206961
8 1971 1664208
9 1981 2921751
10 1991 4130288
11 2001 5886844
12 2011 8499399
Source: Registrar General Census of India
55
According to the 2001 the urban agglomeration had an overall
population in 2001 of 5.7 million, including a workforce of 2.2 million, within an
area of 560 km2, and a literacy rate of 75.1%. The hype over the IT industry is
underlain by Bangalore having about 30% of all IT work force in the country
and a personal disposable income greater than the Indian city average. This
has also resulted in a trickledown effect within the urban economy. Further,
investments in industries (not only IT), infrastructure and other services, have
significantly increased purchasing power among the people and have
nurtured real estate with consequent land market dynamics, apart from
creating numerous secondary employment in services. Interestingly enough,
of the 5.7 million population in the urban agglomeration in 2001, about 2
million were migrants (Census of India, 2001b). About 1.2 million of these
were from Karnataka state, mainly from the rural parts, while the remaining
0.8 million were from outside the state, the majority of these from urban areas.
It is further noted that people have migrated chiefly for employment or moved
with household or for education. The large number of migrant population from
other parts of India explains the multitude of languages spoken and
understood in Bangalore.
The population of Bangalore has increased to 9.5 million in 2011 from
6.5 million in 2001. This accounts for 15.7% of Karnataka’s 61.1 million
people. The initial provisional data suggest a density of 4,378 in
2011compared to 2,985 of 2001. Total area under Bangalore district is of
about 2,190 sq.km. Figure 2.1 presents the population details of Bangalore
city since 1871.
56
Chart 2.2
Bangalore is home to numerous high-tech knowledge hubs evident
from the establishment of premier centres like Indian Institute of Science
(IISc), National Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS), Tata Institute for
Fundamental Research (TIFR), Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced
Scientific Research (JNCASR), Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO),
National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO), Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Institute for
Social and Economic Change (ISEC), Indian Institute of Information
Technology (IIIT) and several professional engineering and medical colleges
at undergraduate and graduate levels. In tune with recent trends, Bangalore
now has numerous malls and multiplexes that are swarmed during weekends.
With an active night life and Bangaloreans penchant for fast-food, a large
number of restaurants, pubs and ‘eat-outs’ throng the city.
57
The economic fabric of the city, although at times masked by the IT-
based industries is varied, being also characterised by textile, automobile,
machine tool, aviation, space, defence, and biotechnology based industries.
In addition, numerous services, trade and banking activities mark the city’s
economic landscape. An important feature of the economic activities of
Bangalore is the huge concentration of Small and Medium Enterprises
(SMEs) in diversified sectors across the city. Bangalore has more than 20
industrial estates/areas comprising large, medium and small enterprises. Of
these, Peenya Industrial Estate located in the northern part of the city
comprises about 4000 SMEs and is considered the largest industrial estate in
South and South East Asia. A majority of the SMEs function as
ancillaries/subcontractors to large enterprises in the field of engineering and
electronics industries, among others. The industrial estates sprung up mostly
in the periphery of the erstwhile city and gradually as the city grew became
part of its sprawl. Notable among these are the Peenya Industrial Estate just
mentioned, Electronic City and Whitefield. The proliferation of SMEs in
residential and commercial areas, in addition to the industrial areas, has
added to the chaos and congestion in the city. Thus, the thriving economy of
the city has resulted with a net district (7)income of Rs. 262,592 million
(approx. US $ 5.8 billion) and a per capita income of Rs. 39,420, a little more
than twice the State’s average per capita income of Rs. 18,360.
Slums Scenario in Bangalore
Despite higher per capita income within the urban district than in the
rest of the State, and with significant migrant population, the number of urban
58
poor has been on the rise and the slum settlements in the city have not been
contained. The escalating costs of land prices coupled with rise in cost of
living has pushed the urban poor to reside in squatter settlements with
inadequate amenities and services. Some of these settlements have speckled
the city’s landscape garnering immediate action from civic authorities.
According to Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (2006), the number of households
in the urban agglomeration defined as poor was 0.22 million, housing
approximately 1.1 million people out of 5.7 million population. Noting the
importance of the matter, the State Government has set up a special agency,
Karnataka Slum Clearance Board (KSCB) specifically to address the
redevelopment of slums in partnership with various stakeholders like the
Housing Board, Local Bodies, Water Supply Boards, etc. The initiatives taken
up by the local body addressing redevelopment of slums are are noted below
in the subsection on Issues in Planning and Development.
