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Name: _____________________________ Social Studies Seven/PD: _____Chapter Five/Part One – Dark Days to Alliance

I. Dark Days to an Alliance

A. Dark Times – August 1776 to December 1776:

After several sharp battles, Washington was forced to abandon New York City and spent the fall of 1776 running from superior British forces. His untrained and ill-equipped army was defeated nearly every time it tried to fight the British. By December of 1776, the Army had fled from New York to New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. The fighting strength of the Continental Army was down to 3,000 men from 20,000 at the start of August.

Men were deserting (running away from) the Army daily, no new soldiers were joining, and Washington was receiving very little help from American citizens. It looked as if the war was lost and the British settled into their winter quarters certain that Washington would surrender as his tiny force starved to death in the countryside.

EFFECT: Support for the U.S. Army and the Revolution began to fail. General Washington was forced to beg Congress for fresh supplies, men, and equipment. Washington also knew that he somehow had to produce a victory to give his soldiers and the people of the United States hope. Only a victory could encourage soldiers to join the Army and convince citizens to help with supplies.

B. Thomas Paine and George Washington Change the Course of the War:

Thomas Paine, who was with Washington’s crumbling army, decided to write another pamphlet. He hoped to improve the spirit of the men and increase support from American citizens for the Army. In December of 1776, he published The Crisis, a short pamphlet praising the soldiers for their courage and criticizing those who had abandoned the army. He also criticized Americans for failing to support their military and encouraged them to send food and supplies to Washington. The Crisis shamed some Americans into action.

The Crisis began to encourage the soldiers even as Washington developed a desperate plan to win a battle and capture supplies for his men. In a plan that some described as “completely mad,” Washington decided to row his army across the partially frozen Delaware River on Christmas Night to attack a regiment of 1,400 very well supplied and equipped Hessians (hired German soldiers) in Trenton, New Jersey. Catching them by surprise after their Christmas celebrations, the U.S. Army captured the entire Hessian regiment and all of its equipment without a single American death. The Battle of Trenton was the desperately needed victory that Washington had hoped for.

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Only one week later, Washington tricked another British Army that was preparing to attack him by leaving his campfires burning all night while he marched the U.S. Army around the British and attacked from the rear. At the Battle of Princeton, the U.S. Army drove the British from the town of Princeton, New Jersey and forced them to stay in New York City for the remainder of the winter.

EFFECTS: Washington’s two victories and Paine’s The Crisis gave both the U.S. Army and the American people hope. Men began to return to the Army and the people began to send more supplies to keep it fed and clothed during the winter months. Both sides knew that the war would continue and hard fighting lay ahead. The United States, however, now had reason to believe that not all was lost.

C. A New British Commander and a New Plan to End the War:

Surprised by the news of the defeats at Trenton and Princeton, King George III appointed a new general to command a British attack in America – General John Burgoyne. Burgoyne planned to crush the Americans by attacking them from three directions at the same time. The first army, under General Howe, was to march from New York City to Albany and meet with a second British Army coming from Canada and led by Burgoyne himself.

Burgoyne planned to march from Canada to Albany where he would meet with General Howe out of New York City, splitting New England from the Middle States. A third Army under General St. Leger would attack towards Albany from the west and meet the other two armies at Albany. Burgoyne’s goal was to split the U.S., crush any American Armies that resisted, and capture New York, Boston, and Philadelphia (the American Capital). The plan, he thought, would put a speedy end to the war.

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Effects: The British plan to crush the United States in 1777 reflected concerns in Great Britain. Fighting a war 3,000 miles from home was very costly. Adding to Britain’s worries was the knowledge that it had to defend its colonies around the world from other nations. As the war in America continued, Britain began to find that its military forces were getting stretched thin. Britain wanted and needed to have this “Colonial Rebellion” come to a speedy close.

D. General Burgoyne’s Plan Falls Apart:

Before any of the British Armies moved, General Howe decided to capture Philadelphia before marching to meet Burgoyne at Albany, New York. Howe did capture Philadelphia after defeating Washington at the Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, but then failed to march back north to help Burgoyne. Washington remained outside Philadelphia to tie Howe down for as long as possible – hoping that he could force Howe to abandon the city.

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Unknown to Burgoyne, who was marching through the wilderness of northern New York, Howe was out of the picture. Also unknown to Burgoyne was the fact that the third army under General St. Leger had been defeated east of Albany at the Battle of Oriskany. Burgoyne stubbornly decided to continue towards Albany even after news from Howe and St. Leger finally did reach him.

Burgoyne’s army was slowed by American militia forces that cut down huge trees in his path and by a lack of food. When he split part of his army off to gather food in what is now Vermont, American forces attacked it. The British lost 1,000 men at the Battle of Bennington. Burgoyne was then surrounded and trapped in a small town north of Albany – Saratoga. After weeks of hard fighting, Burgoyne was force to surrender his entire army of 7,000 men to American Generals Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold. The victory at the Battle of Saratoga changed the course of the war.

EFFECT: The defeat at Saratoga shook the British Empire. Although Britain would not give up just yet, the price of the war began to hurt both Britain’s Treasury and the confidence of its Government. More importantly, France became an ally of the United States. Convinced that the Americans could fight, France began to send millions of dollars in supplies and also sent French Army officers to help the American Army. Long months of patient work by Benjamin Franklin as a U.S. diplomat in France had paid off richly.

E. Valley Forge and the New United States Army:

Washington remained outside Philadelphia after the Battle of Saratoga. He hoped that there would be a chance to attack British forces under General Howe that were occupying the city, but no chance presented itself. Realizing that French help (in the form of an army) would not arrive that year and that winter was approaching, Washington selected a place to station his army during the winter – Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. The location was a good one from a military standpoint. It allowed him to watch the British in Philadelphia, attack them if they tried to move to New York by land, and offered protection from British attacks.

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The winter, however, turned into a nightmare. The weather turned unusually cold, heavy snows fell, food and supplies ran short, and the men did not have winter clothing. Congress and Washington were not able to convince the states to send enough supplies until the later part of the winter. During that time, the men suffered from hunger, cold, and the outbreak of diseases. It was not uncommon to see guards standing in the snow with nothing more than rags wrapped around their feet. By late winter, enough supplies began to arrive to save the U.S. Army from starvation.

Valley Forge, in another sense, was also a time of growth. A number of foreign military officers arrived from Poland, France, and Prussia (later a part of Germany) to help train the Americans. The Marquis de Lafayette, a young French nobleman, brought trained soldiers to help Washington’s Army and became a close friend and advisor to Washington.

Spain, an old enemy of Great Britain, decided to help the United States as well. The Spanish Governors in Florida and New Orleans sent large herds of cattle to the United States. The cattle were used to supply the American armies with much needed meat. Spain’s help, although small, was one more sign that troubled the British and tied down British forces that could have been sent to attack Washington.

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Two Polish officers arrived to train the American cavalry forces and to help with engineering projects such as building forts. One officer, above all others, proved to be very valuable - Prussian Baron von Steuben. He taught the soldiers how to march, use their weapons quickly and properly, and how to fight with the bayonet. Most importantly, Steuben taught the Army the discipline and determination to fight the British on open battlefields. The United States Army finally became the professional army that Washington wanted it to be.

EFFECTS: The army that marched out of Valley Forge in the spring of 1778 was nearly the equal of the British – experienced, disciplined, and strong. The soldiers who remained with the army were dedicated veterans who could be counted on to stay with the army without deserting during hard times. The Army was only lacking in numbers (size). Washington also knew that the United States desperately needed the help of a strong navy and the arrival of French soldiers to put an end to the war.

General John Burgoyne General Horatio Gates Baron von SteubenCommander of British Forces Commander of the American Army Prussian military advisorDuring the Saratoga Campaign in 1777 at Saratoga to the U.S. Army at Valley Forge

The Marquis de Lafayette, French officer and aide to Washington

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Washington crosses the Delaware (the famous/fictional painting)

Review Questions

1. How did The Crisis and the Battles of Trenton and Princeton change the war?

2. How did the plan to crush the U.S. in 1777 reflect British concerns?

3. What was the most important result (effect) of the Battle of Saratoga?

4. What made the winter spent at Valley Forge a time of growth for the U.S. Army?

5. What was different about the U.S. Army that marched out of Valley Forge in 1778?

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Name: _________________________________ Social Studies Seven/PD: _____Chapter Five/Part Two – The Revolution’s Middle Years (1778-1779)

II. The Revolution’s Middle Years (1778-1779)

A. Britain Offers Peace and the Battle of Monmouth:

Britain, again faced with financial difficulties and the need to protect colonies worldwide, was deeply troubled by the Frenchand American alliance. British diplomats tried to negotiate a peace treaty to end the war by offering to cancel the Tea Act and Intolerable Acts. The British even offered to put an end to taxing the “Colonies” altogether. Most Americans, however, rejected these offers and wished only for British recognition of American independence. Britain had to reluctantly continue the costly war.