In the Indian federal system, each state is divided into districts (which
are further divided into taluks) for administrative purposes, including
decentralised implementation of developmental programmes. The State of
Karnataka has 27 districts, of which Bangalore Urban is one, comprising
Bangalore East, Bangalore South and Anekal Taluks. Taluk boundaries
dissect the city and extend beyond the Bangalore Metropolitan Area. Thus the
‘net district income’ refers to the entire district and not to the city alone.
Karnataka Slum Clearance Board is responsible for slum improvement,
clearance and rehabilitation of the slum dweller. Table 2.6 gives clear picture
slums in Bangalore city.
59
Table-2.6
Slum Scenario of Bangalore City
Sl. No Description Figures
1 No of Slums 542
2 No of Slums Declared 246
3 No of Slums Undeclared 296
4 No of Households 321296
5 Male 698291
6 Female 688292
7 SC 522999
8 ST 270 743
Total Population 138,65,83
Source: Census Report of Karnataka Slum Development Board, Bangalore
Data in table 2.6 shows that there are 542 slums in Bangalore city.
Among the 246 are notified and the remaining 296 are non-notified slums.
The total number of households in all these slums is 321, 296. The total
population in these slums is 138, 65, 83. Among them 698291 (50.36 percent)
are males. The remaining 49.64 percent are females. In total population
Scheduled Caste population constitute 37.72 percent and Scheduled Tribes
constitute 18.95 percent.
Ownership of Slums
The details of ownership of slums is given in table 2.7
60
Table-2.7
Distribution of Slums and their Population by Land Ownership in
Bangalore City
S. No Type of
ownership Total No. of Slums
Total Population
Percentage of total
population
1 Private (PVT) 250 397416 9.27
2 BDA 82 229769 5.36
3 Government 118 3264008 76.14
4 BCC (BBMP) 79 372400 8.69
5 Railways / Others 13 22,990 0.54
Total 542 4,286,583 100.00 Source: Census Report of Karnataka Slum Development Board Bangalore.
It is clear from table 2.7 that nearly 76.14 percent of slums in
Bangalore city is under the ownership of government. About 9.27 are under
the ownership of private individuals. The percentage slums under the
ownership of BBMP are 8.69 percent and 5.36 percent of slums under the
ownership of BDA. The ownership of less than 1 percent goes to railways
and others. T5his is graphically presented in figure 2.2.
Chart 2.3
Ownership of Slums in Bangalore City
61
Slums and Slum population in Bangalore City
The Growth of Slums and Slums Population in Bangalore City during
1971-2011 is given in table 2.8.
Table-2.8
Growth of Slums and Slums Population in Bangalore City during 1971-
2011
S. No Year No. of Slums
Growth rate Population Growth
1 1971 195 3.15
2 1981 273 40 3.48 10.47
3 1991 401 46.88 3.65 2.85
4 2001 480 19.7 9.78 167.94
5 2011 542 12.91 13.86 41.71
Sources: Censes report of Karnataka Slum Development Board, Bangalore
Chart 2.4
It can be inferred from table 2.8 that the slums as well as slum
population in Bangalore city is gradually increasing over the years. In
1971 the slums in Bangalore city is 195 and they increased to 542 by
62
2011. But the population of slums in the city increased ten times
during the same period of time. The growth rate of slum population
during 2001- 2011 decade is higher than other decades.
Details of Bangalore Slums
The table 2.9 gives the particulars of slums and slum
households in Bangalore.
Table-2.9
Bangalore Slum Details Agency Area No. of Slums No. of Households
KSCB Karnataka Slum Clearance
Board (KSCB; declared slums)
218 106266
BMP East Zone (undeclared) 65 33990
BMP South Zone (undeclared) 65 28926
BMP West Zone (undeclared) 39 10132
CMCs Byatarayanapura 38 7062
CMCs Krishnarajapura 19 1020
CMCs Mahadevapura 22 8547
CMCs Bommanahalli 40 3764
CMCs R.Nagar 15 1351
CMCs Dasarahalli 16 13497
CMCs Yelahanka 3 2589
TMC Kengeri (undeclared slums) 2 113
Total 542 217257
Source: JNNURM Bangalore CDP 2006, created at: April 2, 2007.