In the summer of 1778, General Howe and the British Army moved out of Philadelphia and turned north to New York City. This was the opportunity that Washington had been looking for and he attacked the British at Monmouth, New Jersey, hoping to capture British supplies and to test the strength of his newly trained army. In the blazing heat of a 100-degree day, the British and Americans fought a desperate battle.

The battle went well for the Americans at first, but American General Charles Lee issued several confusing orders to his men and the battle turned in favor of the British. Only the arrival of Washington himself on the battlefield prevented a disaster. The Americans turned the tide and won the battle, but Howe escaped to New York. The soldiers of the United States Army fought with a determination and sense of professional conduct that was noticed by everyone on the battlefield – particularly the British.

The training that the army had gone through in the harsh winter months at Valley Forge had paid off. For the first time, the United States Army had challenged the British on an open battlefield (Britain’s strength) in a major battle and forced the British to retreat. The victory gave Americans a great sense of confidence. For Britain, it was another sign that the end of the war was nowhere in sight. Even worse, Britain now understood that the enemy they once looked on as almost laughable was a true force to be dealt with.

EFFECTS: Washington could do little to change the outcome of the war after Howe’s Army retreated behind the strong defenses of New York City. Instead, he had to wait for Howe to make a move and prayed for the arrival of French soldiers and the French Navy to make a break through the British blockade. France was to play the deciding role in the Revolution.

Despite the newfound strength of the U.S. Army, Washington simply did not have enough men to win the war on his own. Only French help could end the war in America’s favor. Although it was against his nature, Washington surrounded New York City and waited for the British to make the next move.

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B. American Forces 1778-1779:

The nature of the war changed during the fighting seasons of 1778-1779. Neither side could gain a serious advantage over the other. Washington and the American forces did not have enough men or help from France to break the British blockade or force the British to abandon New York City. Instead, Washington decided to hold his army together and to keep the British pinned down to the cities and coastline. The British continued to use its unchallenged navy to raid American towns and cities, but could not attack in force with a large army anywhere.

Parts of the Continental Army and militia forces were sent to the frontier areas in New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio to support the westward movement of American settlers and to claim as much land as possible before the war came to an end. Washington knew that the United States would be able to keep all lands that it conquered during the war if he was able to defeat the British.

Washington also wanted to destroy strong Native tribes (such as the Iroquois in New York) and to clear Iroquois lands for future settlement. He knew that some of the Iroquois remained allies with the British and supplied British soldiers with food. General John Sullivan was sent into present day Central New York and he succeeded in destroying the Iroquois Nation during the summer and fall of 1779. Sullivan found a very effective strategy – burn the Iroquois food supply. During the winter of 1779-1780, many Iroquois starved to death.

Some historians believe that Washington’s invasions into Native territories earned him the nickname “Village Burner” with Natives (many of whom had wanted to stay neutral during the war). The Iroquois were not alone in their support of the British. Britain convinced many Natives that an American victory would mean more white settlers moving west and taking their lands.

In the South, the British won the support of several powerful Native tribes and encouraged them to attack settlements on the frontier. The Cherokee Nation attacked many settlements, forcing the Southern States to keep militia forces at home instead of sending them to help General Washington. Spain helped the United States by attacking and capturing British forts on the Gulf of Mexico and drove Britain from Florida.

In Ohio, the United States was lucky to have a very capable leader and frontiersman – George Rogers Clark. With the aid of the Miami Nation, Clark used surprise attacks and tricks to force three British forts to surrender. Clark’s victories gave the United States control over the Ohio Valley Region that Americans had so desperately wanted to settle before the war and drove the British from the Valley.

On the seas, only one American Navy officer was able to have any notable success against the British. John Paul Jones terrorized British merchant ships and won a lone American victory against a British warship – refusing to surrender even though his smaller ship was on fire and sinking. When called on to surrender, Jones is said to have replied, “I have not yet begun to fight!” Jones won the fight and took the British ship as his own.

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Other American captains were hired by Congress as “privateers” or commanders of privately owned warships. The privateers proved to be quite a headache for the British. Individual American ships attacked and captured British merchant ships whenever and wherever possible. Large amounts of supplies were often captured – hurting the British war effort and economy and forcing Britain’s Navy to spend much of its time chasing privateers or escorting merchant ships. The lack of true warships, however, meant that the U.S. still could not break the British blockade of its coastline.

EFFECTS: America’s war against the British on the frontier and on the seas did not produce major victories that suddenly changed the course of the war. Instead, attacks in the west and at sea kept Britain from being able to concentrate its full strength on Washington and the other American forces in the East. The attacks also made the British blockade difficult to enforce and forced the British to spend even more money. Finally, victories in the West meant that the United States would have strong land claims and could expand westwards after the war.

C. British Forces in 1778-1779:

After the loss of an entire army at Saratoga, the British were both shocked and limited in their ability to fight in America. The American alliance with France sparked another war in Europe and Britain began to fight many nations around the world again – just as in the French and Indian War. The cost of the war began to drain the British Treasury at an alarming rate and Britain had no more forces to send to America. The Prime Minister and Parliament agreed that time was running out. Britain needed to find a way to win or it would be forced to abandon the war in America in order to concentrate on events in Europe and India.

EFFECTS: Britain concentrated on holding New York City and other coastal cities. The British Navy was used to launch raids and surprise attacks while British commanders tried without much success to pin Washington down and destroy the Continental Army. British attempts to make Native alliances and to use Loyalists in the Middle Colonies also failed and Britain suffered several defeats in the frontier regions. By the end of 1779, Britain began to shift its focus on the war – targeting the Southern Colonies for 1780. Perhaps, thought the British, the Loyalists of the South could give Britain a boost in strength.

John Paul Jones George Rogers Clark (in later life) General John Sullivan“Father of the United States Navy” U.S. General on the Western Frontier Leader of the “Sullivan Campaign” against

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The Iroquois in 1779Orders of George Washington to General John Sullivan , at Head-Quarters May 31, 1779

“The Expedition you are appointed to command is to be directed against the hostile tribes of the Six Nations of Indians, with their associates and adherents. The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex as possible. It will be essential to ruin their crops now in the ground and prevent their planting more.”

“I would recommend, that some post in the center of the Indian Country, should be occupied with all expedition, with a sufficient quantity of provisions whence parties should be detached to lay waste all the settlements around, with instructions to do it in the most effectual manner, that the country may not be merely overrun, but destroyed.”

“But you will not by any means listen to any overture of peace before the total ruinment of their settlements is effected. Our future security will be in their inability to injure us and in the terror with which the severity of the chastisement they receive will inspire them.”

Rough map of the “Sullivan Campaign” into Iroquois Territory

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Review Questions

1. What did the American victory at Monmouth give the United States and what “sign” did the British see in this battle?

2. Why did Washington wish to destroy strong tribes such as the Iroquois?

3. America’s battles on the frontiers and at sea did not produce war changing victories, but they did:

4. Why did Great Britain need to find a way to win the war after the events of 1777-1778?

5. What made the British shift the focus of the war to the South in 1779 and 1780?

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Name: _____________________________ Social Studies Seven/PD: _____Chapter Five/Part Three – The War Ends in the South

III. The War Ends in the South

A. Britain Goes on the Offensive:

Britain abandoned Philadelphia by the end of 1778 and prepared a new strategy that was designed to gain the support of Loyalist Americans in the Southern States. In late 1778 and early 1779, Britain decided to use its navy to transport an army under one of Britain’s best generals, Lord Cornwallis, to attack the Southern cities of Savannah, Georgia and Charleston, South Carolina. The movement of this army was designed to:

- Force Washington and the American Army to move south to meet the new threat or place Washington between British forces in New York City (held by General Clinton) and General Cornwallis in the south

- Give Britain time to recruit southern Americans still loyal to the King (Loyalists) into the British Army to replace the losses suffered during 1777 and 1778

- Place Washington on the defensive and relieve pressure on New York City

EFFECTS: Washington was unable to meet this new threat and the United States suffered a series of setbacks throughout 1779 and into 1780.Within a short time, both Savannah and Charleston fell to the British. The surrender of Charleston also resulted in the surrender of an entire American Army of nearly 5,000 men. The surrender of this army was America’s worst defeat in the Revolution.