It is evident from the table 2.9 that there are 542 slums in Bangalore.
Among them 218 slums are declared by Karnataka Slum Clearance Board
(KSCB). In all there are 171 undeclared slums. Out of which 65 each are recognized
by BMP East Zone, BMP South Zone and TMC Kanageri 2. The remaining are
63
declared by CMC Byatarayanapura 38, CMC Krishnarajapura 19, CMC
Mahadevapura 22, CMC Bommanahalli 40, CMC R.Nagar 15, CMC Dasarahalli 16
and CMC Yelahanka 3. In all there are 217257 households, which are living in
slums. On an average each slum is inhabited by400.84 households.
Urban agenda: governance and infrastructure
An important aspect of a city is how well it is planned, managed and
administered, activities which form the core part of an urban agenda –
governance. However, appropriate state mechanisms through organisational
structures, procedures and policies are needed to enable these. Also, apart
from the formal administrative structures, the presence and involvement of
civil society significantly drive the urban agenda.
Organizations and stakeholders
Greater Bangalore City Corporation (Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara
Palike) is now the key ‘Urban Local Body’ (ULB), that is, the local
governmental structure representing and responsible to the citizens for the
city and outlying areas. Notified in December 2006, the new Corporation
replaced the erstwhile local bodies, Bangalore City Corporation (Bangalore
Mahanagara Palike), 8 neighbouring councils (7 City Municipal Councils and
one Town Municipal Council) and 111 outlying villages. Independently of the
Corporation,(9) which is governed by locally elected representatives,
parastatal bodies controlled by the State government are responsible for
many essential services. Planning in the form of land use zoning and
regulation are vested with Bangalore Development Authority (BDA), a
parasital agency, in spite of the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, passed
64
by the national parliament in 1993. This Act requires that the planning function
be vested with the (elected) urban local body and not with any parasital
agency. But, in the case of Bangalore, the Corporation have not been granted
adequate powers by the State to plan, decide and administer their city!
Furthermore, the State has created numerous other organisations of its own
to manage various services such as water supply, law and order, energy, etc.
The result is the existence of many parastatal organisations, each acting in its
own geographic area, leading to complication and confusion in coordinating
different activities. Apart from the issue of a common geographical unit and
the lack of coordinated effort, even basic information related to different
sectors is extremely difficult to collect, collate and to correlate. For effective
planning it is imperative that all the basic information be gathered across a
common geographical unit with the effect of creating a robust city information
system.
In addition to the official bodies, civil society of Bangalore is known for
its vibrant community participation. The spectrum of their activities ranges
from literacy and green brigades to urban governance, ensuring continuous
interactions with the local administration. Notable spheres of activity of these
Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) include: improving urban
governance by Citizens Voluntary Initiative for the City (CIVIC) and
Janaagraha;improving living conditions in slums by AWAS, APSA, Paraspara,
etc.; addressing child literacy by Preranaand the India Literacy Project; taking
on environmental issues by the Environment Support Group, Hasiru Usiru,
etc. Apart from the NGOs, there are numerous resident welfare associations,
65
trade and commercial organisations, and professional organisations that have
played a major role in some of the important activities of local bodies and
influencing their decision- making. Civil society has contributed considerably
in shaping the policies and governance structures and has always intervened
whenever there has been any apathy on the part of the administration towards
activities of interest to society at large. An experiment to promote public
private partnership and bring together citizens, NGOs, industry
representatives and the erstwhile local bodies resulted in ‘‘Bangalore Agenda
Task Force (BATF)’’. This experiment was about to be benchmarked as one
of the ‘best practices’ in urban local governance, when it faced strong
criticisms from several civil society groups for setting aside priorities favouring
the urban poor and was accused of making a back door entry towards policy
making. In the event, the activities of BATF came to a standstill with the
change of guard at the State government two years ago and it is currently
dormant. Another instance of strong action by civil society groups, was seen
when the local government started tree felling and pruning for road widening.
Members of the green brigade, Hasiru Usiru, staged protests, held an all night
vigil, stormed the Commissioner’s office and also moved to High Court and fi-
nally got the actions stayed. The High Court also ruled later that Hasiru Usiru
members should inspect the trees along with the designated Tree Officer from
the Forest Department before any tree felling and pruning of branches was
begun. Table 2.10 gives a clear picture of organizations involved with the
administration of Bangalore.