Cornwallis crushed another army under General Gates, who had once commanded American forces at Saratoga. The British used both their navy and cavalry forces to outmaneuver and outfight the Americans. With the loss of Charleston and the defeat of Gates, the Southern states were under British control and Cornwallis was able to move north to attack Washington. It seemed as if Cornwallis was unstoppable and America was once again in great danger.

B. Betrayal within the American Army:

After the British evacuation of Philadelphia, General Benedict Arnold was placed in command of the city while he was recovering from wounds to his leg at Saratoga (the leg should have been amputated but Arnold demanded that it be set and allowed to heal – shortening his leg by two inches permanently). During this time he married the daughter of a well-known loyalist and was involved in business activities in the hopes of increasing his wealth. These activities led to charges of corruption by city officials and Congress ordered Washington to issue an official letter of reprimand to Arnold. He was then appointed commander of the American fort at West Point, New York.

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Arnold was bitter and deeply angered and by the charges brought against him and felt that he had been passed over unfairly several times for an appointment to command an army. He had been negotiating with and providing plans of American Army positions and movements as early as mid-1779. When he took up his new post at West Point he agreed to weaken the fort and provide plans of its defenses to the British for $20,000 and a command in the British Army.

Washington arrived for a meeting at West Point, New York shortly afterwards only to discover that Benedict Arnold had betrayed the United States. A British attack was also set to happen at the same time that Washington and several other generals were visiting West Point. Only luck saved Washington. A British spy carrying a message from Arnold to the British was captured and Arnold fled before he could be arrested. He became a general in the British Army and returned to fight against the U.S. in the South.

Effects: Benedict Arnold’s betrayal did no serious harm to the United States. In fact, his actions caused Washington and the American Army to become much more careful and to take steps to prevent similar attempts to betray the United States. Arnold, however, became America’s first great villain. When one of his former soldiers was asked what should be done with Arnold when he was captured, he said that Arnold should be hanged. He also added that the leg that had been shot twice when Arnold had bravely led American soldiers into battle should be cut off and given a funeral with full military honors.

C. The War Turns Against Great Britain Again:

Although Britain gained the upper hand in the South in the beginning, several factors began to undermine Britain’s ability to make any further progress. French forces finally began to arrive in strength and joined Washington’s Army. In addition, Washington sent his best general to command American forces in the South – General Nathaniel Greene. Greene worked with several American militia leaders in the south, especially Daniel Morgan of Virginia, Francis Marion (“The Swamp Fox”), and Henry “Lighthorse” Lee.

Together, the American generals used hit and run tactics, ambushes, surprise attacks, and raids to wear down the British. Americans fought much like the Natives that they had fought on the frontier before and during the war. This type of fighting came to be known as “Guerilla Warfare.” The goal was to keep the British in the South long enough to allow another French Army to arrive with French naval forces. With additional forces, Washington and Greene could attack the British from the north and south at the same time.

The type of warfare used by Americans in the South was not designed to defeat the British and force Cornwallis to surrender. Instead, the fighting slowly wore down British forces over a period of months. Britain lost soldiers that it could not replace and British soldiers and officers alike became frustrated over their lack of solid success against the Americans. The only soldiers under Cornwallis that experienced any success were the cavalry forces of General Tarleton and the light infantry soldiers under the command of General Patrick Ferguson. Both of these British Generals were good leaders, had highly motivated men, and were willing to fight like the Americans.

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British plans to gain the help of thousands of Loyalists also failed. Some Loyalists did join the British, but many discovered that remaining loyal to Britain was a very dangerous thing to do in America. The war in the South took on a new and very ugly style – civil war. Patriots and Loyalists attacked each other in towns and settlements all over the South. In many cases, the fighting was no more than murder – catching individual men as they traveled or worked and killing them. In other cases, small groups fought each other, burned homes, and destroyed farms and businesses. Many Loyalists decided that the best course of action was to stay out of the war and remain quiet.