66
Table-2.10
Organisation concerned with Bagalore Administration
Organizations Functional Areas 9scope of Work)
Greater Bangalore City Corporation (Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BBMP)
Urban local body responsible for overall delivery of services- roads and road maintenance including pavements and street lights; solid waste management, education and health in all wards, storm water drains, construction of few ring roads, flyovers and grade separators.
Bangalore Development Authority Land use zoning, planning and regulation within Bangalore Metropolitan Area; Construction of few ring roads, flyovers and grade separators.
Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA)
Planning, coordinating and supervising the proper and orderly development of the areas within the Bangalore Metropolitan region, which comprises Bangalore urban district and parts of Bangalore rural district. BDA’s boundary is subset of BMRDAA’s boundary.
Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB)
Deinking water pumping and distribution, sewerage collection, water and waste water treatment and disposal.
Bangalore City Police Enforcement of overall law and order, traffic police: manning of traffic islands, enforcement of traffic laws: Regulation on Right of ways (One-way)
Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC)
Public Transport System- bus-based.
Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation (BMRC)
Public Transport System- rail-based.
Regional Transport Office (RTO) Motor Vehicle Tax; issue of licenses to vehicles
Bangalore Electricity Supply Company (BESCOM)
Responsible for power distribution
Lake Develop0ment Authority (LDA) Regeneration and Conservation of lakes in Bangalore urban district.
Source: Official Records of Greater Bangalore City Corporation.
67
Challenges in managing urban infrastructure
Urban activities require the support of infrastructure. Broadly, urban
infrastructure can be divided into social and economic infrastructure. Social
infrastructure encompasses facilities like health care, education, housing,
commercial (shops, markets and hotels), sports, recreation and
entertainment. With mixed land use being practiced in most parts of
Bangalore, shops and markets are the most commonly found amenities
(approximately 1 shop per 100 persons) in the urban agglomeration (10). The
provision and maintenance of primary health care, elementary education,
sports, recreation, and entertainment are administered mostly by the
Corporation, while BDA also facilitates some of the social infrastructure like
shopping complexes, with provisions for private participation. Economic
infrastructure encompasses water supply, wastewater treatment, storm water
drainage system, solid waste management, telecommunication network, and
transportation network.
Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) is the
parastatal agency responsible for drinking water supply, and wastewater
collection and treatment in the city. Bangalore is on a ridge and does not have
its own year-round sources of water. Drinking water is pumped from the river
Cauvery, a distance of about 100 km over an elevation of 500 m with an
energy expenditure of 75 MW for approximately 900 Million Liters Per Day
(MLD). Apart from the river Cauvery supply, ground water and water from the
river Arkavathy are also tapped. However, while water supply distribution is
100% in the former Bangalore City Corporation limits, only about 20% of the
68
Municipal Council households are serviced. In view of the rapid growth of the
city, and recent notification of Greater Bangalore, it remains a challenge to
service the remaining areas.
Regarding collection and treatment of wastewater, the sewerage
system is based on the city’s four natural river valleys already noted and
BWSSB is the nodal agency. There are three major treatment plants with a
total capacity of about 450 MLD. Wastewater stress on natural water bodies is
evident from the fact that the present wastewater treatment capacity in the city
is around 450 MLD as against an estimated generation of domestic
wastewater of 700 MLD. Although more secondary wastewater treatment
plants are in progress, they are yet to be completed. Another problem is the
frequent clogging of storm water drains, resulting in pollution of natural water
bodies. Hence it is now proposed to rehabilitate and remodel all the major
trunk sewers to prevent any discharge into the storm water drains.
Addressing mobility in Bangalore city, an overview of transportation
and traffic reveals the following facts. Bangalore city is estimated to have
vehicle population of about 2.6 million while the current city population is
about 7 million. The vehicle to person ratio is far higher than any other city in
India. This has led to increased congestion in road networks across the city
and frequent traffic jams. Manning signaling at traffic islands have also
become unmanageable with the amount of traffic plying across junctions.
Again, in this sector different components related to mobility are vested with
different parastatal bodies.
69
Public transportation forms one of the key functionalities for mobility in
any urban area. In Bangalore where the working population is around 2
million, the Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC) operates
on any given day with 4144 schedules, 4262 buses, 60,475 trips, and carries
3.5 million passengers. It earns Rs. 20.5 million per day and pay Rs. 0.955
million to the government as taxes (Bangalore Metropolitan Transport
Corporation, 2006). Further, according to recent estimates, there are about
1.6 million two-wheelers, 0.32 million motor-cars, 80,000 autorickshaws, and
0.17 million other vehicles totalling to around 2.2 million vehicles on road
(Regional Transport Office, 2006).
The onus of maintaining and improving road networks lies with the
Corporation. Although a study for the City by consultants iDeCK and Rites
(2005) identified 52 high and medium traffic intensity corridors requiring
various interventions by different organisations, the former City Corporation
proposed only to widen some of these roads. A key aspect ignored while
addressing mobility is the role of land use in generating traf- fic demand.
Failure by the city to acknowledge this, and in particular the implications of
changes in land use from residential to commercial or industrial, has led to
stereotypical approaches in addressing mobility such as road widening,
creation of new flyovers and underpasses, or conversion into ‘one-ways’. In
general Bangalore has over a period promoted mixed land use which at some
level has led to inefficient usage of land. With the City’s compartmentalised
approaches to widening of roads or construction of flyovers and grade
separators, the problem of mobility is far from being solved.
70
Issues in planning and development
To understand the development characteristics of the Bangalore
metropolitan area, it may help to distinguish three concentric zones – zones
which correspond closely with previous current local authority areas. The first
zone would comprise the erstwhile city corporation area of 226 km2. The
second zone would include the areas of the former 8 neighbouring municipal
councils and 111 villages, which together form the peri-urban areas and are
now incorporated into the Greater Bangalore City Corporation. The third zone
would include other villages extending up to the Bangalore Metropolitan Area
limits as proposed by Bangalore Development Authority.
Traditionally, planning has been restricted to land use planning, being
vested with BDA for the region under Bangalore urban agglomeration, and
with Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA) for the
larger peripheral area comprising the rest of Bangalore Urban District(7). BDA
obtains the land, develops it as residential layouts which eventually are
handed over to the city corporation, often involving the extension of city limits.
Land use plans are formalised through the Comprehensive Development
Plans (CDP) prepared every 10 years. Accordingly, the last CDP, prepared in
1995 for the period up to 2011, was revised in 2005–2006 for the period up to
2015 and is currently awaiting approval. A key aspect of these CDPs are that
they indicate the amount and location of land use allocated for various uses
(like residential, commercial, industrial, etc.) as well as restricting
development in specific areas demarcated as Green Belt and Valley Zones.
However, another organisation similar to BDA, the Karnataka Industrial Area
71
Development Board (KIADB), is responsible for development of industrial
areas. These industrial estates are situated for the most part in the outskirts of
the city and KIADB has powers under the law to take over agricultural lands
for the purpose.
Generally, however, the regulation and enforcement of land use zoning
regulations are dismal, leading to a large number of illegal developments and
encroachments on public land – problems which have led Karnataka State to
constitute a legislative committee to look into irregularities in and around the
city. In the particular case of growth occurring around outer industrial areas,
the urban local bodies are generally unable to provide basic infrastructure and
services, thus further aggravating inefficient utilisation of land and other
natural resources. With such instances prevailing especially in the areas of
the former Municipal Councils, the new Corporation faces a great challenge to
deliver basic infrastructure and services.
On 3rd December 2005, the Ministry of Urban Development,
Government of India, launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal
Mission (JNNURM). This countrywide programme addresses renewal of
urban areas for 63 cities encompassing nearly 70% of total urban population,
its primary aim being to link the revitalisation of urban infrastructure with a
specific agenda of institutional reforms. Bangalore is one of the beneficiaries
under this programme with an estimated outlay of US $ 1.7 billion over the
next six years. The key mission of this programme is to support reforms-
driven, fast track, planned development with focus on improving efficiency in
urban infrastructure and service delivery mechanisms, through community
72
participation and ensuring accountability of urban local bodies and parastatals
towards citizens. JNNURM is made operational with two sub-missions:
� Urban Infrastructure and Governance (UIG).
� Basic Services to Urban Poor (BSUP).