EFFECTS: Despite the setbacks, Cornwallis still fought aggressively. He turned General Tarleton loose on a series of raids and ordered GeneralsTarleton, Ferguson, and Arnold (Benedict Arnold) to chase and destroy any American militia or Army forces in the South. With opposition eliminated, Cornwallis still hoped to move North in an attempt to crush Washington and the American Army between his forces and those of General Clinton in New York City. Although weakened and tired, the British were still dangerous and capable of hurting any American force that they could close with and fight.

D. Cornwallis is Trapped at Yorktown, Virginia in 1781:

In 1780, Cornwallis allowed two parts of his army to move away from his main force on raids. A force of British soldiers and American Loyalists commanded by Colonel Ferguson was surrounded and wiped out at the Battle of King’s Mountain. Shortly afterwards, a second force under General Tarleton was defeated by Daniel Morgan at the Battle of Cowpens. During the battle, Morgan lured some of the best British soldiers in America into a trap. A majority of the British force was killed or captured. Cornwallis realized that he would have to move north and have a British fleet evacuate him to New York City.

Pressured by American attacks, Cornwallis decided to move his army onto the Yorktown Peninsula in Virginia to wait for ships to arrive and move his army north. Washington quickly realized that Cornwallis had made a mistake. He moved the Continental Army and a French Army from New Jersey to Virginia and trapped Cornwallis at Yorktown. At the same time, the British fleet off the Yorktown Peninsula decided to move north to make repairs on ships damaged by a severe storm at sea. Without realizing it, Cornwallis had no support from the British Navy when he needed it most.

Finally, a French fleet arrived off Yorktown and sealed Cornwallis off from any retreat by land or sea. After three weeks of trying to break out of the trap, Cornwallis surrendered his army to Washington on October 17, 1781. Cornwallis knew better than anyone else that his surrender meant the end of the war in America. The world’s greatest power had been defeated by its former American Colonies.

EFFECTS: Any serious hope of a British victory in the Revolution vanished with the surrender of Cornwallis. Britain could not afford to send more forces to America and control its other colonies around the world. Instead, Britain turned to the task of fighting its other enemies in Europe, India, Africa, and the Caribbean Sea.

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E. The Last Two Years of the War and the Treaty of Paris in 1783:

Britain, fighting to preserve and expand its colonies around the world, did not have any forces to send to America after 1781. Although there were some small battles between 1781 and 1783, the British spent the remaining two years of the war in New York City. Washington spent the same years waiting and watching the British outside the city while American diplomats began to work on a peace treaty with Britain in Paris. In 1783, the United States and Great Britain formally ended the Revolutionary War. The 1783 Treaty of Paris:

- Forced Britain to recognize the United States as an independent nation- Gave the United States all lands between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi River (excluding Florida)- Set the northern U.S. border at Canada and the southern border at Florida (which was given back to Spain)- The U.S. agreed to pay for the lost property of Loyalists who had fled the United States

EFFECTS: The U.S. remained an independent nation and faced the difficult task of governing that nation while recovering from war. Britain, although disappointed by the loss of the 13 Colonies, remained the most powerful empire on earth. The conquest of the entire nation of India gave Britain great wealth (eventually more than enough to cover British losses in America). The British Navy still ruled the seas. Britain believed that the United States would eventually collapse and might again become part of the British Empire.

General Nathaniel Greene General Daniel Morgan Henry “Lighthorse Harry” LeeCommander in Chief of U.S. Forces in the South Leader of the U.S. Army at the Battle of the Cowpens U.S. Cavalry Commander in the South

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Francis Marion General Lord Cornwallis British Generals Ferguson and Tarleton – Ferguson commanded“The Swamp Fox” Commander of British Forces British forces at King’s Mountain and Tarleton at CowpensU.S. Militia Commander in the South in the South

Review Questions

1. What were the tactics used by Americans generals in the South designed to do?

2. What did many Loyalists discover about remaining loyal to Britain in America?

3. How did Washington trap Cornwallis at Yorktown?

4. What vanished with Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown?

5. What was Britain forced to do under the Treaty of Paris of 1783?