The sub-mission on UIG focuses on major infrastructure projects for water
supply, sanitation, sewerage, solid waste management, road network, urban
transport and redevelopment of inner (old) city areas with a view to upgrading
infrastructure therein, shifting industrial and commercial establishments to
conforming areas, etc. The sub-mission on BSUP focuses on integrated
redevelopment of slums combining housing, water supply, drainage, storm
water drains, solid waste management, street lighting, and community halls.
In accordance with the JNNURM guidelines, the erstwhile Bangalore
City Corporation prepared the City Development Strategy Plan (CDSP) for
both UIG and BSUP. The CDSP outlines only an investment plan and
financial strategy for taking up various initiatives envisaged in the mission.
Under BSUP, 218 declared slums in the former City Corporation limits would
be taken up by KSCB for redevelopment. Further, there are 169 slums under
the erstwhile City Corporation jurisdiction that remain undeclared, which
would be redeveloped by the new Corporation. There are, in addition, 155
slums in the neighbouring former municipal council areas that would be
redeveloped by the new Corporation and KSCB. However a draft community
participation law has not been enacted and in Karnataka State most of the
infrastructure projects and redevelopment plans have been administered by
ULBs and parastatal agencies and not through community participation as
73
envisioned by the mission. The result is a continuation of top-down rather than
bottom-up modes of planning and delivering infrastructure and services. This
calls for introspection on the implementation and achievement of the mission
objectives. However, with various initiatives under JNNURM underway, it
does offer hope, and perhaps promise, and in improving the essential urban
infrastructure and services in city. . The development characteristics and
agencies across these zones are summarised in Table 2.11.
74
Table 2.11
Development Characterstics Across Bangalore
Charactersics Development Zones
Zone-I Zone-II Zone-II
Authority Greater Bangalore
City Corporation(
formerly bangalore
City Corporation)
Greater Bangalore
City Corporation(
formerly 8
Municipal Councils
and 111 villages)
Development
Authorities and
other Town and
Village Municipal
Councils.
Urban Status Core City Outgrowth Potential areas for
future outgrowth.
Infrastructure
Services
Present but nearly
choked, needs
augmenting of
exsting
infrastructure.
Not fully present,
with new groeth,
requires planning
and augmentation
of infrastructure.
Farm lands and
scattered
settlements with
minimal no
infrastructure.
Impact of Growth No scope for new
growth but calls for
urban renewal to
sace congestion,
etc.
High potential for
growth since
already peri-urban
area and
emergence of new
residential lay outs
and other
developments.
Mostly rural with
minimal growth
currently but
potential for future
growth.
Planning,
Development and
Regulation
Controls
Corporation
operates building
controls, Planning
vested with BDA.
Corporation
operates minimal
building controls,
Planning vested
with BDA.
Planning vested
with parastatal
agencies: BDA and
BMRDA and not
other local bodies.
No regulation on
building/construction
Source: Official Records of Greater Bangalore City Corporation.
75
(9) ‘Corporation’ refers to the recently notified Greater Bangalore City
Corporation unless otherwise stated.
(10) The urban agglomeration refers to the area formally administered by
Bangalore City Corporation and the 8 councils.
Water shortages
The lack of water supplies within the city of Bengaluru was first tacked
in 1873 by building a chain of tanks called Miller's Tanks in the Cantonment
area. Prior to this water was pumped from the Halsoor, Shoolay and
Pudupacherry tanks which were insufficient for the Civil and Military Station.
The city area drew water from a Karanjee system from Dharmambudhi and
Sampangi tanks. The Great Famine of 1875-77 and the failure of the
monsoons led to drying of all these water bodies. During this time water
carriers Bihistis supplied water. In 1882 the Sankey Reservoir was
constructed at the cost of 5.75 Lakhs by Richard Hieram Sankey and
collected rain water from an area of 2.5 square miles (6.5 km2). The water
was said to be unsavoury and impure. On June 23, 1896 water was pumped
from the Chamarajendra Reservoir (Hessarghatta) which dammed the waters
of the Arkavathi. This tank went dry for one year in 1925. It was built at the
cost of Rs 20, 78,641. On 15 March 1933, the Thippagondanahalli Reservoir
was put into service. On 21 May 1961, the Integrated Water Supply Scheme
was inaugurated. This system collected water from the Cauvery river near
Halgur and pumped up at Thorekadanahalli, Voddaradoddi, Gantakanadoddi
and Tatguni and stored in reservoirs at Mount Joy, Byrasandra and High
Grounds.
76
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